Options on Foreign Exchange E-Book

David F. DeRosa

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Wiley Finance Editions
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 320

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

A comprehensive guide to the world's largest financial market Foreign exchange is the world's largest financial market and continues to grow at a rapid pace. As economies intertwine and currencies fluctuate there is hardly a corporate entity that doesn't need to use options on foreign exchange to hedge risk or increase returns. Moreover, currency options, both vanilla and exotic, are part of standard toolkit of professional portfolio managers and hedge funds. Written by a practitioner with real-world experience in this field, the Third Edition of Options on Foreign Exchange opens with a substantive discussion of the spot and forward foreign exchange market and the mechanics of trading currency options. The Black-Scholes-Merton option-pricing model as applied to currency options is also covered, along with an examination of currency futures options. Throughout the book, author David DeRosa addresses the essential elements of this discipline and prepares you for the various challenges you could face. * Updates new developments in the foreign exchange markets, particularly regarding the volatility surface * Includes expanded coverage of the currency crises and capital controls, electronic trading, forward contracts, exotic options, and more * Employs real-world terminology so you can a firm understanding of this dynamic marketplace The only way to truly succeed in today's foreign exchange market is by becoming more familiar with currency options. The Third Edition of Options on Foreign Exchange will help you achieve this goal and put you in better position to make more profitable decisions in this arena.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Series

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

WHAT'S NEW TO THIS EDITION

BEFORE YOU BEGIN

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Foreign Exchange Basics

THE FOREIGN EXCHANGE MARKET

THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM

SPOT FOREIGN EXCHANGE AND MARKET CONVENTIONS

FOREIGN EXCHANGE DEALING

INTEREST PARITY AND FORWARD FOREIGN EXCHANGE

DEPARTURES FROM COVERED INTEREST PARITY IN 2007–2008

Chapter 2: Trading Currency Options

THE INTERBANK CURRENCY OPTION MARKET

OPTION BASICS

LISTED OPTIONS ON ACTUAL FOREIGN CURRENCY

CURRENCY FUTURES CONTRACTS

LISTED CURRENCY FUTURES OPTIONS

Chapter 3: Valuation of European Currency Options

ARBITRAGE THEOREMS

PUT-CALL PARITY FOR EUROPEAN CURRENCY OPTIONS

THE BLACK-SCHOLES-MERTON MODEL

HOW CURRENCY OPTIONS TRADE IN THE INTERBANK MARKET

REFLECTIONS ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF BLACK, SCHOLES, AND MERTON

Chapter 4: European Currency Option Analytics

BASE-CASE ANALYSIS

THE “GREEKS”

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF AT-THE-MONEY FORWARD OPTIONS

DIRECTIONAL TRADING WITH CURRENCY OPTIONS

HEDGING WITH CURRENCY OPTIONS

APPENDIX 4.1 DERIVATION OF THE BSM DELTAS

Chapter 5: Volatility

ALTERNATIVE MEANINGS OF VOLATILITY

SOME VOLATILITY HISTORY

CONSTRUCTION OF THE VOLATILITY SURFACE

THE VANNA-VOLGA METHOD

THE STICKY DELTA RULE

RISK-NEUTRAL DENSITIES

DEALING IN CURRENCY OPTIONS

TRADING VOLATILITY

MIXING DIRECTIONAL AND VOLATILITY TRADING

APPENDIX 5.1 VANNA-VOLGA APPROXIMATIONS

Chapter 6: American Exercise Currency Options

ARBITRAGE CONDITIONS

PUT-CALL PARITY FOR AMERICAN CURRENCY OPTIONS

THE GENERAL THEORY OF AMERICAN CURRENCY OPTION PRICING

THE ECONOMICS OF EARLY EXERCISE

THE BINOMIAL MODEL

THE BINOMIAL MODEL FOR EUROPEAN CURRENCY OPTIONS

AMERICAN CURRENCY OPTIONS BY APPROXIMATION

FINITE DIFFERENCES METHODS

Chapter 7: Currency Futures Options

CURRENCY FUTURES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO SPOT AND FORWARD EXCHANGE RATES

ARBITRAGE AND PARITY THEOREMS FOR CURRENCY FUTURES OPTIONS

BLACK'S MODEL FOR EUROPEAN CURRENCY FUTURES OPTIONS

THE VALUATION OF AMERICAN CURRENCY FUTURES OPTIONS

THE QUADRATIC APPROXIMATION MODEL FOR FUTURES OPTIONS

Chapter 8: Barrier and Binary Currency Options

SINGLE BARRIER CURRENCY OPTIONS

DOUBLE BARRIER KNOCK-OUT CURRENCY OPTIONS

BINARY CURRENCY OPTIONS

CONTINGENT PREMIUM CURRENCY OPTIONS

APPLYING VANNA-VOLGA TO BARRIER AND BINARY OPTIONS

WHAT THE FORMULAS DON'T REVEAL

Chapter 9: Advanced Option Models

STOCHASTIC VOLATILITY MODELS

THE MIXED JUMP-DIFFUSION PROCESS MODEL

LOCAL VOLATILITY MODELS

STOCHASTIC LOCAL VOLATILITY

STATIC REPLICATION OF BARRIER OPTIONS

APPENDIX 9.1: EQUATIONS FOR THE HESTON MODEL

Chapter 10: Non-Barrier Exotic Currency Options

AVERAGE RATE CURRENCY OPTIONS

COMPOUND CURRENCY OPTIONS

BASKET OPTIONS

QUANTOS OPTIONS

COMMENTS ON HEDGING WITH NON-BARRIER CURRENCY OPTIONS

APPENDIX 10.1 MONTE CARLO SIMULATION FOR ARITHMETIC MEAN AVERAGE OPTIONS

Bibliography

Index

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Copyright © 2011 by David F. DeRosa. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada.

Second edition published in 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

DeRosa, David F. Options on foreign exchange / David F. DeRosa. – 3rd ed. p. cm. – (Wiley finance series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-23977-3 (hardback); ISBN 978-1-118-09755-7 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-09821-9 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-09756-4 (ebk) 1. Options (Finance) 2. Hedging (Finance) 3. Foreign exchange futures. I. Title. HG6024.A3D474 2011 332.64′53–dc22 2011008886

For Julia DeRosa

Preface

It is well known that foreign exchange is the world's largest financial market. What is less well known is that the market for currency options and other derivatives on foreign exchange is also massively large and still growing. Currency options are less visible than options on other financial instruments because they trade in the main in the private interbank market. Sadly, the field of foreign exchange is not popular with authors of technical business books. The attention that is given to foreign exchange pales in comparison to the vast outpouring of books on the bond and stock markets.

This book has been written for end-users of currency options, newcomers to the field of foreign exchange, and university students. I employ the real-world terminology of the foreign exchange market whenever possible so that readers can make a smooth transition from the text to actual market practice.

I use this book as the textbook for a course entitled “Foreign Exchange and Its Related Derivative Instruments” that I teach in the IEOR department of the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science at Columbia University. I taught forerunners of this course (using the previous editions) at the Yale School of Management and University of Chicago's Booth School of Business. Students may be interested in a companion volume to this book that I edited for John Wiley & Sons. That book, Currency Derivatives, is a collection of scientific articles that have had an important impact on the development of the market for derivatives on foreign exchange.

This is the third edition of Options on Foreign Exchange. The foreign exchange market has undergone major transformations since the first edition came out in 1992 and this is especially the case since the second appeared in 2000. During the decade of 2000–2010 one could say there has been at least three remarkable developments in the foreign exchange market, each of which is has been incorporated in this new edition. The first is that the size of the foreign exchange market has grown enormously; by one count $4 trillion of foreign exchange changed hands in a day in 2010 (compared to $1.2 trillion in 2001). A substantial portion of this growth has to be ascribed to the success of electronic trading platforms and computerized dealing networks. Second, market stresses during the turmoil of 2007–2008 revealed anomalies in the foreign exchange market, both in the forward market and in the market for options on foreign exchange. Third, these abnormal market conditions have been the impetus for acceleration in the development in new and advanced option models.

WHAT'S NEW TO THIS EDITION

This edition has a substantial amount of new material, mostly included in reaction to market experience and the general development in the theoretical and applied understanding of currency options.

I have included new discussions of the volatility surface and the Vanna-Volga method. There are also new sections on static replication, numerical methods, and advanced models (stochastic and local volatility varieties). The materials on barrier, binary, and other exotic options are greatly expanded. There are a great number of new numerical examples in this edition.

BEFORE YOU BEGIN

I am fairly certain that nobody can become fully versed in the topics of currency options without becoming involved in the market. This book offers the next best thing. To that end it is important to start out learning about these products in the context of correct market terminology and protocol. That is why I always attempt to introduce and use trading room vernacular in this book. On the other hand, a certain level of mathematical understanding is also required. Some math is unavoidable, but its level of difficulty is easily overestimated. True enough, there a lot of equations in this book. However most of the important concepts can be grasped with little more than working knowledge of algebra and elementary calculus.

David DeRosawww.derosa-research.com

Acknowledgments

Many people have been of assistance to me in the preparation of this new edition of Options on Foreign Exchange.

I am grateful for ongoing valuable discussions about the foreign exchange market with Anne Pankowski (Citibank), Chris Zingo (SuperDerivatives, Inc.), Sebastien Kayrouz (Murex), Joseph Leitch (Rubicon Fund Management), William Reeves (BlueCrest Capital Management, LLP), Emanuel Derman (Columbia University), Carlos Mallo (the BIS), and Christopher Hohn (The Children's Investment Fund). I also thank Anya Li Ma for helping do proofreading.

I thank my staff at DeRosa Research and Trading, Inc., for assistance in writing, analysis, and proofreading throughout the project. These include Devin Brosseau, Peter Halle, Anu Khambete, and Jason Stemmler. I extend very special thanks to John Goh for excellent research assistance.

I wish to thank Ron Marr and Ed Lavers for allowing me to reprint a page of their Euromarket Dayfinder Calendar. Also I am in indebted to Bloomberg Finance, LP for data and allowing me to reprint some of their exhibits.

Finally I wish to acknowledge Pamela van Giessen and Emilie Herman of John Wiley & Sons for their support and patience throughout this project.

Chapter 1

Foreign Exchange Basics

I start with some basic knowledge about foreign exchange that the reader will want to have before tackling currency options.

THE FOREIGN EXCHANGE MARKET

An exchange rate is a market price at which one currency can be exchanged for another. Exchange rates are sometimes called pairs because there are always two currencies involved. If the exchange rate for Japanese yen in terms of U.S. dollars is 90.00, it is meant that yen can be traded for dollars—or dollars traded for yen—at the rate of $1 for 90.00 yen.

A spot foreign exchange transaction (or deal)1 is an agreement to exchange sums of currencies, usually in two bank business days' time. This transaction is the core of the foreign exchange market. A forward transaction is a deal done for settlement, or value, at a time beyond spot value day. There are two kinds of forwards. Forward outrights are similar to spot deals. The exchange rate is agreed when the deal is done on the trade date, but currencies settle at times in the future further out on the settlement calendar, say in a week, or a month, or in many months. A forward swap is the combination of a spot deal and a forward deal done in opposite directions. Forward outrights and forward swaps will be covered in detail later in this chapter.

It is well known that the foreign exchange market is a very large market, but exactly how large is hard to say. Our single best source as to the size and structure of the worldwide foreign exchange market is an extensive survey of trading done by the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in conjunction with the central banks of 50 or so nations.2 The most recent survey, published in 2010 (BIS 2010), documented the virtual explosion in foreign exchange trading since the previous surveys done in 2007, 2004, and 2001. After adjustments for double counting,3 $4 trillion of foreign exchange changed hands per day in April 2010 compared to $3.3 trillion, $1.9 trillion, and $1.2 trillion in April of 2007, 2004, and 2001, respectively. These statistics cover transactions in spot, forward outright, forward swaps, currency swaps, and options (Exhibit 1.1).4 There are at least two other recent central-bank-sponsored surveys covering specific segments of the foreign exchange market, both dating from October 2009. A Bank of England survey5 of the London market (BOE 2009) estimated $1,430 billion in total daily turnover (including spot, outright forwards, non-deliverable forwards, and foreign exchange swaps). A Federal Reserve Bank of New York (NYFED 2009) survey6 of the New York market estimated $679 billion of trading the same instruments.

Exhibit 1.1 Global Foreign Exchange Market Turnover (Daily Averages in April, in Billions of U.S. Dollars)

Source: (1) BIS (2010) and (2) Mihaljek and Packer (2010).

Foreign exchange trading is done practically everywhere there is a banking center. According to the BIS 2010 survey, the largest centers by share of total world turnover were the United Kingdom (37 percent), the United States (18 percent), Japan (6 percent), Singapore (5 percent), Switzerland (5 percent), Hong Kong (5 percent), and Australia (4 percent). Not to be forgotten are the emerging markets nations where recently published data (BIS; Mihaljek and Packer 2010) (Exhibit 1.1) show to be rapidly expanding centers for foreign exchange trading.

There are well more than 100 currencies. As a general rule practically every country has its own currency7 (with the European countries in the euro zone being a prominent, but not unique, exception). Yet trading in the foreign exchange market is remarkably concentrated in a handful of exchange rates (Exhibit 1.2). What is noteworthy is that the sum of trading in the dollar against the euro, yen, and sterling (in order of volume) made up 51 percent of all foreign exchange trading in 2010. In one sense, the foreign exchange market is largely the price of the dollar, inasmuch as in 2010 the dollar was on one side of 84.9 percent of all trades8,9 (followed by the euro (39.1 percent), the yen (19.0 percent), sterling (12.9 percent), and the Australian dollar (7.6 percent).10 But even a currency with a small share of total turnover can have a large volume of trading because the overall size of the market is enormous.

Exhibit 1.2 Reported Foreign Exchange Market Turnover by Currency Pair (Daily Averages in April, in Billions of U.S. Dollars and Percent)

Foreign exchange dealing has become steadily more concentrated among a handful of powerful dealing banks. Indeed, according to the BIS, the top five dealers captured more than 55 percent of the market by 2009, up from a little more than 25 percent in 1999 (see Gallardo and Heath 2009).11 At the same time that trading in foreign exchange has been growing, the number of banks doing large-scale foreign exchange trading has been shrinking. Roughly speaking, the number of money center banks that account for 75 percent of foreign exchange turnover has roughly dropped by two-thirds in the period between 1998 and 2010 (BIS 2010). On a geographic basis, the number of such banks shrunk from 24 to 9 in the U.K., from 20 to 7 in the United States, from 7 to 2 in Switzerland, from 19 to 8 in Japan, and from 23 to 10 in Singapore during this decade. This is probably best seen as an outcome of the general trend of consolidation in the financial services industry. In the meantime the development of electronic trading has materially altered the nature of the foreign exchange market. The lower section of Exhibit 1.1 shows global foreign exchange turnover by counterparty to the reporting banks. Note that the historical pattern is for dealing banks (i.e., “reporting” in the language of the BIS surveys) to trade primarily with other dealing banks. That pattern began to change as early as 2001. An explanation is that electronic trading has resulted in dealing banks now trading less with other dealing banks and more with other financial institutions that are not themselves dealing banks. The 2010 survey is the first time that the volume of trading between dealers and nondealers was reported to have been greater in volume than trading within the dealer community. The BIS category of nonreporting financial institutions includes smaller banks, mutual funds, money market funds, insurance companies, pension funds, hedge funds, currency funds, and central banks, among others.12 The magnitude of this shift is remarkable when one considers that 85 percent of the increase in the global turnover in foreign exchange originated from dealers trading with this category of other financial institutions.

THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM

Bretton Woods and the Smithsonian Period

For the first quarter century after the Second World War, the international monetary system consisted of a program of fixed exchange rates. Fixed exchange rates were established under the Bretton Woods agreement signed by the Allied powers in 1944 in advance of the end of the Second World War. The Bretton Woods agreement required all member central banks to keep their foreign exchange reserves in U.S. dollars, pounds Sterling, or gold. More importantly, member countries agreed to stabilize their currencies within a 1 percent band around a target rate of exchange to the U.S. dollar. The dollar, in turn, was pegged to gold bullion at $35 per ounce. Parts of the system lasted until 1971.

Periodically, currencies had to be revalued and devalued when market pressures became too great for central banks to oppose. Cynics dubbed the Bretton Woods a “system of creeping pegs.” In 1971, after a series of dramatic “dollar crises,” the dollar was devalued against gold to $38 an ounce,13 and a wider bandwidth, equal to 2.25 percent, was established. This modification to the system, called the Smithsonian Agreement, postponed the collapse of the system of fixed exchange rates for two years. In 1973, President Richard Nixon scrapped the entire structure of fixed exchange rates that had begun with Bretton Woods. Since that time, exchange rates for the major currencies against the dollar have been floating.

The Euro

On January 1, 1999, 11 European nation members of the European Monetary Union, Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain, adopted a new common currency, called the euro. The legacy currencies of these eleven nations, such as the German mark and French franc, circulated in parallel to the euro for a time but were exchangeable to the euro at fixed exchange rates. Total conversion to the euro happened on January 1, 2002, at which time the European Central Bank issued euro notes and coins. Additional countries have joined the euro since that time: Greece in 2001, Slovenia in 2007, Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, and Estonia in 2011. At the current time 17 countries have adopted the euro. Noteworthy by their absence are the United Kingdom and Denmark. Switzerland is not part of the European Monetary Union.

The road to the creation of the euro was difficult. For nearly two decades, starting with the creation of the European Monetary System in March 1979, parts of Europe experimented with a fixed exchange rate system that was known as the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). Under the ERM, member countries agreed to peg their currencies to a basket currency called the European Currency Unit (ECU). Currencies were allowed to move in relation to the ECU within either the narrow band of plus or minus 2.25 percent or the wide band of plus or minus 6 percent.

The ERM was a costly experiment in fixed exchange rate policy. In its 20 years of operation, from 1979 to 1999, ERM central rates had to be adjusted over 50 times. More spectacular yet were the two major ERM currency crises, one in September 1992 and the other in August 1993, each of which involved massive central bank losses in the defense of the fixed exchange rate grid. Finally after the second crisis, fluctuation bands were widened to plus or minus 15 percent, a move that effectively neutered the ERM.14

Fixed Exchange Rate Regimes

A great variety of fixed exchange rate regimes have come and gone in the twentieth century, especially with respect to the minor currencies and emerging market currencies. Only a handful of fixed exchange rate systems have been worth the trouble. One success story was the Austrian shilling, which remained faithfully pegged to the German mark for nearly 20 years before joining the ERM in January 1995.

But there were a great many other cases of fixed exchange rate regimes that ended badly.15 History shows that pegged exchange rates are astonishingly explosive and damaging when they fail. The examples of the Mexican peso in 1994, Thai baht, Czech koruna, Indonesian rupiah in 1997, and the Russian ruble in 1998 are cases in point.

Fixed exchange rate regimes in their most simple form consist of a currency being pegged outright to the value of another currency.16 A few fixed exchange rate regimes are operated under the framework of a currency board, such as the one that is in place for the Hong Kong dollar. Under the workings of a currency board, the government commits to maintaining a reserve of foreign exchange equal to the outstanding domestic base money supply and to exchange domestic and foreign reserve currency at the pegged exchange rate upon demand.

Basket peg systems are another fixed exchange rate regime. The Thai baht was operated as a basket peg currency prior to its spectacular collapse in July 1997. Under the basket regime, the Bank of Thailand pegged the baht to a basket of currencies made up of U.S. dollars, German marks, and Japanese yen, though the exact makeup of the basket was never revealed.

Another species of a fixed exchange rate regime pegs the currency, but permits gradual depreciation over time. Examples are the Mexican peso prior to the December 1994 crisis and the Indonesian rupiah before it collapsed in July 1997.

Still other currencies fit somewhere between floating and pegged exchange rate regimes. Singapore, for example, operates what at times has been described as a managed floating regime.

Exchange Rate Intervention

Since the end of the Bretton Woods–Smithsonian regimes, the value of the U.S. dollar against the currencies of America's major trading partners has been determined by the forces of free-market supply and demand. This is a bit of an exaggeration because all exchange rates have at times been subject to manipulation through intervention by governmental bodies.

Intervention had a large presence in the foreign exchange market for a time in the 1980s. A predecessor of the current G-7 council,17 called the G-5 council, initiated the Plaza intervention18 in September 1985 (see Funabashi 1989). At that time, the council decided that a lower value for the dollar was warranted. Accordingly, its member nations’ central banks launched a massive program to sell the dollar. The Plaza maneuver is remembered in foreign exchange history as the most successful coordinated intervention; the dollar fell by more than 4 percent in the first 24 hours. Two years later the council refocused its attention at the variability of exchange rates at another historic meeting, this time at the Louvre in February 1987.

But the appetite for intervention on the part of governments and their central banks ebbs and flows with economic circumstances and political leanings. For example, the administration of President George W. Bush seemed to have had no interest in foreign exchange intervention, whereas that of his predecessor, President Clinton, aggressively used intervention in an attempt to maintain what it called a strong dollar.

While most major central banks have given up on intervention, at least in current times, Japan remains convinced of the need to use intervention to manage the value and the volatility of the yen. Central banks of emerging markets nations regard foreign exchange intervention as an important tool to be used in parallel with monetary policy.

Exchange Rate Crises

Exchange rate crises are primarily manifestations of fixed exchange rate arrangements coming to their end. These are brief periods of spectacular volatility, not only of exchange rates but also of associated interest rates, bond prices, and stock prices. Their history is important to traders and risk managers, not to mention economists.

The granddaddy of all foreign exchange crises was the aforementioned collapse of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates in August 1971.19 The next-most-memorable crisis was in September 1992 during the ERM period before the launch of the euro. This was the episode that ended Great Britain's participation in the ERM and earned famed speculator George Soros the reputation for having “broke the Bank of England.” August of 1993 is when the second ERM crisis occurred, principally involving the French franc's role in the ERM; 1994 saw the Mexican peso blow out of its crawling peg arrangement.

The Southeast Asian currencies experienced tremendous volatility in the summer of 1997. Two currencies, the Thai baht and the Indonesian rupiah, abandoned long-held fixed exchange rate regimes. The Malaysian ringgit and Philippine peso suffered steep losses in value against the U.S. dollar. The Korean won, a currency that was not fully convertible, also was devalued. One of the only convertible currencies in Asia not to be devalued was the Hong Kong dollar.

After the fact, basic macroeconomic analysis can explain this remarkable series of currency crises with a simple set of causal factors that relate to the fundamental domestic conditions in each of these countries. Many of the affected countries had banking systems that were on the verge of total breakdown before the exchange rate problems became manifest. Moreover, several countries were running enormous and unsustainable current account imbalances, and every one of the afflicted countries had managed to run up staggering foreign currency–denominated debts. Speaking of excessive debt, there are Russia (1998) and Argentina (2002) to consider. These were compound crises, in the sense that their fixed exchange rate regimes exploded at the same time their governments announced defaults on maturing sovereign debt.

Nonetheless, in some quarters, the blame for these episodes has been put on hedge funds and currency speculators. It is widely held that capital mobility invites disaster, mistaken though that belief is. No matter what ultimately one chooses to believe was the cause of the crisis or where one enjoys placing the blame, the history of fixed exchange rate regimes clearly demonstrates that exchange rates are capable of making violent and substantial—if not outright discontinuous—movements over short periods of time.

SPOT FOREIGN EXCHANGE AND MARKET CONVENTIONS

Spot Foreign Exchange

The spot exchange rate is a quotation for the exchange of currencies in two bank business days’ time (except in the case of the Canadian dollar versus the U.S. dollar, where delivery is in one bank business day).

Foreign exchange settlement days are called value dates. To qualify as a value date, a day must not be a bank holiday in either currency's country and in almost all circumstances must not be a bank holiday in the United States as well.20 Many traders rely on a specialized calendar called the Euromarket Day Finder published by Copp Clark Professional. A sample page of this calendar for trade date December 21, 2010, is displayed in Exhibit 1.3. Note that the value date for spot transactions on December 21, 2010, is December 23, 2010. An exception is Japan. Because December 23rd is an official holiday (the emperor's birthday), the value date for trades done on December 21, 2010, involving the yen is December 24, 2010.

Exhibit 1.3 Euromarket Day Finder

The foreign exchange week commences on Monday morning at 6 A.M. Sydney time when New Zealand and Australian dealers open the market. Later, Tokyo, Singapore, and Hong Kong join the fray to constitute the Austral-Asian dealing time zone. Next, the center of the market shifts to London as it opens, but Frankfurt, Paris, Milan, Madrid, and Zurich also conduct currency dealing. New York is the capital of foreign exchange dealing in the Western Hemisphere. At 5 P.M. New York time, the day ends as trading seamlessly advances to the next value day.

Quotation Conventions

Dealers make spot exchange rate quotations as bid-ask quotations. For example, a quote on $10 million dollar/yen of 89.98/90.00 means that a dealer is willing to buy dollars and sell yen at the rate of 89.98 yen per dollar or sell dollars and buy yen at the rate of 90.00 yen per dollar. The quantity of $1 million dollars is sometimes simply called 1 dollar. Also, $1 billion is sometimes called 1 yard of dollars.

A pip is defined as the smallest unit of quotation for a currency. Therefore, a quote on dollar/yen of 89.98/90.00 is said to be two pips wide.

Currency trading is a fast-moving business. Dealing room errors can be disastrously expensive. For that reason, the foreign exchange community has developed rules on how quotations and trading instructions are given. The most basic rule is that the first currency in an exchange rate pair is the direct object of the trade. By that I mean to buy $10 million dollar/yen is to buy $10 million dollars against yen. The hierarchy of exchange rates is as follows:

EUREuroGBPSterlingAUDAustralian DollarUSDU.S. DollarNon-EuroOther European CurrenciesJPYJapanese yen

The rule in the professional market is that the higher currency on the grid is the one that deals. For example, the euro deals against all currencies (EUR/GBP; EUR/USD; EUR/JPY).

Unfortunately, two conventions for the quotation of spot foreign exchange have evolved. In the American convention, currency is quoted in terms of U.S. dollars per unit of foreign exchange (for example, sterling quoted at 1.7000 means that it takes 1.7000 U.S. dollars to equal one pound). The pound, Australian dollar, New Zealand dollar, and the euro are quoted American. Other currencies are quoted “European,” which means they are expressed in the number of units of foreign exchange equal to one U.S. dollar (i.e., 90.00 yen per one U.S. dollar or 1.0850 Swiss francs per one dollar).

One additional matter that makes things even more confusing is that most exchange-traded currency futures and options quote currencies American, even for currencies that are quoted European in the spot market.

FOREIGN EXCHANGE DEALING

Two-Way Prices

Foreign exchange dealers stand ready to make bid-ask quotes on potentially very large amounts of currency to customers as well as to other banks. There is a distinction in the interbank market between reciprocal and nonreciprocal trading relationships. In a reciprocal trading relationship, two banks agree to supply each other with “two-way” (i.e., bid-ask) quotations upon demand. Reciprocal trading relationships, meaning those between money center banks, constitute the core of the foreign exchange market. A nonreciprocal trading relationship is merely a customer trading facility that happens to be between a small bank and a large money center–dealing bank. The dealer agrees to quote foreign exchange to the smaller bank, but the reverse is never expected to happen.

It is the custom in the foreign exchange market for the party soliciting a quote to reveal the size of the transaction at its onset. In the example in Exhibit 1.4, a hedge fund called Ballistic Trading is soliciting Martingale Bank for a quote for dollar/yen in the amount of $10 million—meaning Martingale's bid-ask quote on $10 million.

Exhibit 1.4 Hypothetical Foreign Exchange Dealing Conversation: Martingale Bank New York and Ballistic Trading

This conversation (between these fictional counterparties) is being conducted over an electronic dealing network. The upshot is that Ballistic buys $10 million against yen at 90.00. It is understood that this is a spot trade. Martingale would send Ballistic a written confirmation to memorialize the trade (Exhibit 1.5).

Exhibit 1.5 Sample Foreign Exchange Confirmation

Martingale BankForeign Exchange DepartmentNew YorkMarch 1, 2010Ballistic Trading, Inc.Greenwich, CTAccount: 44-3309-2234We confirm to you the following foreign exchange trade:Trade Number8660-071403Trade DateMarch 1, 2010Value DateMarch 3, 2010Exchange Rate90.00Currency We SoldU.S. DollarAmount Sold$10,000,000.00Currency We PurchasedJapanese YenAmount Purchased¥900,000,000.00If you have any question about this transaction or have reason to question its accuracy contact us at once.This transaction is governened by a master trading agreeement signed by you and Martingale Bank.

For large orders, say anything above $100 million in a major currency (but less than that in a minor currency), the dealer might inquire whether the order is the “full amount.” If the party indicates that the order is indeed the full amount, it means that the indicated size will not be immediately followed by similar transactions of the customer's own initiation. Why would it matter to the dealer? The answer is that under usual circumstances, the dealer will seek to rebalance its dealing book once a customer order is filled. For example, if the customer buys $100 million against yen, then the dealing bank, having made short dollars, would immediately be in the market, buying dollars, using its reciprocal trading counterparties. The problem with a nonfull amount order is that it could put the customer and the dealer in competition with each other in the after-market just as when the dealer is trying to reconstitute its book from the effect of the original customer transaction.

Limit Orders and Stop-Loss Orders

Foreign exchange dealers accept limit orders and stop loss orders. A limit order gives a precise price at which a customer is willing to buy or sell foreign exchange. A stop loss order is a more complicated instruction. Stop loss orders are designed to liquidate bad trades in a timely manner so as to avoid steep losses. The trader who bought dollar/yen at 90.00 in the earlier example might have left instructions to “stop him out” at 88.00. This would mean that if the dollar were to trade at 88.00 or lower against the yen, the dealer would begin to sell the $10 million position as a market order. Banks accept stop loss orders only on a best-efforts basis. This means that there is never a guarantee that a stop loss order will be executed exactly at the stop level, in this case at 88.00.

The question becomes what happens if the dollar drops down to nearly 88.00. Stop orders present dealers with a chance to make some serious money if they are able to get the feel of the market correctly. Returning to the example, say that when dollar/yen was trading at 90.00, a customer gives a dealer a stop order to liquidate a position of long $10 million at 88.00. Suppose that the dollar falls to the 88.15 level. If the dealer has a good hunch that it will still go lower and trade at the 88.00 level, he, the dealer, will sell $10 million immediately for his own account in anticipation of being able to fill the customer's stop loss order later when 88.00 trades. If 88.00 does in fact trade, the dealer will have a profit of 15 pips, equal to the difference between where he sold dollars for his own account (at 88.15) and where he bought dollars (at 88.00) from the customer to fill the stop loss order. In reality, it will likely be a bit better than this for the dealer as the customer will almost certainly be filled below the level of the stop. But the whole trade is not without risk for the dealer. Consider that the dealer could have sold dollars at 88.15 only to see the dollar rebound upward, leaving him short dollars in a rising market and unable to fill the customer's stop loss order.

Knowledge of the placement of limit orders and stop loss orders, collectively called the order board, is valuable information for the dealer. One would hope this information would be kept completely confidential for the customer's sake. Sometimes the order board for a large dealer yields clues as to near-term movement of currencies. Stop loss orders can cause sudden, large movements in exchange rates, especially in cases where the market runs past an important level where there are large quantities of stop loss orders. Nonetheless, despite all the problems, there is no getting around the need for stop loss orders.

In recent years, stop loss orders have become a larger factor in the foreign exchange market because of the growing popularity of exotic options. Exotic option risk management for dealers and customers often depends on efficient execution of stop loss orders.

Direct Dealing, Brokers, and Electronic Trading

Foreign exchange dealers traditionally communicate with each other through computer messaging services, a facility that is called direct dealing. Each dealer has the ability to conduct a brief text conversation with counterparts at other dealing banks for the purpose of conducting foreign exchange trading. The actual text of a foreign exchange dealer conversation is usually highly abbreviated and assumes a close knowledge of market conditions.

Dealers make prices directly to other foreign exchange dealing banks but sometimes use the assistance of specialized foreign exchange brokers. Voice brokers work exclusively with the interbank market. They communicate with their client dealing banks via private direct phone lines and through computers. At all times, the job of the voice broker is to know who is making the highest bid and lowest ask for each currency. Brokers work their clients’ orders in strict confidence, never revealing the name of a dealing bank until a trade has been completed. Brokers supply an important function in the foreign exchange market in that they collect and distribute price information.

In the 1990s, voice brokers began to have competition from electronic platforms such as the Electronic Broking System (EBS) and Reuters Matching 2000/2. According to the BOE (2009) survey, 18 percent of London market is done with voice brokers and 24 percent with electronic brokers. The NYFED (2009) survey showed 17 percent electronic broker and 20 percent voice broker trading.

Electronic broking is only one way that computers have changed the foreign exchange market. The most sophisticated dealing banks use computers to generate bid and ask quotations. “Auto-dealer” (the industry nickname) trades are usually sized in the small millions of dollars per ticket. The big trades remain the task of the flesh and blood traders, though. The auto-dealer process is not entirely robotic, as no sensible bank would let a machine run its dealing books without supervision and occasional intervention by humans. But the advantage of the auto dealer is that it can generate a more or less continuous stream of bid and ask prices.