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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Comprehensive, straightforward oncology learning resource with coverage of diagnosis, staging, treatment, support, and common emergencies and cancer types
Oncology for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses is a straightforward educational resource that imparts a basic understanding of practical oncology therapy from the technician perspective thorough coverage of diagnosis and staging, radiation therapy and chemotherapy, pain management, GI support, most cancer types, analgesics, antiemetics, appetite stimulants, and antibiotics. This newly revised and updated Second Edition covers the many advances in veterinary medicine and oncology since the original edition was published in 2009.
Readers will find detailed information on oncological emergencies, including hematologic, metabolic, urological, and bone emergencies, as well as common cancers in veterinary patients, including lymphoma and mammary carcinoma in both cats and dogs, along with a number of canine-centric cancers.
The book includes nearly 400 images and figures to elucidate key concepts. A series of helpful appendices assists readers in the practical application of concepts discussed throughout the book.
With content presented in a logical order, Oncology for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses includes information on:
- Basics of oncology, covering fundamental concepts in the field and causes of cancer in pets, as well as the processes behind diagnosing and staging cancers
- Treatment of cancer through surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, receptor and small molecule inhibitors, immunotherapy, intralesional therapies, and electrochemotherapy
- Supportive care of patients through comfort, pain management, physical rehabilitation, gastrointestinal and nutritional support, and hematologic support
- Support for pet owners and caregivers, including communicating with the patient’s human family and supporting the nurse’s emotional experience
Oncology for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses is an essential reference on the subject for veterinary nurses and technicians seeking the information they need to properly and safely perform cancer treatments, especially those undergoing diploma, certificate, and bachelor’s degrees in Australia, New Zealand, UK, and USA in particular.
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Seitenzahl: 604
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Introduction
Acknowledgments
Section Summary
About the Companion Website
Section 1: Basics of Oncology
Chapter 1: Introduction to Clinical Veterinary Oncology
What Is Cancer?
Communicating with Owners of Pets with Cancer
Specialist Veterinary Care
Chapter 2: Causes of Cancer in Pets
Epidemiology and Cancer
Causes of Cancer in Pets
Summary
Further Reading
Section 2: Approaching the Cancer Patient
Chapter 3: Diagnosis of Cancer
Tumor Cytology
Flow Cytometry
Tumor Histopathology
PCR for Receptor Antigen Rearrangements
Chapter 4: Staging of Cancer
The TNM System
Staging and Health
Serum Biochemistry Panel
Imaging
Ancillary Blood and Urine Testing
BRAF-Mutation Testing
Molecular Diagnostics and Screening Tests
Further Reading
Section 3: Treatment of Cancer
Chapter 5: General Principles of Veterinary Cancer Treatment
Goals of Treatment
Response to Cancer Treatment
Describing the Outlook with Statistics
Further Reading
Chapter 6: Surgery in Veterinary Oncology
Non-curative Intent Surgery
Amputation
Brain Surgery
Changing Instrument Packs
Further Reading
Chapter 7: Radiation Therapy
Types of Radiation Therapy
Treatment Goals in Radiotherapy
Nursing the Radiation Therapy Patient
Possible Tissues Injured and Possible Therapy
Further Reading
Chapter 8: Chemotherapy
How Does Chemotherapy Work?
Calculating a Dose of Chemotherapy
Dose Intensity
Chemotherapeutic Strategies in Veterinary Practice
Effects of the Body on Chemotherapy Drugs (Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics)
Timing of Chemotherapy
Health and Beauty Care during Chemotherapy
Toxicity Following Chemotherapy
Practical Chemotherapy
Safe Chemotherapy Drug Handling
Intravenous Bolus Injections
Further Reading
Webliography
Chapter 9: Receptor Inhibitors and Small Molecule Inhibitors
Cell Surface Receptors
Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors
Practical Aspects of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Therapy
Further Reading
Chapter 10: Immunotherapy
Introduction—What Is Immunotherapy?
Further Reading
Chapter 11: Intralesional Therapies
Introduction
Equine Sarcoids and Soft Tissue Sarcomas
Tigilanol Tiglate
Further Reading
Chapter 12: Electrochemotherapy
Introduction
Further Reading
Chapter 13: Biotherapy and Photodynamic Therapy
Biologic Response Modifiers
Differentiating Agents
Photodynamic Therapy
Further Reading
Chapter 14: Complementary and Alternative Medical Therapies
Warning Bells
Further Reading
Section 4: Supportive Care of Patients
Chapter 15: Comfort, Pain Management, and Physical Rehabilitation
The Multimodal Support Nursing Paradigm
Attitudes Toward Pain in Veterinary Nursing
Pharmacologic Analgesic Therapy
Nonpharmacologic Pain Management
Difficulties in Pain Management
Veterinary Physical Rehabilitation
Assessment of Limb Function
Therapeutic Exercises (or Active Physical Therapy)
Passive Physical Therapy
Electrical Stimulation and Therapeutic Ultrasound
Further Reading
Webliography
Chapter 16: Gastrointestinal and Nutritional Support
Nutritional Guidelines
Gastrointestinal Supportive Medications
Additional Nutritional Support
Strategies for Gastrointestinal Supportive Care in Critically III Cancer Patients
Supportive Care for Gastrointestinal Side Effects of Chemotherapy
Further Reading
Chapter 17: Hematologic Support
CBC Changes Associated with Cancer Treatment
Practical Tip
Managing Neutropenic Patients
Triage for Potentially Septic Patients
Further Reading
Webliography VCOG-CTCAE statement:
Chapter 18: Euthanasia and End-of-life Patient Care
The Euthanasia Procedure
When Euthanasia Is Not Wanted
Section 5: Support for Pet Owners and Caregivers
Chapter 19: Supporting the Patient’s Human Family
The Impact of a Cancer Diagnosis
The Human–Animal Bond
Grief and Loss
When a Pet Is Dying
Societal Attitudes
Counseling
Special Considerations for Children
Special Considerations for Elderly Pet Owners
Other Pets
Memorials
Communication
Improving Communications
Some Useful Communication Skills
When Communication Is Difficult
Managing Conflict in the Nurse–Owner Relationship
Further Reading
Chapter 20: What About the Nurse’s Emotional Experience?
Working as Part of a Team
Conflict in a Team
Ethical Considerations for the Nurse or Technician
Euthanasia
When You Disagree with a Pet Owner’s Decision
When Owners Are in Conflict
Nurturing the Technician/Nurse
The Role of Professional Counseling
Further Reading
Section 6: Oncologic Emergencies
Chapter 21: Hematologic Emergencies
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
Anemia
Thrombocytopenia
Neutropenia
Further Reading
Chapter 22: Febrile Neutropenia
Diagnosis and Treatment
Further Reading
Chapter 23: Metabolic Emergencies
Hypercalcemia
Hypoglycemia
Hypokalemia
Hypomagnesemia
Tumor Lysis Syndrome
Further Reading
Chapter 24: Anaphylaxis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Further Reading
Chapter 25: Extravasation Injury
Diagnosis
Treatment
Further Reading
Chapter 26: Urological Emergencies
Acute Renal Failure
Hematuria
Further Reading
Chapter 27: Bone Emergencies
Pathologic Fracture
Hypertrophic Osteopathy
Further Reading
Chapter 28: Pericardial Effusion and Cardiac Tamponade
Diagnosis
Further Reading
Section 7: Common Cancers in Veterinary Patients
Chapter 29: Lymphoma in Dogs
Overview
Diagnosis and Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 30: Lymphoma in Cats
Overview
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 31: Mast Cell Tumor in Dogs
Overview
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 32: Soft Tissue Sarcomas in Dogs and Cats
Overview
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 33: Splenic Hemangiosarcoma in Dogs
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 34: Osteosarcoma in Dogs
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 35: Oral Melanoma in Dogs
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 36: Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Cats
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 37: Histiocytic Sarcoma in Dogs
Overview
Staging
Nursing highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 38: Mammary Carcinoma in Dogs
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 39: Mammary Carcinoma in Cats
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 40: Urothelial Carcinoma in Dogs
Overview
Diagnosis and Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 41: Pulmonary Carcinoma in Dogs
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 42: Chronic Lymphoid Leukemia in Dogs
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Chapter 43: Thyroid Carcinoma in Dogs
Overview
Staging
Nursing Highlights
Case Example
Further Reading
Section 8: Appendices
Appendix 1: BSA Conversion Charts
Appendix 2: Analgesics
Appendix 3: Antiemetics, Gastroprotectants, and Appetite Stimulants
Appendix 4: Antibiotics
Appendix 5: Glossary of Cancer Terms
Appendix 6: Chemotherapy Drug Information: Quick Reference
Actinomycin-D
BCNU
Bleomycin
Carboplatin
CCNU (Lomustine)
Chlorambucil
Cisplatin
Cyclophosphamide
Dacarbazine (DTIC)
Doxorubicin
Gemcitabine
Ifosfamide
L-asparaginase
Melphalan
Mitoxantrone
Procarbazine
Vinblastine
Vincristine
Vinorelbine
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Urine cotinine (a metabolite of nicotine) was measured in urine of c...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 This illustrates the positioning for aspiration from the mandibular ...
Figure 3.2 The cytology sample is expelled onto a clean glass slide by disconne...
Figure 3.3 The sample is then gently prepared for a blood smear, by gently plac...
Figure 3.4 For impression smears, the sample is blotted gently to remove blood ...
Figure 3.5 Impression smears (here stained) can provide an excellent preparatio...
Figure 3.6 Standard Diff-Quik staining of lymph node cytology.
Figure 3.7 Immunocytochemistry of a B-cell lymphoma showing the majority of cell...
Figure 3.8 Immunocytochemistry of a T-cell lymphoma showing the majority of cell...
Figure 3.9 The technique of obtaining a Tru-cut needle core sample from a subcu...
Figure 3.10 A small-gauge needle is used to gently lift the sample from the biop...
Figure 3.11 Use a fine-gauge needle to gently remove an endoscopy sample from th...
Figure 3.12 The needle is used to place samples on a plastic cassette for easy i...
Figure 3.13 India ink, or a commercial colored ink preparation, is used to ident...
Figure 3.14 This is how the pathologist views the slide. You can see that the in...
Figure 3.15 Standard H&E histopathology staining of a normal lymph node.
Figure 3.16 Immunohistochemistry using CD3 antibodies showing scattered T-lymphoc...
Figure 3.17 Immunohistochemistry of a B-cell lymphoma showing most cells are brown.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Calipers should be used to measure the size of tumors or lymph nodes...
Figure 4.2 Metastatic hemangiosarcoma in a cat; the multiple nodular densities ...
Figure 4.3 A right lateral radiograph of a dog with systemic histiocytic sarcom...
Figure 4.4 A left lateral radiograph of the same dog is seen in Figure 4.3. Not...
Figure 4.5 An ultrasonogram of the urinary bladder of a dog with urothelial car...
Figure 4.6 An abdominal radiograph of a cat with an injection site sarcoma over...
Figure 4.7 A CT image slice from the same cat in Figure 4.6. The extent of the ...
Figure 4.8 A CT scan from a dog with a right-sided nasal carcinoma before radio...
Figure 4.9 A CT scan slice from the same level on the dog is seen in Figure 4.8...
Figure 4.10 A CT scan from the dog is seen in Figure 4.8, at another slice level...
Figure 4.11 The same slice level as seen in Figure 4.10, but again, 3 months aft...
Figure 4.12 A CT reconstruction of a multilobular osteochondrosarcoma (MLO) of t...
Figure 4.13 The same dog is seen in Figure 4.12, from a lateral view.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 This Kaplan–Meier survival curve shows the progression over time of ...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 A schematic of an invasive tumor (such as a mast cell tumor or soft ...
Figure 6.2 The yellow line denotes the approximate surgery for a marginal surge...
Figure 6.3 The yellow line denotes the approximate surgery for a debulking surg...
Figure 6.4 The yellow line denotes the approximate surgery for an amputation su...
Figure 6.5 The yellow line denotes the approximate surgery for a wide surgery. ...
Figure 6.6 A cat just a few days after amputation. Pain relief following such a...
Figure 6.7 This cat had a hindlimb amputation some months prior and has returne...
Figure 6.8 Dogs with three legs are able to function at a high level as pets an...
Figure 6.9 Dogs remain positive after amputation and are not affected by negati...
Figure 6.10 Mandibulectomy is an aggressive surgery but can be curative for many...
Figure 6.11 Cats take longer to adapt to mandibulectomy, and continued nursing a...
Figure 6.12 Nosectomy is cosmetically challenging for the owner, but once the pa...
Figure 6.13 Cosmetic changes do not affect a cat’s quality of life.
Figure 6.14 A meningioma is removed with resection of the overlying skull in thi...
Figure 6.15 The same cat as shown in Figure 6.14, a day after surgery; the cat i...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 A radiation plan for a patient with a nasal tumor. The colors on the ...
Figure 7.2 A dog undergoing radiation treatment for a nasal tumor. This image sh...
Figure 7.3 A dog undergoing radiation treatment for a nasal tumor. This image sh...
Figure 7.4 A dog undergoing radiation treatment for a cutaneous soft tissue sarc...
Figure 7.5 Example of a white cat with a cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma affe...
Figure 7.6 This cat is receiving radiotherapy for a nasal squamous cell carcino...
Figure 7.7 Strontium-90 is a radioactive source of brachytherapy that is very e...
Figure 7.8 Acute moist dermatitis following radiation therapy to the leg of a d...
Figure 7.9 The same dog as seen in Figure 7.8, but 3 months later. Note the con...
Figure 7.10 This dog received a very high dose of radiation to treat an incomple...
Figure 7.11 Acute moist desquamation in the axilla of a boxer after radiation th...
Figure 7.12 This cat was treated 2 years previously for nasal lymphoma, and whil...
Figure 7.13 This dog had extensive surgery to remove a soft tissue sarcoma, but ...
Figure 7.14 At the end of radiation therapy, the acute skin changes are worsenin...
Figure 7.15 One week after completing radiation therapy, the acute effects are s...
Figure 7.16 Four months after completing radiation therapy, this same dog feels ...
Figure 7.17 Acute effects of radiation to the eye are exacerbated by suppression...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 An algorithm for interpreting the hemogram from a dog or cat receivi...
Figure 8.2 Complete hair loss, as seen in this schnauzer after paclitaxel, is e...
Figure 8.3 Fur is little affected by chemotherapy, but the longer, continually ...
Figure 8.4 The same cat as in Figure 8.3, 6 months after stopping chemotherapy....
Figure 8.5 Whiskers in this cat are regrowing after stopping chemotherapy.
Figure 8.6 We find most patients are more relaxed receiving chemotherapy on the...
Figure 8.7 Some patients are best held in the nurse’s lap while examined for ca...
Figure 8.8 Even cats are more easily restrained on the floor; the comfort of th...
Figure 8.9 Setup for chemotherapy administration. All drugs are placed on a pla...
Figure 8.10 When administering intravenous chemotherapy, care should be taken to...
Figure 8.11 A vertical laminar flow hood is the ideal and safest method to recon...
Figure 8.12 All syringes containing chemotherapy should be transported in zipper...
Figure 8.13 Oral chemotherapy should be handled with gloves, and
NEVER
split or ...
Figure 8.14 A designated chemotherapy waste bin should be easily accessible.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Electrochemotherapy being administered.
Figure 12.2 A feline patient with nasal squamous cell carcinoma.
Figure 12.3 The same patient after being treated with electrochemotherapy.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 This cat is receiving acupuncture. As a complement to surgery, radio...
Figure 14.2 A dog receiving acupuncture. This procedure needs to be performed by...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Soft, warm bedding is one of the most basic comfort measures and wil...
Figure 15.2 When recovering from anesthesia, the patient should be in an area wh...
Figure 15.3 Gentle restraint and judicious use of sedatives allow for relatively...
Figure 15.4 Gentle restraint for procedures such as blood drawing should be inte...
Figure 15.5 Nervous animals out of their normal environment may experience heigh...
Figure 15.6 This young boxer has an osteosarcoma affecting the right distal radi...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Severe pain from an untreated osteosarcoma of the right hind leg has...
Figure 16.2 Obesity is more common than cachexia, particularly in canine cancer ...
Figure 16.4 This dog lost considerable weight due to pain from osteosarcoma and ...
Figure 16.5 A febrile and inappetent cat.
Figure 16.6 Hand-feeding with a highly palatable diet (smoked salmon in this ins...
Figure 16.7 This very ill dog with lymphoma will benefit from fluid therapy supp...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Owners with animals that have cancer may be confused and sad. Their ...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Schistocytes may be an indication of DIC, especially if supported by...
Figure 21.2 In a severely anemic patient, nasal oxygen therapy may be indicated,...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 A fresh blood smear from a patient with normal numbers of neutrophil...
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 A cat showing marked facial swelling as an anaphylactoid reaction to...
Figure 24.2 Severe urticaria on the abdominal skin of a dog receiving etoposide....
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Vincristine extravasation can lead to pain and swelling if unrecogni...
Figure 25.2 Vincristine extravasation in this dog was unrecognized, but presumab...
Figure 25.3 Doxorubicin extravasation in this cat occurred during a dilute infus...
Figure 25.4 Doxorubicin extravasation in this cat was less than 0.1 ml of the dr...
Figure 25.5 A closer image of the extravasation injury is in Figure 25.4.
Figure 25.6 The same cat as in Figure 25.4, but 6 weeks later, when healing is u...
Figure 25.7 The healed site of doxorubicin extravasation showing scarring, contr...
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 A dog that is straining to urinate should be investigated with urina...
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 Hypertrophic osteopathy in a dog with pulmonary metastatic disease. ...
Figure 27.2 Pulmonary metastatic disease in the same dog is seen in Figure 27.1....
Figure 27.3 Rarely, nonpulmonary tumors may be associated with HO; the most comm...
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 Lateral view of a dog with pericardial effusion.
Figure 28.2 Dorsoventral view of a dog with pericardial effusion. Note the globo...
Figure 28.3 Ultrasonography demonstrates the pericardial fluid and can guide the...
Chapter 29
Figure 29.1 Kaplan–Meier survival curve showing dogs in substage a (physically w...
Figure 29.2 Kaplan–Meier survival curve showing that dogs eating normally live l...
Figure 29.3 A tabular representation.
Figure 29.4 A visual schematic (with permission from
Managing the Canine Cancer
...
Figure 29.5 A 6-year-old female Dalmatian with massive peripheral lymphadenopath...
Figure 29.6 The same patient as in Figure 29.5; note the hindlimb edema caused b...
Figure 29.7 A lateral thoracic radiograph shows an anterior mediastinal lymphoma...
Chapter 30
Figure 30.1 A 13-year-old spayed female DLH with a history of anorexia and vomit...
Figure 30.2 A 10-year-old neutered male Burmese with a history of weight loss an...
Figure 30.3 Cytology of the cranial mediastinal mass seen in the patient in Figu...
Figure 30.4 A patient with localized nasal lymphoma prior to treatment with radi...
Figure 30.5 The patient from Figure 30.4 after treatment with radiation therapy.
Chapter 31
Figure 31.1 Kaplan–Meier survival curve showing the effect of tumor grade on sur...
Figure 31.2 A 9-year-old spayed female Weimaraner with an ulcerated mass on the ...
Figure 31.3 Another mass on the same patient as in Figure 31.1; histopathology a...
Figure 31.4 A 6-year-old castrated male golden retriever with multiple small cut...
Chapter 32
Figure 32.1 Soft tissue sarcomas (STS) can become ulcerated as they enlarge. Thi...
Figure 32.2 When STS occur on the limbs, excision with complete margins is often...
Figure 32.3 When STS occur on the limbs, excision with complete margins is often...
Figure 32.4 When STS occur on the body, complete excision is sometimes feasible,...
Figure 32.5 Kaplan–Meier survival curve showing the effect of tumor grade on sur...
Chapter 33
Figure 33.1 Hemangiosarcoma often presents with a dog that is feeling unwell, wi...
Figure 33.2 Abdominal ultrasonography of the same dog in Figure 33.1 shows a lar...
Figure 33.3 At exploratory laparotomy of the same dog in Figures 33.1 and 33.2, ...
Chapter 34
Figure 34.1 A sectioned specimen of an osteosarcoma shows cortical disruption, p...
Figure 34.2 A radiograph of an osteosarcoma of the distal radius showing marked ...
Figure 34.3 A Kaplan–Meier survival curve showing the effect of high serum ALP l...
Figure 34.4 A painful swollen distal leg in a boxer with osteosarcoma of the dis...
Chapter 35
Figure 35.1 Melanoma is the most common tumor in the mouth of dogs. Even though ...
Figure 35.2 Although melanoma usually has the characteristic heavily pigmented a...
Figure 35.3 Kaplan–Meier survival curve showing the effect of tumor size, for an...
Chapter 36
Figure 36.1 Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common tumor in the mouth of old...
Figure 36.2 Another common location for oral squamous cell carcinoma in cats is ...
Figure 36.3 and Figure 36.4 Although the prognosis for most cats with oral squam...
Chapter 37
Figure 37.1 Contrast CT images of a patient with a large histiocytic sarcoma of ...
Figure 37.2 Multiple contrast CT images of a patient with disseminated histiocyt...
Chapter 38
Figure 38.1 A schematic showing the lymphatic draining of the canine mammary gla...
Figure 38.2 The lungs are one of the most common locations for mammary gland tum...
Figure 38.3 Kaplan–Meier survival curve showing the effect of tumor size on surv...
Figure 38.4 Tumor diameter is one of the most important prognostic factors for d...
Figure 38.5 Inflammatory mammary carcinoma is an extremely painful invasive form...
Chapter 39
Figure 39.1 This large ulcerated mammary tumor on a cat should be removed with t...
Figure 39.2 This cat with multiple ulcerated inflammatory mammary carcinomas in ...
Figure 39.3 Cats presented with a mammary tumor should always undergo a full phy...
Figure 39.4 This cat has experienced multiple local tumor recurrences along the ...
Chapter 40
Figure 40.1 Contrast cystography is a fairly reliable diagnostic method for iden...
Figure 40.2 Ultrasonography can also be used to identify bladder masses, and it ...
Figure 40.3 Urethral tumors can extend to become externally visible, as this tum...
Figure 40.4 This dog has very enlarged inguinal lymph nodes and hindlimb edema b...
Figure 40.5 Cytology obtained via traumatic catheterization of a bladder mass. T...
Figure 40.6 Kaplan–Meier survival curve shows that dogs that have any clinical i...
Chapter 41
Figure 41.1 The initial diagnostic method for most primary lung tumors in dogs i...
Figure 41.2 Kaplan–Meier survival curve showing the effect of metastasis on dogs...
Figure 41.3 Surgery is the primary treatment for most dogs with lung tumors. Thi...
Figure 41.4 Automatic stapling device allows quick removal of lung lobes contain...
Chapter 42
Figure 42.1 Chronic lymphocytic leukemia typically presents with an increased nu...
Chapter 43
Figure 43.1 Small mobile thyroid tumor noted on CT scan with contrast.
Figure 43.2 This thyroid tumor is large, fixed, and clearly invasive into the su...
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Summary of the relative advantages of cytology and histopathology as...
Table 3.2 Common terms found in pathology reports and their definition.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Example of a table used to keep lymph node measurements.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Definitions of objective tumor remissions and responses following an...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Dog breeds considered to be predisposed to cardiomyopathy and at inc...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Percentage of 517 veterinary nurses agreeing with statements about p...
Table 15.2 Example of a pain score system.
Table 15.3 Example of a multimodal pain management plan.
Table 15.4 Common veterinary opioids.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Myelosuppressive effects of chemotherapeutic agents used in veterina...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Examples of suboptimal and preferred responses to various client-com...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Treatment of metabolic abnormalities.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Treatment recommendations for anaphylaxis.
Appendix 4
Table A2.1 Commonly used analgesics in dogs and cats.
Appendix 4
Table A3.1 Commonly used antiemetics, gastroprotectants, and appetite stimulants in dogs and cats.
Appendix 4
Table A4.1 Commonly used antibiotics in dogs and cats.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Introduction
Acknowledgments
Section Summary
About the Companion Website
Begin Reading
Appendix 1: BSA Conversion Charts
Appendix 2: Analgesics
Appendix 3: Antiemetics, Gastroprotectants, and Appetite Stimulants
Appendix 4: Antibiotics
Appendix 5: Glossary of Cancer Terms
Appendix 6: Chemotherapy Drug Information: Quick Reference
Index
End User License Agreement
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Oncology for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses
By Dr. Penelope Thomas
Veterinary Oncology Consultants
Second Edition
Copyright © 2025 by John Wiley & Sons Inc. All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial intelligence technologies or similar technologies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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List of Contributors
Nicole Edwards, BSW
Social Worker
North Coast Cancer Institute
Port Macquarie, NSW, Australia
Lee Garrod, DACVECC
Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Medicine
Past President of Veterinary Critical Care Veterinary Emergency, Critical Care and Cancer Treatment Center
Kensington, NH
Patricia Suomala B.S., CVT, M.Ed., CVPM
Previous Director of Inpatient Services
MSPCA-Angell Animal Medical Center
Boston, MA
Introduction
Although intended primarily for the nurse/technician who is working in a specialty practice, this book also offers technicians in general/family pet practice a guide to the integrated practice of nursing the veterinary cancer patient.
If you are reading this book, you already understand that cancer is a common and often deadly disease in our pets. You may—or may not—also know that cancer treatment in animals is less toxic and more compatible with a good quality of life than it is in some human patients. It also requires you, as a veterinary technician, to become more involved in the human–animal bond than any other subspecialty of veterinary medicine. When working with cancer patients, you are truly a nurse, and not a technician. In fact, you will notice that in this book, we use the terms interchangeably and encourage you to embrace the importance of nursing in our veterinary cancer patients.
Working as part of a veterinary cancer treatment team brings immense rewards. It soon becomes obvious that cancer is “the most treatable” of all chronic diseases, and that you, as a focused veterinary nurse provide services that are an integral part of an interdisciplinary approach to cancer care. You will find that although many of your patients are “terminal” you can provide enormous comfort to them and their owners/caregivers, and that you will build relationships with both that are deep and often long-lasting. You will cry when many of your patients die, but they will not be tears of frustration or anger. There will be tears shed from truly missing a patient and friend.
We hope that from the initial chapter to the end of the book we can help you achieve and promote excellence in cancer care through your professional contributions as a veterinary cancer nurse.
Penelope Thomas
Antony S. Moore
Angela E. Frimberger
Acknowledgments
The people who have contributed the most to this book are the many veterinary technicians and nurses with whom we have worked over our years in veterinary oncology. Many thanks are also due to colleagues at the Small Animal Specialist Hospital (SASH)—and to the referring veterinarians who work with us through our consulting service—for their ongoing support and productive conversations and for the images that many of them have contributed. We thank the many wonderful clients and their beautiful brave pets that we have had the privilege of working with and who have taught us so much about medicine and more. Finally, we wish to thank those giving us permission to use illustrations in this book:
Tristram Bennett, BVSc (Dist), MANZCVS (Surgery), DACVS-SA, Dipl ECVS
R. John Berg, DVM, Diplomate ACVS
Elizabeth Bertone-Johnson, ScD
Loreena Butcher, BVSc BSc (Vet)
Susan M. Cotter, DVM, Diplomate ACVIM (Oncology and Internal Medicine)
Anne G. Evans, DVM, Diplomate ACVD, MBA
Elias Gumpel DVM, MANZCVS, DipACVR (RO)
Karl Kraus, DVM, Diplomate ACVS
Nicholas Lai BVSc MANZCVS
Dennis J. Meyer, DVM, Diplomate ACVIM, Diplomate ACVP
Robert J. McCarthy, DVM, Diplomate ACVS
Nicole C. Northrup, DVM, Diplomate ACVIM (Oncology)
Gregory K. Ogilvie, DVM, Diplomate ACVIM (Oncology and Internal Medicine)
Dominique G. Penninck, DVM, DVSc, Diplomate ACVR and ECVDI
Kenneth M. Rassnick, DVM, Diplomate ACVIM (Oncology)
George Reppas, BVSc, DipVetPath FANZCVS (ClinPath), DECVP
Pam Short, BVSc
David Simpson, BVSc, MVetClinStud, FACVS (Surgery)
David Taylor, BVSc, DipVetClinStud, MVS, DACVP
Gordon H. Theilen, DVM, Diplomate ACVIM (Oncology and Internal Medicine)
Section Summary
Section 1 discusses the process of cancer growth and spread and how cancer cells differ from normal cells; these chapters also give an overview of the causes of cancer, with epidemiologic information from the veterinary literature about cancers in cats and dogs.
Section 2 presents pretreatment care of cancer patients and obtaining a diagnosis. This includes biopsy and cytology to diagnose cancer, as well as the preferred technique to obtain information for a given patient, tissue handling, and submission guidelines to ensure that the best and most accurate results are obtained. These chapters also describe the testing needed to establish the extent of cancer in a patient (staging). This is of particular relevance to veterinary oncology nurses because they are often the ones performing the testing, and it underscores the importance of the results in making a prognosis and ensuring the best treatment choices for their patients.
Section 3 broadly outlines the mainstream treatment strategies available in veterinary practice, including a brief discussion of alternative (complementary) treatments available.
Section 4 is the most important for nurses because supportive care for patients is the area where nurses make a considerable difference to a pet dog or cat with cancer. Understanding supportive strategies for problems such as inappetence or pain is vital in the holistic treatment of the veterinary cancer patient.
Section 5 discusses the support that can be so important to owners when they find their pet has been diagnosed with cancer. It also discusses the ethical concerns about treating animals with cancer as well as pet loss and the process of euthanasia. These chapters also discuss the important issue of the emotional impact of oncology practice for nurses.
Section 6 describes the potential emergencies that can affect a patient with cancer, due either to their disease or to the treatment prescribed. It also outlines the interventions needed in these patients so that a nurse can be prepared before seeing the pet. This section is structured in a quick-reference format, with plenty of bullet lists and tables.
Section 7 considers some of the most common cancers, in the form of case-based examples, that the veterinary nurse is likely to encounter. Included are summary information about the disease and prognostic factors, as well as the treatment of choice, adjunctive strategies to consider, supportive care needed, and palliative options.
Section 8 contains reference points for nurses in the form of quick-reference charts of important information that nurses can access in a hurry.
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website
www.wiley.com/go/thomas-moore-frimberger/2e
This website includes:
Multiple Choice and True or False questions.
Section 1Basics of Oncology
Chapter 1Introduction to Clinical Veterinary Oncology
What Is Cancer?
Cancer is the process where normal cells in the body undergo transformation to become capable of excessive or unrestrained growth. Cancer can occur in any bodily organ, and cancerous cells are often capable of traveling from one part of the body to other sites via the bloodstream or lymph system. There are more than 100 different types of cancer that can be grouped into one of several major categories.
Sarcomas are cancers that begin in tissue that connects, supports, or surrounds other tissues and organs (such as muscle, bone, and fibrous tissue). Examples include fibrosarcoma (malignant tumor of fibrocytes), hemangiosarcoma (malignant tumor of blood vessels), and osteosarcoma (malignant tumor of bone).
Carcinomas are cancers that originate in tissues that cover a body surface, line a body cavity, or make up an organ or gland. Carcinomas that derive from glandular tissue are prefixed with adeno. Examples include mammary adenocarcinoma (tumor of mammary glands) and invasive urothelial carcinoma or transitional cell carcinoma (malignant tumor of bladder or urethral lining).
Sarcomas and carcinomas together are sometimes referred to as solid tumors.
Lymphomas are cancers that occur in cells that make up an important component of the immune system. Lymphomas are characterized by the type of lymphocytes forming the cancer (large or small, as well as B-cell or T-cell) and by the grade of the lymphoma (low- vs. intermediate- or high-grade lymphoma).
Leukemias are cancers that occur in the blood-forming tissues and blood cells. Leukemias can be acute (high-grade and rapidly progressive) or chronic (low-grade and often slow to progress if treated).
Both leukemias and lymphomas belong to the “hematopoietic tumors” or “hematopoietic neoplasias.”
Communicating with Owners of Pets with Cancer
Veterinary clients often find veterinary technicians and nurses more approachable and easier to communicate with than the veterinarian, and you will find clients asking you questions regarding their pet or their pets’ diagnosis that you may not be sure how to handle. First, it is important to clarify with the veterinarian with whom you are working, how much direct communication you should undertake and whether there are any topics or advice that you should specifically seek to cover or avoid. Some veterinarians are happy to have technicians and nurses take on as much client communication as possible, whereas others prefer to handle communications themselves. Regardless of how client communication is handled, it should always be accurately recorded within the patient’s file so that the veterinarian or other technicians can access this information. It is important to keep this key working relationship harmonious, so be sure that you are in agreement with the person you are working with as to who will handle which part of communication and that there is continuity and agreement in the advice given.
Veterinary technicians and nurses are often in a position to discuss the fears and doubts that an owner has, even before cancer is diagnosed. Try as they might, when pet owners hear the words “cancer” or “malignant,” it’s hard to focus on anything but what it may mean for their pet. Common questions are: What are the treatment options? What will work? How will having cancer affect my pet’s quality of life?
First, it is important to explain that the answers to most of these questions hinge on the specific diagnosis. Most cancers require more than one form of treatment to effectively fight the disease. This can mean using multiple different approaches to cancer therapy, including surgery (surgical oncology), chemotherapy (medical oncology), radiation therapy (radiation oncology), and immunotherapy. This requires a multidisciplinary cancer care team that develops, coordinates, and monitors all aspects of an individual pet’s treatment plan. You, as a veterinary technician or nurse, are critical to the successful functioning of this team.
Suggest that owners collate their pet’s medical history. Particularly if owners are seeing a specialist veterinarian for the first time, it’s important for them to give a complete picture of the health status of their pet. If the pet has several health problems or a long history with one, it can help the owner if you collate a history of events, recurrences, treatments, medications, and outcomes associated with the condition that you have on file; then suggest that the owner add to that record with his or her own recollections of the pet’s medical history. If you are working in a referral hospital, collect as much data as possible from the owner, including the contact information of any veterinarian that may have information regarding the pet on file. A written list can save time and ensure completeness.
Make sure all members of the cancer care team are informed. If a patient develops a condition that requires one or more specialists or needs surgery or radiation therapy, it’s important that all members of that pet’s veterinary medical team have complete and consistent information. Encourage owners to share the names and contact numbers of any other clinicians or supportive care practitioners (such as physiotherapists and nutritionists) involved with the pet’s care and bring all records with them.
Tell the owners when and how they will receive test results. Often owners are confused and impatient to receive results after tests have been ordered. Giving owners realistic timelines for them to be notified of test results and letting them know how they will receive them will allay a lot of this concern. Remember to tell them that if results do not arrive when they expect them, they should contact their veterinarian and inquire. A dedicated oncology technician may take on the role of contacting owners when test results are in and scheduling time for them to discuss the results with their veterinarian.
A common question from owners is, “how is my pet likely to respond to treatment for cancer?” For cancer in veterinary patients, expected remission times and life span, or prognosis, are highly variable and depend on a number of factors. Often the most important is the type of cancer was diagnosed by pathology testing (aspirates, biopsy, or other blood/urine testing). Untreated pets with malignant cancer, especially if it is an aggressive type or has spread beyond the one site, often live 2 months or less, but this varies greatly depending on the type of tumor and the individual patient with their possible co-morbidities. With therapy, most dogs with lymphoma or osteosarcoma (two common cancers in dogs) will live 9 months to 1 year, and a percentage more than 2 years. Therefore, a reasonable goal with treatment in many cases is a 1-year survival. Occasionally the pet will live much longer, up to 2.5 years or more, and some will live out their normal lifespan. Some animals are truly cured of cancer, but this depends greatly on the tumor type. Other factors that will influence an individual pet’s prognosis include the following:
The stage (or extent) of the disease, which reflects the number, location, and size of major populations of tumor cells in the body.
Whether the pet is feeling sick or well at diagnosis and whether any clinical signs are due to their cancer. In general, pets that are not feeling sick and are diagnosed early in the course of tumor growth have a better chance of remission with treatment. Loss of appetite is an important symptom of all cancers, particularly if accompanied by unplanned, significant (>15%) weight loss.
Histologic grading: the specific appearance of tumor cells and their pattern of infiltration in various tissues (what the pathologists report from a biopsy specimen).
The presence of paraneoplastic syndromes (tumor-associated conditions), such as high blood calcium (hypercalcemia) or changes to blood cell lines (like low platelet counts or anemia).
The treatment chosen and the care given by the owner and veterinary cancer treatment team.
The pet’s response to therapy. It is never possible to accurately predict the future for a given individual pet. Although it may be possible to predict the likelihood of achieving remission or long-term survival, ultimately the only remission that will matter to pet owners will be their own pet’s—whether it fits in with the expected statistics or not. In many situations, the only way to know whether a particular patient will benefit from treatment is to make an attempt.
Specialist Veterinary Care
Although a primary care veterinarian is an integral part of cancer care for any pet, pets with cancer may need to visit an expert in a specific area of veterinary medicine. These veterinarians have undertaken further training and have achieved certification by various veterinary colleges. They are often called specialists.
Medical oncology is the general study and treatment of cancer. Medical oncologists are trained in the prevention, detection, and medical treatment of all forms of cancer. In the United States, such specialists are certified by the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) subspecialty of Oncology; in Europe, by the European College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ECVIM) subspecialty of Oncology; and in Australia by the Australian and New Zealand College of Veterinary Scientists (ANZCVS).
Surgical oncology is the specialty concerned with the physical removal of cancerous tissue. Sometimes, surgery is augmented with other forms of care, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Surgical oncologists have specialty experience in treating distinct types of cancer—from breast, bone, and lung cancer to cancers that occur within the abdomen, as well as skin cancer. Surgical specialists in the United States are certified by the American College of Veterinary Surgery (ACVS). In Europe, surgical specialists are certified by the European College of Veterinary Surgeons (ECVS). In Australia, surgical specialists are certified by ANZCVS. Some of these surgical specialists continue with fellowships specifically in surgical oncology; there is no formal qualification for such specially trained individuals, but they are obviously the most highly trained surgeons performing cancer surgery.
Radiation oncology is the specialty concerned with prescribing radiation therapy in all its forms. In the United States, radiation oncologists are certified by the American College of Veterinary Radiology (ACVR), a subspecialty of Radiation Oncology. In Europe, radiation oncologists are certified through the European Colleges of Diagnostic Imaging and Internal Medicine.
Internal medicine deals with the function of the internal organs, such as the liver, kidney, and lungs, plus the diagnosis and treatment of associated problems. Internists often provide the first contact for an unspecified internal illness or problem. They may diagnose and treat the problem themselves or work in conjunction with another specialist (such as a medical oncologist) for more focused diagnosis and treatment. In the United States, such specialists are certified by ACVIM. In Europe, internal medicine specialists are certified by ECVIM. In Australia, internal medicine specialists are certified by ANZCVS.
Veterinary technicians and nurses can also achieve specialty qualifications. The Academy of Internal Medicine for Veterinary Technicians in the United States promotes interest and advanced skills in the discipline of internal medicine. It is possible to become credentialed and recognized in the discipline of Veterinary Oncology. Candidates fulfill 3 years of experience, continuing education, and complete an examination. This qualification is available in the U.S., but it is possible for candidates from other countries to apply and qualify. http://aimvt.com/
Another option for veterinary nurses and technicians in Australia is to undertake a Bachelor of Veterinary Nursing or Veterinary Technology with further study to gain the title of Veterinary Technician Specialist. Or pursue a subspecialty within a Diploma of Veterinary Nursing. Whilst there are no formalized additional qualifications in oncology specifically, these may be available in the future.
Chapter 2Causes of Cancer in Pets
Epidemiology and Cancer
One of the most common questions clients ask is, “What caused my dog or cat’s cancer?” That question is difficult to answer, but as in humans, the etiopathogenesis (cause and progression) of cancer in animals often involves both genetic and environmental risk factors. Indeed, some dog and cat breeds (Bernese mountain dogs, Siamese cats) have a high rate of cancer when compared to other breeds and are often susceptible to very specific kinds of cancers. In addition, exposure to cigarette smoke, asbestos, herbicides, pesticides, and other environmental contaminants has been associated with an increased risk of developing cancer in pets. Therefore, the prevention of cancer is based on the identification of animals that are at risk based on familial/genetic and environmental influences. Epidemiology is the science that examines these genetic and environmental influences that can then be used to reduce cancer risk.
The identification of factors associated with an increased risk of developing cancer is in its infancy in veterinary epidemiology and oncology. Despite this early stage of development, several important observations have been made and are summarized in the following section. Clients should be educated that increased risk may not be equated with causality. In other words, exposure to a risk factor may not have caused their pet’s cancer; however, such studies can still act as a guide for the concerned owner.
Causes of Cancer in Pets
Nutrition
A lifetime study of restricted daily intake of the same food was done with a total of 48 Labrador retriever dogs from seven litters that were divided into two groups: one group fed normally (control) and one group fed 25% less (restricted). The median life span of the restricted group was significantly longer. Although the overall prevalence of cancer between groups was similar, the mean age due to cancer-related deaths was 2 years later in the dogs that received the restricted diet. In another study, increased consumption of green leafy vegetables and yellow-orange vegetables (squash, carrots) decreased the risk of urinary bladder invasive urothelial carcinoma (formally known as transitional cell carcinoma) in genetically predisposed dogs (Scottish Terriers).
There is information to suggest that a pet with a lean body condition score during adolescence and growth may confer other benefits beyond a longer lifespan. Some practical suggestions for concerned dog owners might be to restrict daily intake from early maturity to allow their pet to maintain a lean body weight throughout life. Although it may not apply to all dogs and all cancers, it may be prudent to supplement their diet with leafy green or yellow-orange vegetables at least three times per week (as in the above study of bladder cancer in Scottish terriers).
Cats fed canned food have an increased risk of developing oral squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Also, cats that eat more than 50% of their diet as canned cat food have an increased risk of developing a thyroid adenoma. Supplementation of diet with beef or poultry seemed to decrease the risk of hyperthyroidism in one study and could be suggested to concerned owners of cats.
Spaying and Neutering
Spaying (ovariohysterectomy) has long been demonstrated to be a markedly effective method of preventing mammary tumors if it is performed before the first estrus. Spaying is moderately effective if performed before the dog has had three estrus cycles. Castration (orchiectomy) reduces the risk of testicular tumors, but not prostate cancer. We now know that sterilization is also associated with an increase in canine lifespan, and cancer is a process more commonly seen in older pets.
However, the effect of spaying and neutering (gonadectomy) may not always be protective. A study of Rottweiler dogs was conducted to study the effect of elective gonadectomy and the spontaneous development of appendicular bone sarcomas. In that study, male and female Rottweiler dogs that underwent gonadectomy before 1 year of age were significantly more likely to develop bone sarcoma than dogs that were sexually intact. Intact female dogs appear to have a lower risk of lymphoma, suggesting that estrogen may have a protective effect against the development of this disease. Spayed females may have a higher risk of mast cell tumors, and hemangiosarcoma. It does appear that the effects of neutering male dogs do not have a similar effect of possibly increasing cancer prevalence.
Newer methods of hormonal control that do not necessarily involve gonadectomy (for example, hormonal implants, vasectomy, or tubal ligation) are gaining popularity as alternatives to standard sterilization practices for population control, behavior modification, and preventative health care. It is yet to be seen if these alternative methods will alter cancer risk or other growth characteristics in our veterinary patients.
Genetics
A number of clear breed predilections have been demonstrated in veterinary oncology. German shepherd dogs have been shown to have bilateral cystadenocarcinomas and cutaneous fibrosarcomas. Flat-coated retrievers, Bernese mountain dogs, Schnauzers, and Rottweilers have been shown to have a high incidence of cancer, especially histiocytic sarcoma. Scottish terriers, especially those with exposure to herbicides, have an increased risk of developing invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. Siamese cats are prone to developing mammary carcinomas, intestinal carcinomas, and mast cell tumors of the skin; in contrast, they are at low risk of developing thyroid adenomas and SCCs of the skin.
Environmental Carcinogens
In sharing their living environment with humans, pets are exposed to many of the same environmental contaminants as their owners, including passive environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) (“second-hand smoke”). In fact, exposure levels in animals kept indoors continuously may be higher than those of human household members, who often spend extended periods of time outside the home. Metabolites of nicotine have been found in the urine of cats living with smokers and are higher than levels in humans exposed to ETS (Figure 2.1). Routes of ETS exposure in cats and dogs may be through inhalation and oral ingestion of contaminants deposited on the fur during grooming.
Figure 2.1 Urine cotinine (a metabolite of nicotine) was measured in urine of cats that did not live with a smoker, lived with a smoker that smoked fewer than 20 cigarettes a day and lived with a smoker that smoked more than 20 cigarettes a day. The cotinine levels rose with the level of exposure, and in the highest exposure group, cotinine levels approached those of active human smokers.
(Courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Bertone).
Dogs have been shown to have an increased risk of developing cancer of the respiratory tract, especially of the lung and nasal cavity when exposed to coal and kerosene heaters and ETS. One veterinary study found a weak association between lung cancer and exposure to tobacco in the home (odds ratio 1.6), but no dose-response relationship. The risk of developing lung cancer rose for dogs with short or medium-length nasal cavities. In a similar study, dogs of long-nosed breeds had an increased risk of developing nasal cancer when exposed to ETS than did dogs of breeds with shorter noses.
Cats exposed to ETS have a higher risk of developing lymphoma. Because domestic cats groom extensively, their alimentary tract, particularly the oral cavity, may be exposed to toxins deposited on their fur. These may include chemicals present in applied products such as flea powders and those present in environmental contaminants such as cigarette smoke. The most common site for oral SCC in cats is the ventral aspect of the tongue caudal to the lingual frenulum. Because of anatomy, this site is likely to accumulate irritant chemicals and carcinogens. Cats wearing flea-control collars have a higher risk of developing oral SCC, and those living with a smoker have a mildly increased risk.
Mesothelioma is more common in dogs owned by people who work in the asbestos industry.
Lymphoma was more common in dogs that lived in an urban environment in one study. In addition, the use of chemicals by owners, specifically the commonly used lawn care herbicide 2,4-D, paints, asbestos, or solvents, as well as radiation and electromagnetic field exposure have been associated with increased risk for canine lymphoma.
Application of insecticides (but not in a spot-on formulation) increased the risk of bladder cancer in Scottish terriers in another study.
It is impossible to be able to prevent cancer in all of our pets, but some options you can suggest to the concerned owner would be to reduce exposure to environmental carcinogens such as pesticides, coal, or kerosene heaters, and avoid the excessive use of lawn herbicides such as 2,4-D. For owners who are smokers, they should know there is a risk to their pets from ETS. If possible, exposure to radiation and strong electromagnetic fields should be minimized. These steps may be particularly important for owners of susceptible breeds (for example, a Scottish terrier with fleas should be treated with spot-on insecticides, rather than dips or sprays, which are shown to increase the risk of this cancer).
Summary
Often a patient with cancer has none of the risk factors listed above. For owners of these pets, it may still be comforting to know what the risk factors are, and that their other pets will not be exposed to any of them. It may also provide an incentive to reduce exposure to known risk factors such as insecticides or ETS.
Further Reading
Abadie, J., Hédan, B., Cadieu, E. et al. (2009). Epidemiology, pathology, and genetics of histiocytic sarcoma in the Bernese mountain dog breed.
J Hered
. 100 (1): S19-S27.
Bertone, E.R., Snyder, L.A., and Moore, A.S. (2002). Environmental tobacco smoke and risk of malignant lymphoma in pet cats.
American Journal of Epidemiology
156: 268–273.
Bertone, E.R., Snyder, L.A., and Moore, A.S. (2003). Environmental and lifestyle risk factors for oral squamous cell carcinoma in domestic cats.
Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine
Aug 17 (4): 557–562.
Bilgic, O., Duda, L, Sánchez, M.D. et al. (2015). Feline Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Clinical Manifestations and Literature Review.
Journal of Veterinary Dentistry
32 (1): 30–40.
Bukowski, J.A., Wartenberg, D., and Goldschmidt, M. (1998). Environmental causes for sinonasal cancers in pet dogs, and their usefulness as sentinels of indoor cancer risk.
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A
54 (7): 579–591.
Cannon, C.M. (2015). Cats, Cancer and Comparative Oncology.
Veterinary Science
2 (3): 111–126.
