206,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Wiley Series in Materials for Electronic & Optoelectronic Applications
- Sprache: Englisch
Oxide Electronics Multiple disciplines converge in this insightful exploration of complex metal oxides and their functions and properties Oxide Electronics delivers a broad and comprehensive exploration of complex metal oxides designed to meet the multidisciplinary needs of electrical and electronic engineers, physicists, and material scientists. The distinguished author eschews complex mathematics whenever possible and focuses on the physical and functional properties of metal oxides in each chapter. Each of the sixteen chapters featured within the book begins with an abstract and an introduction to the topic, clear explanations are presented with graphical illustrations and relevant equations throughout the book. Numerous supporting references are included, and each chapter is self-contained, making them perfect for use both as a reference and as study material. Readers will learn how and why the field of oxide electronics is a key area of research and exploitation in materials science, electrical engineering, and semiconductor physics. The book encompasses every application area where the functional and electronic properties of various genres of oxides are exploited. Readers will also learn from topics like: * Thorough discussions of High-k gate oxide for silicon heterostructure MOSFET devices and semiconductor-dielectric interfaces * An exploration of printable high-mobility transparent amorphous oxide semiconductors * Treatments of graphene oxide electronics, magnetic oxides, ferroelectric oxides, and materials for spin electronics * Examinations of the calcium aluminate binary compound, perovoksites for photovoltaics, and oxide 2Degs * Analyses of various applications for oxide electronics, including data storage, microprocessors, biomedical devices, LCDs, photovoltaic cells, TFTs, and sensors Suitable for researchers in semiconductor technology or working in materials science, electrical engineering, and physics, Oxide Electronics will also earn a place in the libraries of private industry researchers like device engineers working on electronic applications of oxide electronics. Engineers working on photovoltaics, sensors, or consumer electronics will also benefit from this book.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 1309
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Series Preface
Wiley Series in Materials for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications
Preface
List of Contributors
1 Graphene Oxide for Electronics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Synthesis and Characterizations of Graphene Oxide
1.3 Energy Harvest Applications of Graphene Oxide
1.4 Energy Storage Applications of Graphene Oxide
1.5 Electronic Device Applications of Graphene Oxide
1.6 Large Area Electronics Applications of Graphene Oxide
References
2 Flexible and Wearable Graphene-Based E-Textiles
2.1 Introduction to Wearable E-Textiles
2.2 Synthesis of Graphene Derivatives
2.3 Graphene-Based Wearable E-Textiles
2.4 Surface Pre- and Post-Treatment of Substrates
2.5 Applications
2.6 Challenges and Outlook
References
3 Magnetic Interactions in the Cubic Mott Insulators NiO, MnO, and CoO and the Related Oxides CuO and FeO
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Spin–Spin Interactions
3.3 Spin–Phonon Interactions
3.4 Other Related Materials
3.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
4 High-
κ
Dielectric Oxides for Electronics
4.1 Introduction of High-
κ
Dielectric Oxides
4.2 The Deposition of High-
κ
Oxide Dielectrics
4.3 High-
κ
Dielectric Oxides for Field-Effect Transistors
4.4 High-
κ
Dielectric Oxides for Memory Devices
References
5 Low Temperature Growth of Germanium Oxide Nanowires by Template Based Self Assembly and their Raman Characterization
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Synthesis
5.3 Characterization
5.4 Raman Measurements
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Electronic Phenomena, Electroforming, Resistive Switching, and Defect Conduction Bands in Metal-Insulator-Metal Diodes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Experimental
6.3 Electroforming, Electroluminescence, and Electron Emission
6.4 Electrode Effects in Resistive Switching of Nb-Nb
2
O
5
-Metal Diodes
6.5 Conduction, Electroluminescence, and Photoconductivity Before Electroforming MIM Diodes
6.6 Discussion
6.7 Summary and Conclusions
References
7 Lead Oxide as Material of Choice for Direct Conversion Detectors
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Crystal Structure and Electronic Properties of PbO
7.3 Deposition Process of PbO Layers
7.4 Charge Transport Mechanism in Lead Oxide
References
8 ZnO Varistors: From Grain Boundaries to Power Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Manufacturing Process of ZnO Varistors
8.3 Microstructure and Grain Boundaries
8.4 Grain Boundary Potential Barriers
8.5 The ‘Double Schottky Barrier Defect Model’
8.6 Hot Electron Effects Controlling the Breakdown Region
8.7 Hot Electron Effects and Dynamic Response
8.8 From Single Grain Boundaries to Microstructures and Varistor Devices
8.9 Ageing and Long-Term Stability of Varistor Materials
8.10 Energy Absorption Capability and High Current Impulse Stresses
8.11 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Notes
9 Fundamental Properties and Power Electronic Device Progress of Gallium Oxide
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Electronic Properties and Defects of Ga
2
O
3
9.3 Basic Device Characteristics
9.4 Ga
2
O
3
Schottky Rectifiers
9.5 Ga
2
O
3
Transistors
9.6 Summary
References
10 Emerging Trends, Challenges, and Applications in Solid-State Laser Cooling
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Theory
10.3 Experimental Design Considerations for Cooling
10.4 Laser Cooling Materials and Properties
10.5 Oxyfluoride Glass-Ceramics: Recent Developments in Solid-State Laser Cooling
10.6 Optical Cryocooler Devices
10.7 Future Prospects and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
11 Electrode Materials for Sodium Ion Rechargeable Batteries
11.1 Introduction – Review of the Constituents Used in Na – Ion Cells
11.2 Cathode Materials for Na Ion Rechargeable Cells
11.3 Current Collectors, Binder, and Electrolyte
11.4 Anode Materials for Na Ion Rechargeable Cells
11.5 Outstanding Research Issues and Statement of the Problem
11.6 Synthesis and Electrochemical Characterization of Electrodes
11.7 Na
2
Ti
3
O
7
as Anode
11.8 PBA as Cathode
11.9 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
12 Perovskites for Photovoltaics
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Diffusion Length
12.3 Open-Circuit Voltage
12.4 Influence of Density of Tail States at Interfaces
12.5 Conclusions
References
13 Advanced Characterizations of Oxides for Optoelectronic Applications
13.1 A Brief History of Optoelectronic Devices
13.2 Interaction of Semiconductors and the Optoelectronic Phenomenon
13.3 Characterization Techniques and their Use for Metal Oxide Optoelectronics
13.4 Facilities and Case Studies
References
14 Future Tuning Optoelectronic Oxides from the Inside: Sol-Gel (TiO
2
)
x
-(SiO
2
)
100-x
14.1 Introduction and Background
14.2 Hypothesis
14.3 Experimental
14.4 Characterization Results
14.5 Discussion on Future Automated CALPHAD Design, Dip-Coating Mechanical, and High-Throughput Screening of Novel Optoelectronic Oxides and Devices
14.6 Conclusions on TiO
2
-SiO
2
Use
Acknowledgements
References
15 Binary Calcia-Alumina Thin Films: Synthesis and Properties and Applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Structural and Physical Properties of C12A7
15.3 Atomic and Electronic Structure
15.4 Optical Properties
15.5 Applications of C12A7
15.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
16 Oxide Cathodes
16.1 Historical Aspects
16.2 Physics of Thermionic Emission
16.3 Oxide Cathode Development
16.4 Future Trends and Ongoing Applications
16.5 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Summary of various chemical reduction process of GO to rGO.
Table 2.2 Comparison between rotary screen printing and inkjet printing of te...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Comparison of optical phonon data recorded at zero wave vector for ...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 The dielectric constant
κ
, band gap, and conduction band offset...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Defect band conduction energies and trap depths in MIM systems.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Structure and properties of different lead oxides [5].
Table 7.2 Theoretically predicted Raman phonon frequencies in Pb
x
O
y
.
Table 7.3 Overview of known PbO deposition techniques.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Basic conduction processes in insulators [175].
Table 9.2 Properties and figures of merit for power semiconductors [91].
Table 9.3 Summary of the reported vertical geometry Ga
2
O
3
rectifiers.
Table 9.4 Summary of Ohmic contact properties on
β
-Ga
2
O
3
.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Refractive index (n) of the 50SiO
2
-49PbF
2
-1YbF
3
glass and glass-ce...
Table 10.2 The internal and external photoluminescence quantum yields (iQY an...
Table 10.3 Lifetime values of Yb
3+
:
2
F
5/2
level obtained by single-expone...
Table 10.4 The properties of laser cooled crystals along with the experimenta...
Table 10.5 The properties of laser cooled semiconductors along with the exper...
Table 10.6 The properties of laser cooled optical fibres along with the exper...
Table 10.7 The properties of laser cooled glasses along with the experimental...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 The refined atomic coordinates, lattice parameters, occupancy, the...
Table 11.2 The refined atomic coordinates, lattice parameters, occupancy, the...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Input parameters used for simulation in this paper [29, 37].
Table 12.2 Calculated results of
V
oc
from Eq. (12.4) for three different perov...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Phase composition and crystallite size computed from Rietveld refi...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 EXAFS K edge analysis.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The chemical structures of graphene, graphene oxide (GO), the red...
Figure 1.2 AFM image of exfoliated graphene oxide (GO) sheets with three hei...
Figure 1.3 (a) SEM of GO nanosheets. (b) High-resolution XPS C1s spectra and...
Figure 1.4 (a) Preparation illustration of LSG and SEM images of cross-secti...
Figure 1.5 Illustration and performance of solar cell based on graphene elec...
Figure 1.6 The preparation of GO-CC and rGO-CC composites. (a) The electroch...
Figure 1.7 (a) Top: SEM images of the LGG membranes when compressed to 3.2 n...
Figure 1.8 (a) TEM image of GO-CH4. (b) XRD patterns of GO and other compare...
Figure 1.9 (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication of 1D + 2D hierarch...
Figure 1.10 (a) The synthesis of oxygen functionalized graphene and the meta...
Figure 1.11 Schematic view of the flexible capacitive touch pad based on gra...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a) The chemical structure of graphene oxide and (b) restoration ...
Figure 2.2 (a) Wet spinning of graphene oxide polymer and reduction [79]. (b...
Figure 2.3 Process steps to improve screen-printed graphene pattern on polya...
Figure 2.4 (a) Screen-printed graphene-based supercapacitor for wearable e-t...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 The cubic lattice structure of antiferromagnetic NiO showing the ...
Figure 3.2 Temperature dependence of the one-magnon Raman scattering in NiO ...
Figure 3.3 Experiment and theory (smooth solid and dashed lines) for two-mag...
Figure 3.4 Dispersion curves of the spin waves in MnO along the [111], [001]...
Figure 3.5 The schematic splitting of the
4
F
term of the Co
2+
ion by var...
Figure 3.6 Antiferromagnetic resonance in CoO at 4.2 K.
Figure 3.7 Raman scattering intensity versus frequency shift
Δ
ν
fo...
Figure 3.8 Temperature dependences of the frequencies ω of the TO and split-...
Figure 3.9 Crystal field splitting of the
2
E
g
level of the Cu
2+
ion in c...
Figure 3.10 Unpolarized Raman spectra of CuO at 15 K and room temperature (R...
Figure 3.11 Temperature dependence of the frequency of the 240 cm
−1
mod...
Figure 3.12 Spin-wave dispersion curves in antiferromagnetic Fe
1 − x
...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Typical atomic layer deposition (ALD) process for the growth of d...
Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of direct tunnelling through a thin SiO
2
layer ...
Figure 4.3 Schematic illustrating on the replacement of SiO
2
with high-
κ
...
Figure 4.4 Data and predicted data of the EOT as a function of the year [25]...
Figure 4.5 Schematic illustrating of the problems when introducing high-
κ
...
Figure 4.6 Band gap as a function of the dielectric constant
κ
value of...
Figure 4.7 TEM image of high-
κ
gate dielectric material used in a trans...
Figure 4.8 Schema of Fin-FET structure from Intel [37].
Figure 4.9 Schematic and on-current of hetero-gate dielectric tunnel field-e...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Synthesis of vertically standing germanium dioxide nanowires with...
Figure 5.2 Scanning electron micrograph of the nanopoous alumina film (viewe...
Figure 5.3 Scanning electron micrograph of a single Ge nanowire released fro...
Figure 5.4 Exposed tips of GeO2 nanowires showing that the diameter is betwe...
Figure 5.5 Raman spectra of GeO
2
nanowires. The laser power was 5 mW at 532 ...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of a possible model of electroforming and resis...
Figure 6.2 Typical electroforming curves at 300 K of VCNR, EL, and EM for an...
Figure 6.3
I-V
, EL and EM curves for increasing and decreasing voltage of th...
Figure 6.4
I-V
curves showing VCNR and EM or EL for different MIM systems af...
Figure 6.5 Dependence of EM and EL at V
S
= 4.0 V for increasing voltage as t...
Figure 6.6 (a) and (b) Bistable switching at 295 K and 77 K after electrofor...
Figure 6.7 (a) and (b) Bistable switching at 295 K and 4.2 K after electrofo...
Figure 6.8 (a) Voltage -controlled negative resistance inflection in
I-V
cha...
Figure 6.9 Log
J
F
- log
V
A
characteristics for increasing voltage of Nb-Nb
2
O
Figure 6.10 Voltage dependence of the Nb-Nb
2
O
5
-Au diode current,
I
F
, and the...
Figure 6.11 Energy distribution, measured with filters, of the relative elec...
Figure 6.12 Log
J
F
- log
V
A
characteristics of thin Nb-Nb
2
O
5
-Au, Ti-TiO
2
-Au,...
Figure 6.13 Voltage dependence of the diode current,
I
F
, and the electrolumi...
Figure 6.14 Photoresponse per photon transmitted through the Au counterelect...
Figure 6.15 (a) Photoresponse per photon transmitted through the metal count...
Figure 6.16 Dependence of photocurrent and photovoltage of Nb-Nb
2
O
5
-metal di...
Figure 6.17 (a) Schematic electron energy-band diagram of an anodized Al-Al
2
Figure 6.18 Schematic electron energy-band diagram of the conducting channel...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Crystal structure of
α
-PbO.
Figure 7.2 Crystal structure of
β
-PbO.
Figure 7.3 The band diagram of single layer and the bulk of
α
-PbO is sh...
Figure 7.4 The electron density of states in conduction band (a) and valence...
Figure 7.5 Density of states (DOS) is shown for several systems: dashed line...
Figure 7.6 The formation energies of the defects for V
O
and V
Pb
in the Pb-ri...
Figure 7.7 A simplified schematic illustration of a direct conversion flat p...
Figure 7.8 The scanning electron micrograph of the of the poly-PbO layer. Le...
Figure 7.9 XPS spectra of poly-PbO at a surface and at selected depths.
Figure 7.10 (a) Schematic description of the conventional deposition process...
Figure 7.11 Shows the cross section of the End-Hall ion source.
Figure 7.12 (a) The SEM cross-sectional view of the poly-PbO. The inset to t...
Figure 7.13 XPS spectra of a-PbO at a surface and at selected depths.
Figure 7.14 (a) Raman spectra of as deposited poly- and a-PbO. (b) Raman spe...
Figure 7.15 (a) The XRD spectra of as-grown poly- and a-PbO films. (b) The X...
Figure 7.16 Schematic representation of the TOF (left) and photo-CELIV () ap...
Figure 7.17 Electron mobility is plotted for different temperatures as a fun...
Figure 7.18 Mobility of electrons as a function of temperature for selected ...
Figure 7.19 Dependence of hole mobility on electric field for different temp...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
I-V
characteristics of a typical industrial ZnO-varistor, represe...
Figure 8.2 Schematic illustration of the industrial manufacturing process of...
Figure 8.3 Illustration of the microstructure in a ZnO varistor ceramics. (L...
Figure 8.4 STEM images from the Bi
2
O
3
triple point phases. (Left) In the as-...
Figure 8.5 Depth profiles by XPS of the Bismuth Bi and Oxygen O concentratio...
Figure 8.6 Correlation of the measured profiles of excess oxygen at the inte...
Figure 8.7 Energy band diagram of a Double Schottky Barrier at a grain bound...
Figure 8.8 (Left) Model calculations for the voltage dependence of the barri...
Figure 8.9 The
dc
current-voltage characteristics (left) and barrier height ...
Figure 8.10 (Left): Examples of conductance spectra G(T, ω) measured at zero...
Figure 8.11 Changes in the bulk defect concentrations of multicomponent vars...
Figure 8.12 Bulk and interface defect states in completely different, unrela...
Figure 8.13 The barrier-controlled avalanche breakdown: Illustration of the ...
Figure 8.14 Hole generation rate g =
J
h
/
J
b
of the hole current
J
h
normalized...
Figure 8.15 (Left) Observation of electroluminescence in a commercial ZnO va...
Figure 8.16 (Left) Electroluminescence spectrum from a commercial ZnO varist...
Figure 8.17 (Left) Small signal capacitance C(U, ω, RT) of a commercial vari...
Figure 8.18 Different trapping and emission processes occurring at a charged...
Figure 8.19 (Left) Experimental results for the small signal capacitance of ...
Figure 8.20 Time dependent current signals of a varistor for a large signal
Figure 8.21 (Left) Typical current-voltage characteristics of a ZnO arrester...
Figure 8.22 Fast impulse responses of a commercial varistor material with vo...
Figure 8.23 Simulated local distributions of the current paths in a disorder...
Figure 8.24 Illustration of the large differences in the effective cross-sec...
Figure 8.25 (Left) Microstructures of a homogeneous microstructure obtained ...
Figure 8.26 (Top) ZnO grain size distributions for the homogenous (empty squ...
Figure 8.27 Changes in the characteristic parameters of the
I-V
curves with ...
Figure 8.28 Examples of the typical failure modes observed on high energy va...
Figure 8.29 Infrared images from axial cross-sections through three differen...
Figure 8.30 Examples of experimental ageing curves of commercial power varis...
Figure 8.31 Changes in the
I-V
characteristics (
dc
, room temperature) after
Figure 8.32 The barrier heights or activation energies measured for a
dc
uns...
Figure 8.33 (Top) Power loss P(t) normalized to the starting value P
0
(t = 0...
Figure 8.34 Change of the interfacial oxygen concentration upon excessive
dc
Figure 8.35 (a) Hypothetical charge profiles at the grain boundary and in th...
Figure 8.36 (Top) Mean failure energies of station arrester blocks from diff...
Figure 8.37 (Left) Calculated mechanical high current stresses for a distrib...
Figure 8.38 Microvaristors are electrically nonlinear fillers for functional...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Electron mobility as a function of carrier concentration of
n
–dop...
Figure 9.2 Band structure of
β
-Ga
2
O
3
calculated by the hybrid HF-DFT (G...
Figure 9.3 Thermodynamic transition levels for STHs, Mg
Ga
, and N
O
on nonequi...
Figure 9.4 Typical DLTS spectra for samples of different
β
-Ga
2
O
3
single...
Figure 9.5 Schematic band diagram and emission models in
β
-Ga
2
O
3
. The B...
Figure 9.6 Temperature-dependent CL spectra of (a) (001) undoped
β
-Ga
2
O
Figure 9.7 (a) High resolution STEM-HAADF image showing a region where two t...
Figure 9.8 (a) 2D schematic of a representative
β
-Ga
2
O
3
Schottky diodes...
Figure 9.9 A 1/
C
2
–
V
plot to determine build potential and doping density
N
Figure 9.10 (a) Energy-band diagram incorporating the Schottky effect for
β
...
Figure 9.11 (a) Extracted barrier height and ideality factor from the thermi...
Figure 9.12 (a) Schematic of a metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) capacitor...
Figure 9.13 Energy-band diagrams for ideal MIS capacitors under different bi...
Figure 9.14 Energy-band diagram at the surface of a n–type semiconductor.
Figure 9.15 Variation of space-charge density in the semiconductor as a func...
Figure 9.16 Minority carrier generation time constant as a function of mater...
Figure 9.17 (a) Band diagram of an ideal MIS capacitor under strong inversio...
Figure 9.18 (a) The incremental displacement charge (golden area) is shown i...
Figure 9.19 (a) and (b) Equivalent circuits including interface-trap effects...
Figure 9.20 (a) High and low frequency
C
-
V
curves of Au/Al
2
O
3
/n-Ga
2
O
3
(
01) a...
Figure 9.21 Energy-band diagram showing conduction mechanism of (a) direct t...
Figure 9.22 Dielectric constants of common semiconductors and insulators as ...
Figure 9.23 Schematic of the basic structure of a
β
-Ga
2
O
3
lateral MOSFE...
Figure 9.24 General
I
–
V
characteristics of deep depletion MOSFET.
Figure 9.25
I
D
verse
V
DS
at different
V
G
of a
β
-Ga
2
O
3
deep depletion MO...
Figure 9.26 Velocity-field characteristic of
β
-Ga
2
O
3
at room temperatur...
Figure 9.27 1D representation of the electric field distribution along the c...
Figure 9.28 (a) Schematic cross-section showing condition at
V
D
=
V
D, sat
an...
Figure 9.29 comparison of experimental average breakdown fields in various s...
Figure 9.30 Schematic cross section and band diagram of the recess gate
β
...
Figure 9.31 Device structure of FinFET.
Figure 9.32 Three typical designs of vertical fin-channel transistors: (a) w...
Figure 9.33 (a) Theoretic [172] al limits of on-resistances as a function of...
Figure 9.34 (a) Cross-section schematic view of a typical vertical
β
-Ga
Figure 9.35 Comparison of electric field distribution inside (a) SBD without...
Figure 9.36 Schematic of a SBD with field plate edge termination.
Figure 9.37 (a) Normalized breakdown voltage (
V
Nbr
normalized with respect t...
Figure 9.38 (a) Normalized breakdown voltage (
V
Nbr
normalized with respect t...
Figure 9.39 Simulation results of a SiC SBD with FP. (a) FP with 1.4 μm AlON...
Figure 9.40 (a) Schematic of bevel edge termination. (b) Schematics of verti...
Figure 9.41 (a) Electric field distribution in the PT and NPT drift region d...
Figure 9.42 Schematic structure of guard ring SBD.
Figure 9.43 Simulation of the E of the vertical
β
-Ga
2
O
3
SBDs (a) with a...
Figure 9.44 (a) Schematic cross section of Ga
2
O
3
SBD structure with an HVPE-...
Figure 9.45 Schematic cross section of the Ga
2
O
3
FP-SBD structure. (b) rever...
Figure 9.46 Key process steps for fabricating the SABFP structure [215].
Figure 9.47 (a) Fabrication process flow of the trench- or fin-SBDs. Forward...
Figure 9.48 (a) Cross-section schematic view the vertical
β
-Ga
2
O
3
SBD w...
Figure 9.49 Benchmark plot of state-of-the-art
β
-Ga
2
O
3
SBDs.
Figure 9.50 (a) Type-II band alignment. (b) Hole effective mass and relative...
Figure 9.51 (a) Band diagram of type II heterostructure bipolar diode (symme...
Figure 9.52 (a) Schematics of the cross-sectional p-Cu
2
O/n-Ga
2
O
3
diode and P...
Figure 9.53 (a) Comparison of the forward
I
-
V
curves for the fabricated NiO/
Figure 9.54 Schematic cross sections of a JBS structure.
Figure 9.55 Frequency dependent
C
–
V
characteristics of (a) Ni/Al
2
O
3
/
β
-G...
Figure 9.56 (a) Schematic cross section of
β
-Ga
2
O
3
MOSFET with ferroele...
Figure 9.57 Summary of the band alignments of various materials with Ga
2
O
3
[...
Figure 9.58 Schematic cross section of a Ga
2
O
3
lateral transistor showing th...
Figure 9.59 Three-terminal off-state breakdown characteristics of sourceconn...
Figure 9.60 (a) Cross-sectional schematic illustration and (b) optical micro...
Figure 9.61 (a) Schematic cross-section of depletionmode Ga
2
O
3
MOSFET. (b) t...
Figure 9.62 (a) Schematic cross section of a generic Ga
2
O
3
FP-MOSFET illustr...
Figure 9.63 (a) Schematic cross-section of the lateral
β
-Ga
2
O
3
MOSFET w...
Figure 9.64 (a) A device cross section schematic is shown for the
β
-Ga
2
Figure 9.65 (a) thin-channel RF
β
-Ga
2
O
3
MOSFET with T-gate and
L
G
= 0.1...
Figure 9.66 (a) Schematic cross section of the enhancement-mode
β
-Ga
2
O
3
Figure 9.67 (a) SEM false-coloured cross-sectional view of a
L
SD
= 3 μm devi...
Figure 9.68 (a) The tilted false-coloured SEM image of a
L
SD
= 4 μm finFET d...
Figure 9.69 A comparison of different varieties of two-dimensional systems a...
Figure 9.70 Schematic cross section of Ga
2
O
3
MODFET.
Figure 9.71 (a) XRD of the (020) diffraction patterns. (b) Equilibrium energ...
Figure 9.72 (a) Temperature-dependent SdH oscillations of the transverse mag...
Figure 9.73 (a) Schematic epitaxial stack of the double heterostructure MODF...
Figure 9.74 (a) Schematic epitaxial stack of the MODFET structure. The UID b...
Figure 9.75 (a) Two-dimensional schematic of the fabricated
β
-(Al
0.22
Ga
Figure 9.76 Baseline process flow of Ga
2
O
3
vertical FinFETs at Cornell, incl...
Figure 9.77 (a) Schematic cross-section of a Ga
2
O
3
vertical power MISFET. (b...
Figure 9.78 (a) Schematic cross-section of the Ga
2
O
3
vertical fin transistor...
Figure 9.79 (a) Structure and operation of a generic depletion-mode current ...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Schematic of laser cooling process in rare earth doped materials...
Figure 10.2 The experimental setup used to measure the cooling of Yb
3+
: ...
Figure 10.3 Experimental set up used to cool Yb
3+
: YLF crystal to 124 K....
Figure 10.4 Schematic of mid: IR laser cooling setup of Ho-doped YLF crystal...
Figure 10.5 Experimental system for measuring the temperature of the glass s...
Figure 10.6 Experimental Set up used to cool silica glass.
Figure 10.7 Experimental setup used to cool an Yb-doped silica fibre.
Figure 10.8 Temperature change at an excitation wavelength of 1040 nm with 1...
Figure 10.9 DSC traces of the as-prepared 50SiO
2
-49PbF
2
-1YbF
3
glass and GC. ...
Figure 10.10 UV-Vis-NIR transmission spectra of the as-prepared 50SiO
2
-49PbF
Figure 10.11 Emission PL spectra of the 50SiO
2
-49PbF
2
-1YbF
3
parent glass and...
Figure 10.12 Emission lifetime decay curves of Yb
3+
:
2
F
5/2
-
2
F
7/2
tran...
Figure 10.13 Temperature changes (
Δ
T) normalized by absorbed power (P
Ab
...
Figure 10.14 Schematic of the solid-state optical cryocooler.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 X-ray pattern of calcined NiTiO
3
powder. Rietveld refinement of ...
Figure 11.2 (a) Cyclic voltammetry of first cycle of bare NTO electrode meas...
Figure 11.3 (a) Schematic of electrophoretic deposition set up and (b) top-v...
Figure 11.4 (a) Galvanostatic charge-discharge voltage profile of second cyc...
Figure 11.5 (a) Galvanostatic charge-discharge voltage profile of second cyc...
Figure 11.6 (a) X-ray diffractogram of the calcined Na
2
Ti
3
O
7
powder (symbol)...
Figure 11.7 (a) The first discharge–charge characteristics of calcined NaTO ...
Figure 11.8 (a) The surface morphology of porous carbon coated NaTO (NaTO@C)...
Figure 11.9 (a) Galvanostatic charge-discharge profile of second cycle and c...
Figure 11.10 (a) FESEM image of NaTO particles embedded in rGO with higher m...
Figure 11.11 (a) X-ray diffraction patterns, (b) schematic representation of...
Figure 11.12 Electrochemical performance of NiHCF electrode containing 70 wt...
Figure 11.13 Electrochemical performance of FeHCF electrode containing 70 wt...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Schematic structure of a PSC of structure: Glass/PEDOT: PSS/CH3N...
Figure 12.2 The
J
−
V
characteristics of a PSC of structur...
Figure 12.3 Plot of (a) diffusion length and (b) recombination rate as a fun...
Figure 12.4 Diffusion length plotted as a function of the applied voltage in...
Figure 12.5 Diffusion length plotted as a function of the applied voltage in...
Figure 12.6 shows the energy level diagram of the perovskite materials and t...
Figure 12.7 The
V
oc
in Eq. (12.15) plotted as a function of
P
for three diff...
Figure 12.8 Experimental bimolecular recombination coefficient (squares) as ...
Figure 12.9 Schematic of heat transfer mechanisms in an illuminated solar ce...
Figure 12.10 Division of the active layer of a PSC into meshes considered in...
Figure 12.11 The conduction heat transfer directions in a solar cell.
Figure 12.12 The data flow chart for solving the proposed simulation.
Figure 12.13 The operating temperature in the active layer plotted as a func...
Figure 12.14 The contour plot of heat generation rate due to the non-radiati...
Figure 12.15 The total heat generation rate (
P
in W) due to the non-radiativ...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Band structure of solids. (a) and (b) are band structures found ...
Figure 13.2 Molecular structure of polyacetylene and possible electron condu...
Figure 13.3 Schematic band diagram of n-type and p-type semiconductors (left...
Figure 13.4 Representation of the processes involved in electron band gap tr...
Figure 13.5 Cation and anion site in In
2
O
3
(a); Unit cell of pure and doped ...
Figure 13.6 Single crystal InGaZnO
4
showing the b-plane and c-plane cross-se...
Figure 13.7 Diagrammatic representation of perovskites and their possible de...
Figure 13.8 VLS growth mechanism (left) [52]; ZnO nanowires grown using Sn p...
Figure 13.9 Schematic of a molecular epitaxy chamber (left) [54]; Schematic ...
Figure 13.10 Schematic of a MOVPE vertical reactor (left) [56] epitaxial cry...
Figure 13.11 Flow reactor used for the supercritical hydrothermal synthesis ...
Figure 13.12 SEM micrographs of MnO
2
with different alkali metals added duri...
Figure 13.13 A RBS spectrum of an ITO film (left) [78]; and Ga
2
O
3
after diff...
Figure 13.14 FTIR of PIN, PIN/WO
3
, and PIN/MoO
3
[24].
Figure 13.15 Raman spectra showing the effect of strain on the position of E
Figure 13.16 Different morphologies obtained by Djuriić et al. [32].
Figure 13.17 HRTEM of ITO cross-section deposited using ethanol showing nano...
Figure 13.18 CL spectra at different positions of a ZnO nanopillar [52].
Figure 13.19 PL of bulk ZnO and ZnO nanrods (top left) [33]; PL of SiO2 impl...
Figure 13.20 XRD pattern for PIN, WO
3
, MoO
3
, and their composites [24].
Figure 13.21 SEM micrographs of RR leaf at different magnifications.
Figure 13.22 SEM micrograph of RR treated with titanium precursor and calcin...
Figure 13.23 HRTEM micrograph of RR derived TiO
2
replicas.
Figure 13.24 FTIR spectra of the biotemplates -EC and RR -before (left) and ...
Figure 13.25 Raman spectra of biotemplate derived TiO
2
and P25.
Figure 13.26 XRD leaf biotemplate derived TiO
2
and P25.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 (a) Transmission electron micrograph of reflux-derived 25%TiO
2
-S...
Figure 14.2 X-ray photoelectron-derived O1s binding energies (eV) for O
1s
(a...
Figure 14.3 (a,b)
29
Si MASNMR of SiO
2
(a) and pre-hydrolysis-derived 25%TiO
2
Figure 14.4 Fourier transformed k
3
-weighted EXAFS profiles for Si (a) and Ti...
Figure 14.5 (a) Effect of composition on the absorption edge (SiO
2
288 nm, 5...
Figure 14.6 SEM of multilayer SiO
2
(d = 300 nm) coatings on glass produced a...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Binary phase diagram of CaO-Al
2
O3, showing CA (CaO.Al
2
O
3
), C3A(3...
Figure 15.2 Structure of an empty C12A7 cage, composed of 30 individual atom...
Figure 15.3 C12A7 framework structure: (a) three neighbouring cages belongin...
Figure 15.4 X-ray diffractograms of samples collected after 3 hours of react...
Figure 15.5 Bulk electrical conductivity (σ
bulk
) of hydrogenated C12A7:O
2−
...
Figure 15.6 Schematic illustration of cage and framework conduction bands en...
Figure 15.7 XRD patterns of powders calcined at different temperatures; phas...
Figure 15.8 XRD spectra of C12A7 film (a) standard, (b) on MgO <011> single ...
Figure 15.9 SEM images of monolithic dried gels (a) without Tb doping and wi...
Figure 15.10 Optical absorption spectra measured for samples 1, 4, 7, and 10...
Figure 15.11 The absorption spectra of C12A7:H- single crystal before and af...
Figure 15.12 Seebeck coefficient (a) as a function of temperature and (b) as...
Figure 15.13 Electrical properties of pristine C12A7 and BC/C12A7 (5, 10 and...
Figure 15.14 Absorption spectra of C12A7:O2-, C12A7:e-:PLD and C12A7:e-:Ar....
Figure 15.15 Absorbance spectra of samples heat treated at (i) 1100 °C, (ii)...
Figure 15.16 (a) Reflectivity spectrum of a C12A7 single crystal compared to...
Figure 15.17 Field Effect Transistor structure using single-crystalline elec...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Crooke's tube.
Figure 16.2 DC loading capability of oxide cathodes. Already, by the 1960s, ...
Figure 16.3 Philips type oxide cathode. Billions of such components were pro...
Figure 16.4 Schematics of the Philips type Oxide and Impregnated Cathoes. Bo...
Figure 16.5 Potential diagram for a clean metal.
Figure 16.6 Mechanisms of oxide cathode conductivity, 1 - surface condition,...
Figure 16.7 A structural model of the oxide cathode showing the complexity o...
Figure 16.8 Analysis of the interfacial surface reveals Mg, Al and Ni in cra...
Figure 16.9 A proposed schematic for the production of free barium and the r...
Figure 16.10 In laboratory tests, the Cermet cathode showed less vulnerabili...
Figure 16.11 As shown by this figure, the current density performance for ca...
Figure 16.12 Performance of the scandate top layer cathode.
Figure 16.13 Publications with ‘Thermionic Emission’ as a keyword since 1900...
Figure 16.14 Chinese language publications with ‘Thermionic Emission’ as a k...
Figure 16.15 Whereas the CRT market underwent rapid decline between 2000 and...
Figure 16.16 Klystron schematic.
Figure 16.17 Solid state devices (the black open squares) show limited perfo...
Figure 16.18 Flashing navigational buoy near Baltimore, US using a SNAP-7 re...
Figure 16.19 The triboelectric effect causes a build of electrical charge on...
Figure 16.20 A basic schematic for a triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG).
Figure 16.21 The FED acts like a mini CRT, with cathodes giving rise to elec...
Figure 16.22 The field enhancement
β
is dependent on the geometry of th...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Pages
ii
iii
iv
xiii
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
Wiley Series in Materials for Electronic & Optoelectronic Applications
www.wiley.com/go/meoa
Series Editors
Professor Richard Curry, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Professor Jun Luo, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Professor Harry E. Ruda, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
Founding Series Editors
Professor Arthur Willoughby, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
Dr Peter Capper, Ex-Leonardo MW Ltd, Southampton, UK
Professor Safa Kasap, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
Published Titles
Bulk Crystal Growth of Electronic, Optical and Optoelectronic Materials, Edited by P. Capper
Properties of Group-IV. III–V and II–VI Semiconductors, S. Adachi
Charge Transport in Disordered Solids with Applications in Electronics, Edited by S. Baranovski
Thin Film Solar Cells: Fabrication, Characterization, and Applications, Edited by J. Poortmans and V. Arkhipov
Dielectric Films for Advanced Microelectronics, Edited by M. R. Baklanov, M. Green, and K. Maex
Liquid Phase Epitaxy of Electronic, Optical and Optoelectronic Materials, Edited by P. Capper and M. Mauk
Molecular Electronics: From Principles to Practice, M. Petty
Luminescent Materials and Applications, A. Kitai
CVD Diamond for Electronic Devices and Sensors, Edited by R. S. Sussmann
Properties of Semiconductor Alloys: Group IV, III–V, and II–VI Semiconductors, S. Adachi
Mercury Cadmium Telluride, Edited by P. Capper and J. Garland
Zinc Oxide Materials for Electronic and Optoelectronic Device Applications, Edited by C. Litton, D. C. Reynolds, and T. C. Collins
Lead-Free Solders: Materials Reliability for Electronics, Edited by K. N. Subramanian
Silicon Photonics: Fundamentals and Devices, M. Jamal Deen and P. K. Basu
Nanostructured and Subwavelength Waveguides: Fundamentals and Applications, M. Skorobogatiy
Photovoltaic Materials: From Crystalline Silicon to Third-Generation Approaches, Edited by G. Conibeer and A. Willoughby
Glancing Angle Deposition of Thin Films: Engineering the Nanoscale, Matthew M. Hawkeye, Michael T. Taschuk, and Michael J. Brett
Physical Properties of High-Temperature Superconductors, R. Wesche
Spintronics for Next Generation Innovative Devices, Edited by Katsuaki Sato and Eiji Saitoh
Inorganic Glasses for Photonics: Fundamentals, Engineering and Applications, Animesh Jha
Amorphous Semiconductors: Structural, Optical and Electronic Properties, Kazuo Morigaki, Sandor Kugler, and Koichi Shimakawa
Microwave Materials and Applications 2V, Edited by Mailadil T. Sebastian, Rick Ubic, and Heli Jantunen
Molecular Beam Epitaxy: Materials and Applications for Electronics and Optoelectronics, Edited by Hajime Asahi and Yoshiji Korikoshi
Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE), Edited by Stuart Irvine and Peter Capper
Optical Properties of Condensed Matter and Applications 2e, Edited by J. Singh
Oxide Electronics, Edited by Asim Ray
Oxide Electronics
Edited by
Asim Ray
Brunel University
London, UK
This edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley and Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Asim Ray to be identified as author of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered Offices
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Office
The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ray, Asim K., editor.
Title: Oxide electronics / edited by Asim Ray, Brunel University London, England, United Kingdom.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2021. | Series: Wiley series in materials for electronic & optoelectronic applications | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020051123 (print) | LCCN 2020051124 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119529477 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119529484 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119529507 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Electronics–Materials. | Metallic oxides. | Oxides–Electric properties.
Classification: LCC TK7871 .O95 2021 (print) | LCC TK7871 (ebook) | DDC 621.381028/4–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020051123
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020051124
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: Courtesy of Subhasish Basu Majumder
Series Preface
Wiley Series in Materials for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications
This book series is devoted to the rapidly developing class of materials used for electronic and optoelectronic applications. It is designed to provide much-needed information on the fundamental scientific principles of these materials, together with how these are employed in technological applications. The books are aimed at (postgraduate) students, researchers, and technologists, engaged in research, development, and the study of materials in electronics and photonics, and industrial scientists developing new materials, devices, and circuits for the electronic, optoelectronic and, communications industries.
The development of new electronic and optoelectronic materials depends not only on materials engineering at a practical level, but also on a clear understanding of the properties of materials, and the fundamental science behind these properties. It is the properties of a material that eventually determine its usefulness in an application. The series therefore also includes such titles as electrical conduction in solids, optical properties, thermal properties, and so on, all with applications and examples of materials in electronics and optoelectronics. The characterization of materials is also covered within the series in as much as it is impossible to develop new materials without the proper characterization of their structure and properties. Structure–property relationships have always been fundamentally and intrinsically important to materials science and engineering.
Materials science is well known for being one of the most interdisciplinary sciences. It is the interdisciplinary aspect of materials science that has led to many exciting discoveries, new materials and new applications. It is not unusual to find scientists with a chemical engineering background working on materials projects with applications in electronics. In selecting titles for the series, we have tried to maintain the interdisciplinary aspect of the field, and hence its excitement to researchers in this field.
Arthur Willoughby
Peter Capper
Safa Kasap
Preface
Potential applications of oxide electronic materials are vast. Transparent electronics, optoelectronics, magnetoelectronic, photonics, spintronics, thermoelectric, piezoelectric, resistive switching, power harvesting, hydrogen storage, and environmental waste management has stimulated huge interests, both academic and industrial, in oxide electronics. The vast wealth of functional properties of oxides is first rooted in the extreme diversity of characterizing techniques. Complex transition metal oxides exhibit manifold physical properties comprising high-temperature superconductivity, piezoelectricity, ferroelectricity, magnetism, multiferroicity, and resistive switching. The functional properties of complex metal oxides are very sensitive to the details of electronic structure and are thereby strongly influenced by the elemental composition and the presence of defects or lattice distortions. The nanoscale form of oxides provides a new dimension due to the increased surface-to-volume ratio.
This handbook contains 16 chapters. These topics have a broader appeal with a view to satisfying the multidisciplinary need of electrical and electronic engineers, physicists, and material scientists. The format of these chapters is similar to one another. For example, each begins with an abstract followed by an introduction to the topic and a clear illustration of contents with relevant equations and graphical illustrations. Chapters end with a summary of the description. Each chapter contains an adequate number of supporting references, pointing out the additional contribution to existing knowledge. All chapters are self-contained with no overlapping in their contents. Difficult mathematics has been avoided as far as possible in describing the science within the chapters. The handbook is highly interdisciplinary so that its chapters are valuable for readers with different backgrounds.
I am very grateful to all the authors for their excellent contributions. Each topic is multidisciplinary, Therefore, readers with chemistry backgrounds but working in electrical engineering will may be interested in this handbook. Similarly, physicists will benefit from this handbook in order to acquire knowledge in materials science. The authors' cooperation in delivering their manuscripts during different stages of production has also been very much appreciated. Sincere thanks are due to Jenny Cossham and Katrina Maceda for their help over several months in commissioning the contributions and getting them ready for production.
It is my great pleasure to thank Professor Safa Kasap for his many helpful suggestions. He is the Editor-in-Chief of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics. His advice on the selection of chapters and their authors has been very much appreciated.
Finally, the editor wishes to thank all the members of their family (Arunima, Raj, Madhurima, Rishabh, Mayan and Reuben).
Asim Ray
London, UK, August 2016
List of Contributors
Amr M. Abdelkader
Department of Design and Engineering
Bournemouth University
Dorset
UK
Shaila Afroj
Centre for Fine Print Research
The University of West of England
Bristol
UK
U. Onwukwe, L. Anguilano
College of Engineering,
Design and Physical Sciences
Brunel University London
Uxbridge
UK
Ian Alberts
Department of Nuclear Medicine
Inselspital, Bern University Hospital
University of Bern
Bern
Switzerland
and
LG.Philips Displays
Lancashire
UK
Supriyo Bandyopadhyay
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond
USA
Abigail Casey
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond
USA
J.M. Charnock
Nanomaterials and Applications Laboratory
CEDPS, Bragg Building
Brunel University
Uxbridge
UK
Xuanhu Chen
School of Electronic Science and Engineering
Nanjing University
Nanjing
China
Michael G. Cottam
Department of Physics and Astronomy
Western University, London
Ontario
Canada
Debasish Das
School of Nano Science and Technology
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur
W. Bengal
India
Raisa Fabiha
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond
USA
Felix Greuter
Department of Energy & Materials
ABB Corporate Research
Baden-Daettwil
Switzerland
Thomas W. Hickmott
Department of Physics
State University of New York at Albany
Albany
USA
Chennupati Jagadish
Department of Electronic Materials Engineering and ARC Centre of Excellence on Transformative Meta-Optical Systems
Research School of Physics
Australian National University, ACT
Canberra
Australia
Nazmul Karim
Centre for Fine Print Research
The University of West of England
Bristol
UK
Raman Kashyap
Department of Engineering Physics
École Polytechnique de Montréal
Canada
J.G. Leadley
Nanomaterials and Applications Laboratory
CEDPS, Bragg Building
Brunel University
Uxbridge
UK
Yannick Ledemi
Department of Electrical Engineering
École Polytechnique de Montréal
Canada
Damien Leech
Centre for Fine Print Research
The University of West of England
Bristol
UK
Fenghua Liu
Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Shanghai
China
David J. Lockwood
Metrology Research Centre
National Research Council Canada
Ottawa, Ontario
Canada
R.M.A. MacGibbon
Nanomaterials and Applications Laboratory
CEDPS, Bragg Building
Brunel University
Uxbridge
UK
Lauro Maia
Instituto de Física
Universidade Federal de Goiás
Goiânia
Brazil
S.B. Majumder
Materials Science Centre
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur
W. Bengal
India
Tania Majumder
Materials Science Centre
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur
W. Bengal
India
Hooman Mehdizadeh Rad
College of Engineering
IT and Environment
Charles Darwin University
Darwin
Australia
Younes Messaddeq
Centre d′optique,
Photonique et Laser
Université Laval
Québec
Canada
Anwesa Mukherjee
Materials Science Centre
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur
W. Bengal
India
David Ompong
College of Engineering
IT and Environment
Charles Darwin University
Darwin
Australia
Asim K. Ray
Design & Physical Sciences
College of Engineering
Brunel University
Uxbridge
UK
Alla Rez
Physics Department
Lakehead University
Thunder Bay
Canada
and
Thunder Bay Regional Health Research Institute
Thunder Bay
Canada
T. Salvesen
Nanomaterials and Applications Laboratory
CEDPS, Bragg Building
Brunel University
Uxbridge
UK
Oleksii Semeniuk
Radiation Medicine Program
Princess Margaret Cancer Centre
Toronto, ON
Canada
Jai Singh
College of Engineering
IT and Environment
Charles Darwin University
Darwin
Australia
P. Sermon
College of Engineering,
Design and Physical Sciences
Brunel University London
Uxbridge
UK
Jyothis Thomas
Department of Engineering Physics
École Polytechnique de Montréal
Canada
Gregory Triplett
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond
USA
Lijian Wang
School of Materials Science and Engineering
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Shanghai
China
M.P. Worsley
Nanomaterials and Applications Laboratory
CEDPS, Bragg Building
Brunel University
Uxbridge
UK
Weiping Wu
Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Shanghai
China
Yi Yang
School of Electronic Science and Engineering
Southeast University
Nanjing, Jiangsu
China
Jiandong Ye
School of Electronic Science and Engineering
Nanjing University
Nanjing
China
Lifeng Zhang
School of Materials Science and Engineering
Shaanxi University of Science and Technology
Xi'an, Shaanxi
China
Tong Zhang
School of Electronic Science and Engineering
Southeast University
Nanjing, Jiangsu
China
Xiaoyang Zhang
School of Electronic Science and Engineering
Southeast University
Nanjing, Jiangsu
China
Binyuan Zhao
School of Materials Science and Engineering
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Shanghai
China
1Graphene Oxide for Electronics
Fenghua Liu1, Lifeng Zhang2, Lijian Wang3, Binyuan Zhao3 and Weiping Wu1
1Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
2School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
3School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
1.1 Introduction
Graphene, a single layer or a few layers of sp2-hybridized graphitic carbon, has generated much attention both in scientific and technological fields due to its unique physical and chemical properties. As a conducting semimetal, graphene has attracted lots of interests for the research and applications of electronics. Mass preparation of graphene with controllable size and economic cost is still a key challenge in its application to electronic devices. Different synthesis methods of graphene leaded to its various properties. Since the first successful preparation of graphene using the ‘scotch tape’ method, a series of methods have been developed for the synthesis of graphene [1]. A significant proportion of the graphene research has been realized by the graphene oxide (GO) and its reduced form, the reduced graphene oxide (rGO) as the raw materials.
Graphite oxide is a compound of carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H), and has been synthesized by Hummers' method in 1958 [2], using the chemical reaction between graphite, potassium permanganate (KMnO4), sodium nitrate (Na2NO3), and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The one-molecule-thick or few-layer version of the substance graphite oxide is known as graphene oxide (GO). The GO is not conductive but can be reduced by chemical reactions, thermal treatment, or many other methods, forming conductive rGO (Figure 1.1) [3]. So far, many methods have been well developed to synthesis GO and rGO, including the chemical reduction, the microwave method, the plasma method, the laser method, and the hydrothermal method. Other synthesis methods, such as chemical vapour deposition (CVD) method, arc discharge method, ball milling approach, solvent-assisted exfoliation, etc., were also devoted to develop high-quality graphene, although these synthesis methods all have some trade-offs in terms of high quality, high yield, and environmental friendliness.
Figure 1.1 The chemical structures of graphene, graphene oxide (GO), the reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and the conversion of graphene into GO and rGO via oxidation/reduction reactions.
Source: Reprinted with permission from ref. [3] Copyright 2018, Springer Nature.
1.2 Synthesis and Characterizations of Graphene Oxide
1.2.1 Chemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide (GO)
Chemical reduction of graphene oxide (GO) is a common method to low-cost synthesize graphene [4]. Exfoliation of GO to individual GO sheets (Figure 1.2) could be chemically reduced to rGO, using, for instance, NaBH4 or hydrazine [5]. However, the product has problems, such as aggregation and defects. Moreover, the generally used reducing agents, such as hydrazine or NaBH4, are toxic. However, it still remained a great challenge to readily and efficiently synthesis of high-quality graphene with higher conductivity and less defects. Recently, some emerging methods of producing graphene, such as microwave method, plasma method, and laser method, have attracted a lot of interest, which will be presented in the following sections.
1.2.2 Microwave Method
Microwave absorbs heat energy through the medium and conducts micro-gradient heating from inside the material, which is considered as a unique method for material synthesis. The strong microwave absorption capability of graphene oxide (GO) can quickly remove oxygen-containing functional groups and further exfoliates GO. This feature has a fatal temptation for the preparation of high-quality and pollution-free graphene. As early as in 2011, microwave method was employed by Zhu et al. to exfoliate GO [6]. Through the subsequent activation of KOH, they prepared graphene with a high specific surface area (SSA) value of 3100 m2 g−1 and a high conductivity of 500 S m−1. Another example of utilization of microwaves is the exfoliation of graphite in molecularly engineered ionic liquids [7]. It is supposed that the cation–π interactions can improve the affinity of graphene surfaces. The as-exfoliated graphene exhibited a high single-layer proportion. Besides, ID/IG value of 0.14 and C/O ratio of 30 are close to the values of the graphite precursor, indicating the excellent structural integrity.
Figure 1.2 AFM image of exfoliated graphene oxide (GO) sheets with three height profiles acquired in different locations.
Source: Reprinted with permission from ref. [5] Copyright 2007 Elsevier Ltd.
One of the challenges on producing GO and rGO is the use of the toxic chemicals, such as sulfuric acid and hydrazine hydrate. Lots of methods have been developed to synthesize rGO by green reduction methods, using hydroiodic acid (HI), citric acid, plant extracts, phytochemicals, or alternatively by thermal heating in the inert atmosphere. In 2016, Voiry et al. reported on the fabrication of high-quality graphene through the microwave reduction of GO [8]. This result attracted much interest because they used a conventional microwave oven operated at 1000 W to rapidly and efficiently reduce GO nanosheets with ∼50 μm size (Figure 1.3a). The higher-power microwave pulses locally and ultra-fast-heated GO up to several thousand degrees to thoroughly eliminate the oxygen functional groups and reorder the graphene basal plane. The XPS results (Figure 1.3b) suggest that microwave-reduced GO (MW-rGO) shows a negligible in-plane oxygen concentrations of ∼4 at. %. This oxygen content is much lower than the theoretical value of rGO annealed at 1500 K [9]. The Raman spectra of MW-rGO and other compared samples are shown in Figure 1.3c. The as-prepared MW-rGO exhibited highly ordered graphene–like Raman features with sharp and symmetrical 2D and G peaks and a very low ID/IG ratio (<0.1). It is also found that MW-rGO shows higher I2D/IG ratios and larger graphene domain sizes as compared with rGO and solution-exfoliated flakes (Figure 1.3d). Although microwave method has potential advantages in the efficient preparation of high-quality graphene, it should be noted that the yield is so low that scale-up fabrication of high-quality graphene remains a great challenge.
