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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Comprehensive overview of the air pollution control technology field including the design, selection, operation, and maintenance of relevant devices
Optimizing Air Pollution Control Equipment Performance delivers an analysis of the subject of air pollution control equipment from the perspective of the practicing engineer or an applied scientist, rather than a theoretical perspective.
Written by a team of highly qualified authors with experience in both industry and academia, coverage includes:
- Design and selection of a variety of relevant devices as well as carbon dioxide capture processes and technologies related to control of NOx
- Strategies to ensure that air pollution control systems meet stringent emission standards and latest technological requirements, with up-to-date references throughout
- Typical problems related to air pollution control equipment, emphasizing where and how these factors can have a major impact on the maintenance problems of control devices
- Methods to reduce maintenance costs and prevent deterioration of collector performance
A timely reference detailing problems that have plagued users for nearly 100 years, Optimizing Air Pollution Control Equipment Performance earns a well-deserved spot on the bookshelves of professionals working in environmental control, including consultants, engineers, and government agency personnel, as well as advanced students in related programs of study.
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Seitenzahl: 958
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Authors
Foreword
Preface
Comments from Afar
Part I: Prologue
1 Definitions/Glossary of Terms
1.1 Glossary of Terms
References
2 The Air Pollution Problem
2.1 Early History
2.2 Sources and Classifications of Air Pollution
2.3 The Need for Control
2.4 Estimating Pollutant Emissions
2.5 Measurement Methods
References
3 Classifications, Sources, and Effects of Air Pollution
3.1 Sources of Air Pollutants
3.2 Atmospheric Air Pollutants
3.3 Airborne Particulates
3.4 Airborne Toxins
3.5 Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Deposition
3.6 Indoor Air Pollutants
3.7 Water and Land Pollutants
3.8 Effects of Air Pollution
References
4 Multimedia Concerns
4.1 Environmental Problems
4.2 The Multimedia Approach
4.3 Multimedia Application
4.4 Education and Training
References
5 Regulations
5.1 Early Air Pollution Legislation
5.2 Clean Air Act of 1970
5.3 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977
5.4 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
5.5 Other Considerations
References
6 Environmental and Health Risk
6.1 Risk Variables and Categories
6.2 Risk Assessment
6.3 Health Risk Assessment/Analysis
6.4 Health Risk Assessments Components
6.5 Hazard Risk Assessment/Analysis
6.6 Risk Uncertainties/Limitations
References
7 Introduction to Air Pollution Control Equipment
7.1 Air Pollution Control Equipment for Particulates
7.2 Air Pollution Control Equipment for Gaseous Pollutants
7.3 Hybrid Systems
7.4 Factors in Selecting and Comparing Equipment
References
8 Introduction to Operation, Maintenance, and Inspection
8.1 The Need for an Operation and Maintenance Program
8.2 System Description
8.3 Personnel
8.4 Installation Procedures
8.5 Operation
8.6 Maintenance and Inspection
8.7 Improving Operation and Performance
8.8 Special Tools and Equipment
8.9 Records
References
Part II: Air Pollution Control Equipment
9 Absorbers
9.1 Description of Control Device
9.2 Design Considerations
9.3 Installation Procedures
9.4 Operation
9.5 Maintenance
9.6 Improving Operation and Performance
9.7 Recent Developments
9.8 Conclusions
References
10 Adsorbers
10.1 Description of Control Device
10.2 Design Considerations
10.3 Installation Procedures
10.4 Operation
10.5 Maintenance
10.6 Improving Operation and Performance
10.7 Monitoring
10.8 Recent Developments
10.9 Conclusions
References
11 Incinerators
11.1 Description of Control Devices
11.2 Design Considerations
11.3 Installation Procedures
11.4 Operation
11.5 Maintenance
11.6 Improving Operation and Performance
11.7 Recent Developments
11.8 Conclusions
References
12 Condensers
12.1 Description of Control Device
12.2 Design Considerations
12.3 Installation Procedures
12.4 Operation
12.5 Maintenance
12.6 Improving Operation and Performance
12.7 Recent Developments
12.8 Conclusions
References
13 Mechanical Collectors
13.1 Description of Control Device
13.2 Design Considerations
13.3 Installation Procedures
13.4 Operation
13.5 Maintenance
13.6 Improving Operation and Performance
13.7 Recent Advances
13.8 Conclusions
References
14 Wet Scrubbers
14.1 Description of Control Devices
14.2 Design Considerations
14.3 Installation Procedures
14.4 Operation
14.5 Maintenance
14.6 Improving Operation and Performance
14.7 Recent Developments
14.8 Conclusions
References
15 Electrostatic Precipitators
15.1 Description of Control Device
15.2 Design Considerations
15.3 Installation Procedures
15.4 Operation
15.5 Maintenance
15.6 Improving Operation and Performance
15.7 Recent Developments
15.8 Conclusions
References
16 Baghouses
16.1 Description of Control Device
16.2 Cleaning Methods
16.3 Design Considerations
16.4 Installation Procedures
16.5 Operation
16.6 Startup and Shutdown
16.7 Improving Operation and Performance
16.8 Recent Advances
16.9 Conclusions
References
17 Hybrid Systems
17.1 Dry Scrubbers
17.2 Ionizing Wet Scrubber (IWS)
17.3 Wet Electrostatic Precipitators (WEPs)
17.4 Electrostatic Stimulation of Fabric Filtration
17.5 Recent Advances in Control Equipment Technology
17.6 Conclusion
References
18 Controlling the Oxides of Nitrogen
18.1 The Oxides of Nitrogen
18.2 NO
x
Control Methods
18.3 Reducing NO
x
Generation via Pollution Prevention
18.4 Control of Flue Gas NO
x
18.5 Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Optimization Considerations
18.6 Conclusions
References
19 Carbon Capture and Storage
19.1 Properties of Carbon Dioxide
19.2 Global Carbon Cycle
19.3 The Greenhouse Effect
19.4 Effects of Global Warming/Climate Change
19.5 Carbon Dioxide Control Technologies
19.6 Carbon Dioxide Sequestration
19.7 Final Editorial Thoughts (of One of the Authors)
19.8 Final Editorial Thoughts (of the Other Author)
References
20 Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems
20.1 Description of Control Device
20.2 Design Procedures
20.3 Installation Procedures
20.4 Operation
20.5 Startup
20.6 Maintenance
20.7 Improving Operation and Performance
20.8 Conclusions
References
21 Biofiltration
21.1 Description of Control Device
21.2 Design Considerations
21.3 Operation and Maintenance
21.4 Improving Operation and Performance
21.5 Conclusions
References
22 Stacks
22.1 Description of Control Device
22.2 Design Considerations
22.3 Sulfuric Acid Attack
22.4 Inspection and Repair of Liners
22.5 Recent Advances
22.6 Conclusions
References
23 Ventilation
23.1 Introduction to Industrial Ventilation Systems
23.2 Dilution Ventilation
23.3 Local Exhaust Systems
23.4 Selecting Ventilation Systems
23.5 Ventilation Models
23.6 Model Limitations
References
Part III: Epilogue
24 Atmospheric Dispersion
24.1 The Nature of Dispersion
24.2 Meteorological Concerns
24.3 Plume Rise
24.4 Effective Stack Height
24.5 The Pasquill‐Gifford Model
24.6 Types of Emission Sources
24.7 Choosing A Model
24.8 Conclusions
References
25 Control Equipment Cost Considerations
25.1 Capital Costs
25.2 Operating Costs
25.3 Hidden Economic Factors
25.4 Project Evaluation
25.5 Future Trends
References
26 Measurement Methods
26.1 Source Sampling
26.2 Sampling Guidelines
26.3 Continuous Emission Monitoring
26.4 Opacity Measurements
26.5 Sampling Statistical Analysis
26.6 Maintenance
26.7 Conclusions
References
27 Optimization Considerations
27.1 The History of Optimization
27.2 Optimization Overview
27.3 The Scope of Optimization
27.4 General Analytical Formulation of Optimization Problems
27.5 Optimizing Performance
27.6 Recent Developments
27.7 Conclusions
References
28 Factors in Pollution Control Equipment Selection
28.1 Environmental, Engineering, and Economic Factors
28.2 Comparing Control Equipment Alternatives
28.3 Equipment and Material Specifications
28.4 Instrumentation and Controls
28.5 Equipment Fabrication
28.6 Installation Procedures
28.7 Equipment Purchasing Guidelines
28.8 Future Trends
References
29 Control Equipment for Specific Industries
29.1 Continue Techniques Applicable to Specific Sources
29.2 Control Techniques Applicable to Other Sources
Reference
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Maximum breathing capacity (l/min).
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 National primary and secondary ambient air quality standards in e...
Table 5.2 Significant monitoring levels.
Table 5.3 Ozone nonattainment classifications.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Common adsorbents and their applications.
Table 10.2 Physical properties of common VOCs.
Table 10.3 VOCs not suitable for carbon adsorption.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Performance of cyclones.
Table 13.2 Cyclone efficiency changes.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Storage shelf life.
Table 14.2 Spare parts inventory for venturi scrubber.
Table 14.3 Type of maintenance required – venturi scrubber systems.
Table 14.4 Troubleshooting venturi Scrubbers.
Table 14.6 Troubleshooting packed‐bed scrubbers.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Mechanical completion items.
Table 15.2 Important safety precautions.
Table 15.3 Precipitator inspection items. Preoperational checklist.
Table 15.4 Troubleshooting guide – precipitator energization symptoms.
Table 15.5 Startup and shutdown procedures.
Table 15.6 Rank order of precipitator component failures from 1975 APCA sur...
Table 15.7 Preventative maintenance checklist for a typical fly‐ash precipi...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Fabric‐filter cleaning methods.
Table 16.2 Fabric‐filter design difference based on gas volume capacity.
Table 16.3 Characteristics of filter bag fibers.
Table 16.4 Shaker baghouse parameters.
Table 16.5 Reverse air filter parameters.
Table 16.6 Pulse jet filter parameters.
Table 16.7 Fabric finishing.
Table 16.8 Air/cloth ratio definitions.
Table 16.9 Typical installation errors and their effect on O&M.
Table 16.10 Example checklist for inspections and startups.
Table 16.11 Typical routine maintenance schedule.
Table 16.12 Troubleshooting guide.
Table 16.13 Installed and operating cost components.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Factors influencing scrubber system design outside the battery l...
Table 20.2 Factors influencing scrubber system design inside the battery li...
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Biodegradability of individual and classes of volatile compound...
Table 21.2 Examples of operating full‐scale biofilters.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Conditions in stack burning pulverized coal.
Table 22.2 Location of acidity in stack linings.
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 Traverse point locations in circular stacks.
Table 26.2 Estimating the number of traverse points.
Chapter 28
Table 28.1 Advantages and disadvantages of cyclone collectors.
Table 28.9 Advantages and disadvantages of condensers.
Chapter 29
Table 29.1 Control techniques applicable to unit processes at important emi...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Overall multimedia flow diagram.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Health Risk Evaluation Process.
Figure 6.2 HZRA flowchart for a chemical plant.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Diagram of countercurrent packed column adsorber.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Representative annual fan operating cost.
Figure 10.2 Effect of temperature on gas adsorption.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Schematic of a catalytic incinerator.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Contact condensers: spray (left) and jet (right).
Figure 12.2 Generic diagram of a shell‐and‐tube heat exchanger.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Horizontal flow settling chamber.
Figure 13.2 Howard settling chamber (multiple tray).
Figure 13.3 Cyclone dust collector diagram.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Filtration collection mechanisms. (a) diffusion, (b) interceptio...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Generation of corona.
Figure 15.2 Avalanche multiplication.
Figure 15.3 Electrostatic precipitator diagram.
Figure 15.4 Voltage–current (V–I) characteristics: 9 in. gas passage on fly ...
Figure 15.5 Effect of resistivity of attainable operating voltage and curren...
Figure 15.6 Fly ash voltage–current characteristics for various conditions....
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Reverse air cleaning (a) filtering; (b) collapsing; (c) cleaning...
Figure 16.2 Fabric‐flexing cleaning methods. (a) Sonic cleaning; (b) oscilla...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Relationship of adiabatic flame temperature (AFT) to thermal oxi...
Figure 18.2 Variation of flame temperature with equivalence ratio.
Figure 18.3 STEP Combustion axial flow, staged‐fuel, low NO
x
burner (LNB)....
Figure 18.4 Percent flue gas recirculation (FGR) versus NO
x
reduction for ...
Figure 18.5 Diagram of forced FGR system.
Figure 18.6 Diagram of induced FGR system
Figure 18.7 Combustion air temperature on thermal NO
x
.
Figure 18.8 Selective non‐catalytic reduction (SNCR) NO
x
reduction as a fu...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Flow diagram for a limestone scrubbing system.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Schematic flowsheet illustrating the individual elements of an ...
Figure 21.2 An enclosed two‐level biofilter with a supplemental water spray...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Determination of SO
3
concentration in flue gas.
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Traverse point locations for velocity measurement or for multic...
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 Faulty operation?
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Authors
Foreword
Preface
Comments from Afar
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Optimizing Air Pollution Control Equipment Performance
Operation & Maintenance
Jay Richardson
Senior Combustion Engineer, Glastonbury, CT, USA
Louis Theodore
Consultant, Theodore Tutorials, East Williston, NY, USA
Copyright © 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial technologies or similar technologies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Richardson, Jay (Engineer), author. | Theodore, Louis, author.Title: Optimizing air pollution equipment performance : operation & maintenance / Jay Richardson, Louis Theodore.Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2025] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2024035044 (print) | LCCN 2024035045 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394288656 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394288670 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394288663 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Air–Purification–Equipment and supplies.Classification: LCC TD889 .O68 2025 (print) | LCC TD889 (ebook) | DDC 628.5/3–dc23/eng/20240822LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024035044LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024035045
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of Jay Richardson
Dedication
Amelia RichardsonA loving wife who gave me the support to make this happen (JR)
Dr. John D. McKennaThe dearest of friends; a legend; and one of the premier authorities in our profession (LT)
About the Authors
Jay Richardson received his bachelor of science degree from the University of Connecticut in Chemical Engineering with a minor in chemistry. He has over 10 years' experience in the engineering, design, construction, commissioning, and testing of combustion equipment for industrial and utility boilers, process heaters, flares, thermal oxidizers, and catalyst activators. He has designed low and ultralow NOx burners, over‐fired air, flue gas recirculation, SCR/SNCR, and ignition systems. He has authored scientific journal articles on organic chemistry synthesis, magazine articles on physical combustion airflow modeling, and presented papers at international utility conferences on topics such as fuel conversions, NOx reduction, biomass fuels, and hydrogen combustion. He has led the R&D testing of new ultralow NOx burners and holds a patent (2022/0381433) on an AI supported ultralow NOx burner system.
In addition to industrial combustion, Mr. Richardson contributed with the wildlife photographs in his son Joseph's non‐fiction book about peregrine falcons (The Peregrine Falcon: A Wonderful Species, 2023).
Dr. Louis Theodore, son of poor, Greek immigrant parents, was born and raised in Hell's Kitchen. A graduate of Stuyvesant High School, he received degrees of MChE and EngScD from New York University and a BChE from The Cooper Union. For over 50 years, Dr. Theodore was a chemical engineering professor, as well as a graduate program director, researcher, professional innovator, and communicator in the engineering field. He has authored nearly 150 texts and reference books, nearly 200 technical papers, is an internationally recognized lecturer, and presented nearly 200 courses and seminars to industry, government, and academia. He also served as a consultant to the US EPA, DOE and DOJ, and Theodore Tutorials. Dr. Theodore is a member of Phi Lambda Upsilon, Sigma Xi, Tau Beta Pi, American Chemical Society, American Society of Engineering Education, Royal Hellenic Society, and a fellow of the Internation Air & Waste Management Association (AWMA). He is also the recipient of the AWMA's prestigious Ripperton award that is “presented to an outstanding educator who through example, dedication, and innovation has so inspired students to achieve excellence in their professional endeavors.” He was also the recipient of the American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE) AT&T Foundation award for “excellence in the instruction of engineering students.”
Dr. Theodore is a member of IAABO (International Association of Approved Basketball Officials) and certified to referee scholastic basketball games. He was honored in 2008 at Madison Square Garden for his contributions to basketball and the youth of America. He previously served on a Presidential Crime Commission under Gerald Ford and provided testimony as a representative of the parimutuel wagerer (horseplayer).
In addition to playing horses and gambling at casinos, Dr. Theodore's current technical interests include air pollution control, environmental management, risk management, virology, Monte Carlo applications, and developing potable water processes.
Foreword
Two fundamental reasons for the cleaning of gases in industry, particularly waste gases, are profit and protection. For example, profits may result from the utilization of blast furnace gases for heating and power generation, but impurities may have to be removed from the gases before they can be burned satisfactorily. Some impurities can be economically converted into sulfur, or solvent recovery systems can be installed to recover valuable hydrocarbon emissions. Protection of the health and welfare of the public in general, of the individual working in industry, and of property is another reason for cleaning gases.
The enactment of air pollution control regulations reflects the concern of the government for the protection of its people. For example, waste gases containing toxic constituents such as arsenic or lead fumes constitute a serious danger to the health of both plant operators and the surrounding population. Other waste gases, although not normally endangering health in the concentrations encountered, may kill plants, damage paintwork and buildings, or discolor wallpaper and curtains, thus making an industrial location a less pleasant area in which to live.
The extent to which industry cleans polluted gas streams depends largely on the limits imposed by four main considerations:
Concentration levels harmful to humans, physical structures, and plant and animal life
Legal limitations imposed by country, state, county, or city for the protection of the public health and welfare
Reduction of air pollution to establish civic good will
The reduction and/or elimination of potential liability concerns
These considerations are not necessarily independent. For example, the legal limits on emissions are also closely related to the degree of cost needed to prevent concentrations that can damage the ecosystem.
Once the optimum or near optimum level of an air pollution control device is achieved, it must be maintained day in and day out. However, such achievements rarely happen on their own in actual practice. High levels of control efficiency and performance result from the application of not only sound engineering practices but also operation/maintenance procedures, both of which are provided in this book. Control technology is self‐defeating or if there are operation and/or maintenance problems, it creates undesirable side effects in meeting (limited) air pollution control objectives. Air pollution control should also be considered in terms of both the total technological system and ecological consequences. The former considers the technology that can be brought to bear on not only individual pieces of equipment but also the entire technological system. Consideration of ecological side effects must also take into account, e.g., the problem of disposal of possibly unmanageable accumulations of contaminants by other means. These may be concentrated in the collection process, such as groundwater pollution resulting from landfill practices or pollution of streams from the discharges of air pollution control systems.
Dr. John McKenna (1940–2022)
Preface
The atmosphere of the earth has undergone significant changes in the last 2 billion years. The original living cells could not have occurred or existed in an atmosphere containing free oxygen. Fossil records indicate that the carbon dioxide content has varied tremendously during this time. The life forms which are present today are the ones which have adapted to the current environment; the life forms which are now extinct are those that failed to adapt. The change in the environment is not the problem today; it is the abruptness of the change which causes the difficulties. Man‐made air pollution is currently causing problems because it is producing rapid changes in the environment of the earth. Humans did not significantly affect the environment until relatively recent times. This is due to two reasons. First, the human population has been large for only a small part of Earth's history. Second, the bulk of man‐made air pollution is intimately related to industrialization. In fact, humans did not begin to alter the environment until they began to live in communities. Fast forward to recent times.
In the last five decades, the technical community has expanded its responsibilities to society to include the environment, with particular emphasis on air pollution from industrial sources. Increasing numbers of engineers, technicians, and maintenance personnel are being confronted with problems in this most important area. The environmental engineer and scientist of today/tomorrow must develop proficiency and an improved understanding of air pollution control equipment in order to cope with these challenges.
This book serves two purposes. It may be used as a textbook for engineering students in an air pollution course. It may also be used as a reference book for practicing engineers, scientists, and technicians involved with air pollution control equipment. For this audience, it is assumed that the reader has already taken basic courses in physics, chemistry, and should have a minimum background in mathematics through calculus. The authors’ aim is to offer the reader information on air pollution control equipment with appropriate practical applications and to provide an introduction to operation, maintenance, and inspection considerations. The reader is encouraged through references to continue his or her own development beyond the scope of the presented material.
The book is divided into three major parts: Prologue (Chapters 1–8), Air Pollution Control Equipment (Chapters 9–23), and Epilogue (Chapters 24–29). Following the introductory chapters, each chapter in Part II contains a short introduction to the control device, which is followed by operation, maintenance, inspection, and optimization details. Part III addresses engineering concerns. The Appendix contains writeups on the SI system and conversion constants.
Although design and selection information are presented, it is the primary intention of this book to discuss operation and maintenance topics and explore many of the repetitive problems that have plagued users of air pollution control equipment. The existence of these problems may be related to the complexity of the process or to a lack of well‐defined operation techniques, among other reasons. In any event, this book also intends to emphasize where and how these factors can have a major impact on the maintenance problems of control devices.
Operation and maintenance problems have plagued users for nearly 100 years. The number and complexity of these problems have increased at a nearly exponential rate since the early 1970s. The 1950s and 1960s produced installations designed for the low to medium collection efficiency range. During the 1970s, designs of high efficiency were provided that often contained more component parts in more complex arrangements. The 1990s and 2010s, similarly, experienced advancements in pollution control equipment complexity and advancement. The time normally required for the training of field technicians and engineers on the problems (and solutions) with these newer installations for both gas and particulate control was not available at that time. Plants all over the world are struggling to find qualified maintenance and operations staff and turnover is currently at an all‐time high. Although there has been a concentrated effort in recent years to better understand air pollution control equipment, the result – unfortunately – is akin to placing the cart before the horse.
The air pollution control device can represent a major portion of the investment in an industrial plant. Control equipment life and performance are essential to the economic operation of the plant; the need for a sound, well‐planned operation, and maintenance program is therefore obvious. The success or failure of a particular installation will often rest on the implementation of this program, or its equivalent. Normal control equipment operation should include proper procedures for startup and shutdown, as well as guidelines for troubleshooting and improving operation. Once onstream, equipment failures need to be analyzed to examine major causes. Obtaining backup information for preventive maintenance programs and spare‐parts requirements is also necessary. Although specific maintenance program requirements may vary from equipment to equipment, process to process, plant to plant, and from industry to industry, some basic steps and procedures are common to all. These include safety, inspection programs, and definition of inspection and maintenance responsibilities.
Knowledge of the information developed and presented in the various chapters is essential not only to the design and selection of industrial control equipment for atmospheric pollutants but more so to their proper operation and maintenance. It will enable the reader to obtain a better understanding of both the equipment itself and those factors affecting equipment performance.
Hopefully, the text is simple, clear, to the point, and imparts a basic understanding of the theory and mechanics of the calculations and applications in the air pollution control equipment field. It is also hoped that a meticulously accurate, articulate, and practical writing style has helped master the difficult task of explaining what was once a very complicated subject matter in a way that was easily understood. The authors feel that this delineates this text from others in the field.
As is usually the case in preparing a textbook, the problem of what to include and what to omit was particularly difficult. However, every attempt has been made to offer engineering course material to the reader at a level that they might better cope with some of the complex problems encountered in environmental service today.
Please note that reasonable care has been taken to assure the accuracy of the information contained in this book. However, the authors and the publisher cannot be responsible for erroneous omissions in the information presented or for any consequences arising from the use of the information published in the book. Accordingly, reference to original sources is encouraged. Reporting any errors or omissions is solicited in order to assure that appropriate changes may be made in future additions.
The authors are indebted to Dr. Ryan Dupont, Paul Farber, Dr. Walter Matystik, Emma Parente, Tony Buonicore, Mary K. Theodore, and Ronnie Zaglin for their technical support that provided invaluable assistance in the preparation of this edition. We are particularly grateful for the contributing authors Paul Farber, Sean Dooley, Vincenza Imperiale, Emma Parente, and Sarah Forster. Finally, the authors' sincere gratitude is due to all those who patiently assisted with the typing and proofreading of this manuscript.
Comments from Afar
As one of the original authors of an earlier book on this topic of air pollution control equipment, I feel a need to provide the reader with some general and background information regarding this book.
Tony Buonicore and I wrote an earlier version of this book. It was titled “Air Pollution Equipment, Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Design” (ISBN # 0‐13‐021154‐0) and was published by Prentice‐Hall (Upper Saddle River, NJ) in 1981. PH printed 1,250 copies. By 1985, it had sold less than 500 copies. Apparently, nobody was interested in an Operation and Maintenance (O&M) book and PH felt that they couldn't give it away. A decision was made to discontinue selling the book and PH graciously turned the copyright over to me while also selling the remaining stock to me at $2.50 per book. I in turn, gave Tony 100 copies who was then engaged with his first company, Buonicore, Cashman, & Associates. BCA was an air pollution control equipment consulting company that was soon sold and Tony became involved with his second company, Environmental Data Resources.
The earlier book shocked us by exhibiting a resiliency that is difficult to comprehend. I was soon selling over 100 copies per year at $80 per book. My former student, Dr. McKenna, later labeled it a “word of mouth” book that became not only the bible for those involved with the operation and maintenance of air pollution control equipment but also an excellent resource for those involved with air pollution.
I later gave Dr. John McKenna the right to also publish the book under his company's name (ISBN #882677‐00‐4) and added the book to his training institutes library. I continue to sell this early edition even to this day. Unbeknownst to me, John also granted Springer‐Verlag permission to sell the exact same book (ISBN # 878342851469). So, three different entities have been selling the same earlier book since the turn of the century.
Over 40 years have elapsed since the publication of the earlier book. Despite its continued success, I came to the conclusion that the book was in need of update and rewrite. With Tony gone, I needed help from an air pollution control equipment authority currently working in the field. Enter Jay Richardson. I was fortunate to meet and make his acquaintance at an AWMA (Air & Waste Management Association) annual meeting. My problems were solved as Jay proved to be a godsend when he agreed to co‐author this book.
And what about Tony you ask? Tony and I continue to maintain close contact. Dinner – on Tony of course – at an Italian restaurant has become the order of the day at least twice a year. He has moved on to bigger and better and more financially rewarding activities in the energy field. He is one of my favorite students and unquestionably the best engineer and I graduated during a 50‐year tenure as a professor of chemical engineering.
Finally, this earlier work remains one of my favorite books, and is second only is the three editions of “Introduction to Environmental Management”; the three books (1990, 2010, 2022) were co‐authored by my favorite squeeze, Mary K. Theodore, and yours truly. I hope this revised work of the air pollution control equipment book becomes one of your favorites as well.
Louis Theodore
East Williston, NY
May, 2024
Part IPrologue
Webster defines prologue as “the preface or introduction to a discourse… an introduction or prefatory act, event, etc.” This part of the book provides a general introduction to our pollution equipment subject matter.
1Definitions/Glossary of Terms
As noted in the Preface, this book is concerned with air pollution control equipment and as such, this chapter primarily addresses air pollution control equipment‐related terms. It has been written not only for academic use in colleges, and universities but also for both engineers and scientists who work in the air pollution control equipment field. This glossary may be used whenever and wherever information is needed about words and/or terms in air pollution.
Some additional points deserve mentioning:
Each definition avoids technical jargon.
No mathematical equations – in any form – are employed in the definition. In some instances, where necessary, common scientific and engineering units have been included.
Only keywords or terms used in practice are provided, as is the case in preparing a text, particularly a dictionary, the problems of what to include and what to omit have been particularly difficult.
Only one spelling is used for words with multiple accepted spellings, e.g., modeling versus modeling.
Some important acronyms are also included with a one‐sentence definition.
As with nearly every glossary, the terms have been alphabetized.
This chapter defines many – but not all – of the terms that the reader will encounter in this book. The following list is therefore not a complete glossary of all terms that appear in this field. It should also be noted that many of the terms have come to mean slightly different things to different people; this will become evident as one delves deeper into the literature.1–3
1.1 Glossary of Terms
Absolute humidity
.
The amount of water vapor present in a unit mass of air, which is usually expressed in kg water vapor/kg dry air or lb water vapor/lb dry air.
Absolute pressure
.
The actual pressure exerted on a surface that is measured relative to zero pressure; it equals the gauge pressure plus the atmospheric pressure.
Absolute temperature
.
The temperature expressed in degrees of Kelvin or Rankine.
Absorbate
.
A substance that is taken up and retained by an absorbent.
Absorbent
.
Any substance that takes in or absorbs other substances.
Absorber
.
A device in which a gas is absorbed by contact with a liquid.
Absorption
.
The process in which one material (the absorbent) takes up and retains another (the absorbate) to form a homogeneous solution; it often involves the use of a liquid to remove certain gas components from a gaseous mixture.
Actual cubic feet per minute (acfm)
.
A unit of flow rate measured under actual pressure and temperature conditions.
Acute (risk)
.
Risks associated with short periods of time. For health risk, it usually represents short exposures to high concentrations of an agent.
Adiabatic
.
A term used to describe a system in which no gain or loss of heat is allowed to occur.
Adiabatic flame temperature
.
The maximum temperature that a combustion system can reach.
Adiabatic lapse rate
.
The rate at which the temperature of a moving air parcel decreases in the atmosphere as height above the surface increases when no heat is added or subtracted from the moving air parcel; the adiabatic lapse rate is 10 °C/km.
Adsorbent
.
A substance (e.g., activated carbon, activated alumina, silica gel) that has the ability to condense or hold molecules of other substances on its surface.
Adsorber
.
An apparatus in which molecules of gas or liquid are retained on the surface of an adsorbent.
Adsorption
.
The physical or chemical bonding of molecules of gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to the external or internal (if porous) surface of a solid (adsorbent); it is an advanced method of treating waste that is employed to remove odor, color, or organic matter from a system.
Afterburner
.
A secondary burner is located so that combustion gases from the primary incinerator are further burned to remove smoke, odors, and other pollutants.
Agent
.
A biological, physical, or chemical entity capable of causing disease or adverse health effects.
Alpha (α
)
particle
.
A positively charged helium nucleus (i.e., two protons and two neutrons) that is emitted spontaneously from the decay of radioactive elements.
Amines
.
Organic compound related to ammonia.
Ammonia
.
An alkaline gas composed of hydrogen and nitrogen; it has a strong odor when present in high concentrations.
Asphyxiant
.
A vapor or gas that has little or no positive toxic effect but that can bring about unconsciousness and death by replacing air and thus depriving an organism of oxygen.
Aspirator
.
A hydraulic device that creates a negative pressure by forcing liquid through a restriction, thus increasing the velocity head.
Atmosphere
.
The general volume of air above the earth; it is the lower portion of the atmosphere in which pollution must be controlled.
Atmospheric dispersion
.
The mixing of a gas or vapor (usually from a discharge point) with air in the lower atmosphere. The mixing is the result of convective motion and turbulent eddies.
Atmospheric stability
.
A measure of the degree of atmospheric turbulence, often defined in terms of the vertical temperature gradient in the lower atmosphere.
Atomic fission
.
The breaking down of a large atom into smaller atoms or elements, involving the liberation of heat, gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta particles.
Audit
.
The examination of something with the intent to check, verify, or inspect a particular subject matter.
Auto‐ignition temperature
.
The lowest temperature at which a flammable gas in the air will ignite without an ignition source.
Auto‐ignition
.
The starting of a fire without the addition of an external source such as a flame, spark, or heat.
Average rate of death (ROD)
.
The average number of fatalities that can be expected per unit time (usually on an annual basis) from all possible risks and/or incidents.
Baffle
.
A flow‐regulating device usually consisting of a plate placed horizontally across a pipe or channel to restrict or divert the passage of a fluid, usually used for the purpose of providing a uniformly dispersed flow.
Ball joint
.
A flexible pipe joint formed in the shape of a ball or a sphere.
Ball valve
.
A nonreturn valve consisting of a ball resting on a cylindrical seat within a fluid passageway or pipe.
Barometric pressure
.
The pressure of the ambient air in the atmosphere at a particular point on or above the surface of the earth.
Basic event
.
A fault tree event (FTE) that is sufficiently basic that no further explanation or development of additional events is necessary.
Batch process
.
A process that is not continuous; its operations are carried out with discrete quantities of material added and removed from it at appropriate time intervals.
Benzene
.
Aromatic hydrocarbon formerly used in paints and varnishes, but now considered toxic for this purpose.
Beta (β) particle
.
A charged particle emitted from a radioactive atomic nucleus; it has moderate penetrative power and is able to damage living tissue.
Bias
.
The systematic distortion of data; it is the tendency of a sample to be unrepresentative of all the cases involved in a study.
Bleeding
.
The gradual release of material and/or reduction of pressure from a system or process (e.g., by a valve or leak).
Blowdown
.
The cyclic or constant removal of a portion of any process flow to maintain the constituents of the flow at a desired level.
Blower
.
A fan employed to force or move air or gas under pressure.
Brownian movement
.
The constant, random movement of small, suspended particles due to collisions with other molecules.
Buffer
.
A solution containing both a weak acid and its conjugate weak base, which is employed to stabilize the pH value in a solution, and anything that acts to diminish and/or regulate changes in a system or process.
Bulk sample
.
A small portion of material that is collected and sent to a laboratory for analysis.
Bulk density
.
The mass per unit volume of a solid in a mixture such as a packed bed or soil mass; unlike the real solid particle density, the pore space is included in the volume for this calculation.
Burning
.
The chemical combination of oxygen and a fuel such as carbon, hydrogen, hydrocarbon, or other substances that combine with oxygen.
Butterfly damper
.
A plate or blade installed in a duct, flue, breeching, or stack that rotates on an axis to regulate the flow of gases.
Butterfly valve
.
A flow control valve containing a disk supported by a shaft on which it rotates.
Bypass
.
The avoiding of a particular portion of a process or pollution control system.
Bypass valve
.
A valve arranged to cause the fluid, which it controls to flow past some part of its normal path (e.g., to allow a liquid to avoid a filter through which it usually passes).
By‐product
.
A material that is not one of the primary products of a production process and is not solely or separately produced by the production process.
C (ceiling)
.
The term used to describe the maximum allowable exposure concentration of a hazardous agent related to industrial exposures to hazardous vapors.
CFM
.
Cubic feet per minute.
Calibration
.
The determination, checking, or adjustment of the accuracy of any instrument that gives quantitative measurements.
Cancer
.
A tumor formed by mutated cells.
Carbon dioxide
.
A compound formed by the complete combustion of carbon and oxygen, poisonous only at very high concentrations.
Carbonization
.
A pyrolysis or thermal breakdown of an organic compound or organic substance (called carbonaceous material because it contains carbon) to give a charcoal or other form of carbon.
Carcinogen
.
A cancer‐causing chemical.
Carrier gas
.
A gas that acts as the mobile phase in gas chromatography.
Carryover
.
The entrainment of liquid or solid particles in the vapor evolved by a boiling liquid or from a process unit.
Catalysis
.
The process of catalyzing or promoting an action by a chemical agent that is not consumed in the reaction.
Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) numbers
.
CAS numbers are used to identify chemicals and mixtures of chemicals.
Catalyst
.
A substance whose presence changes (normally increasing) the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing permanent change in its composition.
Catalytic combustion
.
The oxidation of organic compounds catalytically to cause the burning at a lower temperature than would otherwise be possible.
Catalytic cracking
.
The breaking of a carbon–carbon bond with the acid of a catalyst; it is an essential process in the refining of petroleum.
Catastrophe
.
A major loss in terms of death, injuries, and/or property damage.
Cause‐consequence
.
A method for determining the possible consequences or outcomes arising from a logical combination of input events or conditions that determine a cause.
Cavitation
.
The formation of vapor bubbles in a liquid when subjected to localized low‐pressure regions causing severe mechanical damage to the surface of metals exposed to it.
Centrifugal pump
.
A device that increases the pressure of a liquid by using centrifugal force.
Chronic (risk)
.
Risks associated with long‐term chemical exposure duration usually, at low concentrations.
Check valve
.
A one‐way valve that prevents flow through a pipe in an undesired direction; it opens in the direction of the normal flow and closes with a reversal of flow.
Chemical agent
.
An element, compound, or mixture that coagulates, dissolves, neutralizes, solubilizes, oxidizes, concentrates, makes a pollutant mass more rigid, or otherwise facilitates the lessening of harmful effects or the removal of a pollutant from a fluid.
Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis (CPQRA)
.
The process of hazard identification, followed by numerical evaluation of incident consequences and frequencies, and their combination into an overall measure of risk when applied to the chemical process industry. Ordinarily applied to episodic events. Related to Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) used in the nuclear industry.
Chemical equation
.
A representation of a chemical reaction using symbols to show the molar relationship between the reacting substances and the products.
Chlorine
.
A chemical element generally in the form of a gas or dissolved in water used to sterilize it.
Chromatograph
.
A method of analysis of separation based on adsorbing the gases, vapors, or substances of a mixture.
Clean Air Act
.
A federal act empowering government agencies to control the cleanliness of the air by eliminating pollution.
Clean room
.
Refers to a room in which the air is highly purified, particularly with regard to dust and other particulate matter. Clean room techniques are used in the processing of delicate materials and products.
Closed‐loop recycling
.
The reclaiming or reusing of wastewater for non‐potable purposes in an enclosed process; it may also be applied to other streams including gaseous ones.
Closed‐loop
.
A term used to describe an enclosed, recirculating process.
Cocurrent
.
A term used to describe a flow in which materials travel in the same direction.
Combustion
.
A reaction at a high temperature with oxygen that produces carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of light and heat; it is a basic cause of air pollution.
Combustion products
.
Chemical compounds in the form of gases, vapors, and particulates produced by the combustion action or a burning process, typical combustion gases contain products such as nitrogen, oxygen (less than in normal air), water vapor, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, unburned fuel, carbon particles.
Concurrent
.
A term used to describe a situation in which two or more controls or systems exist in an operated condition at the same time.
Condensate
.
Any liquid resulting from the cooling of a gas or vapor.
Conditional probability
.
The probability of occurrence of an event given that a precursor event has occurred.
Confidence interval
.
A range of values of a variable with a specific probability that the true value of the variable lies within this range. The conventional confidence interval probability is the 95% confidence interval, defining the range of a variable in which its true value falls with 95% confidence.
Confidence limits
.
The upper and lower range of values of a variable defining its specific confidence interval.
Consequences
.
A measure of the expected effects of an incident outcome or cause.
Containment
.
Something that is not desired and should be removed.
Continuous release
.
Emissions that are of a continuous duration.
Control agency
.
A governmental agency (city, country, state, or national) that deals with pollution and its control.
Control method
.
Method of controlling or eliminating air or water pollutants, it may be a change in the process that produced the pollutant, but generally refers to a device specifically designed to eliminate the substance from the exhaust.
Convection
.
The transfer of heat through a fluid by the movement of the fluid; and the vertical movement of air leading to cooling.
Cooling tower
.
A hollow, vertical structure with internal baffles to disperse water so it is cooled by flowing air and by evaporation at ambient temperature.
Corona
.
An electrical discharge effect that causes ionization of oxygen and the formation of ozone; it is found in electrostatic precipitators.
Corrosion
.
The deterioration or destruction of a material by chemical action.
Countercurrent
.
A term used to describe the flow pattern within equipment in which two streams travel in opposite directions.
CPQRA
.
The acronym for chemical process quantitative risk analysis; it is analogous to a hazard risk assessment (HZRA).
Cracking
.
A refining process involving decomposition and molecular recombination of organic compounds to form molecules of smaller sizes that are suitable for fuels.
Cradle space
.
An area beneath the floor of a house or a building that allows access to utilities and other services.
Critical temperature
.
The temperature above which a gas or vapor cannot be liquefied by an increase in pressure alone.
Cryogenics
.
The production and utilization of extremely low temperatures.
Crystallization
.
The change of state of a substance from a liquid to a solid by the phenomenon of crystal formation by nucleation and accretion (e.g., the freezing of water onto ice).
Cutback
.
A coating substance or varnish that has been diluted or thinned.
Damper
.
A manually or automatically controlled valve or plate in a breeching, duct, or stack that is employed to regulate a draft or the rate of flow of air or other gases.
Dead time
.
The time interval, after a response to one signal or event, during which a system is unable to respond to another signal or event.
Dehumidifier
.
A device incorporated into many air conditioning systems to dry incoming air by passing it across a bed of a hygroscopic substance or through a spray of very cold water.
Delphi method
.
A polling of experts that involves the following: (i) select a group of experts (usually three or more); (ii) solicit, in isolation, their independent estimates of the value of a particular parameter and their reason for choice; (iii) provide initial analysis results to all experts and allow them to then revise their initial values; and (iv) use the average of the final estimates as the best estimate of the parameter and use the standard deviation of the estimates as a measure of uncertainty. The procedure is iterative with feedback between iterations.
Demister
.
A device composed of plastic threads, wire mesh, or glass fibers employed to remove liquid droplets entrained in a gas stream.
Dermal
.
Applied to the skin.
Desorption
.
A process of removing an absorbed material from a solid on which it is adsorbed by increasing the temperature or reducing the pressure, or both.
Detention time (detention period)
.
The average time that a unit volume of a fluid is retained in a unit during a flow process.
Detoxification
.
The destruction of the toxic quality of a substance.
Dew point
.
The temperature at which the first droplet of water forms on the progressive cooling of a mixture of air and water vapor; at the dew point, the air becomes saturated with water.
Diffusion
.
The movement of individual molecules through narrow spaces.
Dike
.
An embankment that restricts the movement and provides the containment of a liquid.
Dilution ventilation
.
The mixing of contaminated air with uncontaminated air for the purpose of controlling potential airborne health hazards, fire and explosion conditions, odors, and nuisance‐type contaminants.
Dispersion coefficient
.
The standard deviation,
σ
, in a specified direction used in a Gaussian plume atmospheric dispersion model.
Distillation
.
A process of separating the constitutes of a liquid mixture by means of partial vaporization of the mixture and separate recovery of vapor and residue.
Domino effect
.
The triggering of secondary events; usually considered when a significant escalation of the original incident could result.
Dose
.
A weight (or volume) of a chemical agent; usually normalized to a unit of body weight.
Downcomer
.
A pipe or flue that conveys gases, vapors, or condensate downward in blast furnaces, distillation towers, and refineries.
Downdraft
.
A current of air in a stack with a bulk downward motion.
Downstream
.
The direction in which a fluid stream is flowing.
Downtime
.
The lost production time during which a piece of equipment is not operating correctly due to a breakdown, maintenance, or power failure.
Dry bulb
.
A thermometer bulb maintained dry; it is used with a wet bulb to measure humidity.
Dry‐bulb temperature
.
The temperature of air; usually used in conjunction with the wet‐bulb temperature to measure humidity.
Duct
.
A round or rectangular conduit, usually metal or fiberglass, employed to transport fluids.
Economizer
.
A device that uses the heat of combustion gas to raise the temperature of boiler feedwater prior to entry into the boiler.
Efficiency
.
The degree of performance of a device or process; generally refers to the degree of purification or removal of contaminants when referring to pollution and its control.
Effluent
.
A fluid, either gas or liquid, leaving equipment, process, building, or factory.
Ejector
.
A device for moving a fluid or solid by entraining it in a high‐velocity stream of air or water jet.
Elbow
.
A pipe fitting that connects two pipes at a 90° angle.
Electrostatic field
.
A region in which a stationary electrically charged particle is subjected to a force of attraction or repulsion as a result of another stationary electric charge.
Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
.
A device that separates particles from a gas stream by passing the carrier gas between two electrodes across which a high voltage is applied.
Elutriator
.
An air‐sampling device, widely used in cotton‐dust area air sampling, that uses gravitational forces to remove dust that is unfit for breathing from the air sample, and then collects the dust on a filter for further analysis.
Endothermic
.
A term used to describe a process or change that occurs with the input of heat.
Entrainment
.
The carryover of drops of liquid during a process such as distillation, absorption, scrubbing, or evaporation.
Environmental audit
.
An independent assessment of the current status of a company's compliance with applicable environmental requirements.
Episode
.
An air pollution incident in a given area caused by an increase in atmospheric pollutant concentration in response to meteorological conditions (inversion) that may result in a significant increase in illness or in death.
Episodic release
.
A massive release of limited or short duration, usually associated with an accident.
Event
.
An occurrence associated with an incident either as the cause or a contributing cause of the incident, or as a response to an initiating event.
Event sequence
.
A specific sequence of events composed of initiating events and intermediate events that may lead to a hazard or an incident.
Event tree analysis (ETA)
.
A graphical logic model that identifies and attempts to quantify possible outcomes following an initiating and subsequent events.
Excursion
.
An unintentional occurrence, such as a discharge of pollutants above the permitted amount, due to reasons beyond human control.
Exhaust
.
A duct for the escape of gases, fumes, and odors from an enclosure.
Exfiltration
.
The opposite of infiltration. The exhaust of gases from a building or structure due to wind velocity and thermal effects through defect in the structure, and to normal leakage around openings.
Exothermic
.
A term used to describe a process or change that occurs with the production of heat.
Expansion joint
.
A joint installed in a structure to provide for changes (often in length) due to expansion or contraction resulting from changes in temperature, without distortion of the structure.
Exposure period
.
The duration of an exposure.
External event
.
A natural or man‐made event; often an accident that may serve as an initiating event in a sequence of subsequent events in a process leading to a release of hazardous materials.
Extraction
.
The process of dissolving and separating out particular constituents of a solid or liquid using an immiscible solvent.
Extrapolation
.
An estimation of unknown values by extending or projecting from known values.
Failure frequency
.
The frequency (relative to time) of failure.
Failure mode
.
A symptom, condition, or manner in which a failure occurs.
Failure probability
.
The probability that failure will occur, usually in a given time interval.
Failure rate
.
The number of failures divided by the total elapsed time during which these failures occur.
Fallout
.
The radioactive debris or material that settles to the earth after a nuclear explosion.
Fatal accident rate (FAR)
.
The estimated number of fatalities per 10
8
exposure hours (roughly 1,000 employee working lifetimes).
Fatigue
.
The incremental weakening of a material as a result of repeated cycles of stresses that are far lower than its breaking load; the end result is failure.
Fault
.
A fracture in the earth along which there has been displacement parallel to the fault plane; an error or failure in a process that can lead to a hazardous event.
Fault tree
.
A method for representing the logical combinations of adverse hazard events that lead to a particular outcome (top event).
Fault tree analysis (FTA)
.
A logic model that identifies and attempts to quantify possible causes of a hazard event.
Federal Register
.
A daily publication of laws and regulations promulgated by the US Federal Government.
Feedforward control system
.
A system in which changes are detected at the process input and a corrective signal is applied before process output is affected.
Fire point
.
The lowest temperature at which a liquid evolves vapor fast enough to support continuous combustion; it is usually close to the flash point.
Fission
.
The splitting of atomic nuclei into smaller nuclei, accompanied by the release of significant quantities of energy; it is induced by bombardment with neutrons from an external source and continued by the neutrons that are released.
Fixed‐bed operation
.
An operation in which the additive material (e.g., catalyst, absorbent, filter media) remains stationary in the chemical reactor.
Fixed carbon
.
The ash‐free, carbonaceous material that remains after volatile matter is driven off a dry solid sample.
Flammability
.
The ease with which a material (gas, liquid, or solid) will ignite spontaneously (auto‐ignition) from exposure to a high‐temperature environment, or from a spark or open flame.
Flange
.
A projecting rim, edge, lip, or rib used to connect piping or conduit.
Flap valve
.
A valve that is hinged at one edge and that opens and shuts by rotating about the hinge.
Flare
.
A tall stack that is employed to burn small, discrete quantities of undesirable gases.
Flash distillation
.
A separation process in which an appreciable portion of a liquid is quickly converted to vapor by changing the temperature and/or pressure; this method is widely employed for the desalination of seawater.
Flash point
.
The minimum temperature at which a liquid or solid gives off enough vapor to form a flammable mixture with the air near the surface of the liquid or solid.
Flotation
.
A treatment process using air, injected into a waste stream, that adheres to the solids and causes them to rise, allowing for their removal at a tank surface; it takes advantage of the differences in specific gravities of the air‐associated solids and waste liquid.
Flow diagram
.
A chart or line drawing employed by engineers to indicate successive steps in the production of a chemical or treatment of a waste stream; it includes materials input and output, by‐products, wastes, and other relevant data.
Flue gas
.
So called because it is discharged through a flue.
Fluidization
.
A technique in which a finely divided solid is caused to behave like a fluid by suspending it in a moving gas or liquid.
Fluoride
.
A compound of fluorine with another chemical element.
Fluorine
.
A chemical element with the symbol F; this is very reactive.
Fog
.
Impedes visibility but has no harmful effects with regard to pollution.
Forced draft
.
The positive pressure created by the action of a fan or blower.
