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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Polymer Science and Plastics Engineering
- Sprache: Englisch
Because it is critically important to manufacture quality products, a reasonable balance must be drawn between control requirements and parameters for improved processing method with respect to plastics additives. An important contribution to the commercial polymer industry, Polymer Blends and Composites is one of the first books to combine plastics additives, testing, and quality control. The book is a comprehensive treatise on properties that provides detailed guidelines for selecting and using blends and composites for applications. A valuable resource for operators, processors, engineers, chemists, the book serves to stimulate those already active in natural polymer composites.
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Seitenzahl: 513
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Polymer Blends
1.2 Polymer Composites
1.3 Blends and Composites – Advantages
1.4 Summary
References
Chapter 2: Polymers
2.1 Macromolecules
2.2 Types of Polymers
2.3 Polymerization
2.4 Polymerization Techniques
2.5 Synthetic Polymers
2.6 Engineering Polymers
2.7 Natural Polymers
2.8 Biodegradable Polymers
2.9 Trends
2.10 Summary
References
Chapter 3: Polymer Properties
3.1 Chemistry
3.2 Polymer Properties
3.3 Surface Properties
3.4 Catalysis
3.5 Factors Affecting Polymer Properties
3.6 Summary
References
Chapter 4: Additives
4.1 Polymer Additives
4.2 Additives Influencing Blends and Composites
4.3 Processing Aids
4.4 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Polymer Blends and Composites
5.1 Properties of Polymer Blends
5.2 Properties of Polymer Composites
5.3 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Polymer Blends: Thermodynamics
6.1 Thermodynamics and Blend Properties
6.2 Entropy of Mixing
6.3 Enthalpy of Mixing
6.4 Specific Enthalpy
6.5 Free Energy of Mixing
6.6 Thermodynamics of Miscible Polymers
6.7 Lower Critical Solution Temperature
6.8 Thermodynamics of Immiscible Polymers
6.9 Summary
References
Chapter 7: Polymer Blends
7.1 Type of Blends
7.2 Blend Properties
7.3 Compatibilization
7.4 Classification
7.5 Advantage of Polymer Blends
7.6 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Polymer Composites
8.1 Polymeric Phase
8.2 Reinforcing Phase
8.3 Classification
8.4 Characteristics
8.5 Reinforcing Agents
8.6 Fillers
8.7 Fibers
8.8 Composites Classification
8.9 Thermoset Composites
8.10 Thermoplastic vs Thermoset Composites
8.11 Summary
References
Chapter 9: Biocomposites
9.1 Natural Fillers
9.2 Natural Fibers
9.3 Thermoplastic Materials
9.4 Natural Polymer Composites
9.5 Wood-Polymer Composites
9.6 Biocomposites
9.7 Future Trends
9.8 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Processing Technology
10.1 Processing Technology
10.2 Processing Requirements
10.3 Processing Polymer Blends
10.4 Selection of Polymers
10.5 Machine Selection
10.6 Processing Polymer Composites
10.7 Thermoset Polymers
10.8 Processing Technology for Polymer Blends and Composites
10.9 Wood-Polymer Composites
10.10 Recycling
10.11 Summary
References
Chapter 11: Blends, Composites and the Environment
11.1 Recycling of Polymer Wastes
11.2 Polymer Blends and Composites Recycling
11.3 Shortcomings
11.4 Present Needs
11.5 Future Commitment
11.6 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Future Trends
12.1 Blends and Composites
12.2 Blend and Composite Requirements
12.3 Future Benefits
12.4 Greener Processing
12.5 Future Trends
12.6 Advantages
12.7 Summary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Thermoplastic polymers versus thermoset polymers.
Figure 2.2
Schematic representation of the polymerization process.
Figure 2.3
Life cycle of polyolefin materials. (Reprinted with permission from [23]; Copyright © 2003 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. All rights reserved)
Figure 2.4
Chain configuration of different polyethylenes.
Figure 2.5
Structures of common biodegradable polymers.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Parameters defining polymer structure.
Figure 3.2
From molecular details to macroscopic response via the intermediate of the polymer’s intrinsic deformation. (Reprinted with permission from [16]; Copyright © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved)
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
Some of the antioxidants useful in polymer processes.
Figure 4.2
Molecular structures of some flame retardants.
Figure 4.3
Some of the organic foaming agents.
Figure 4.4
Structures of silane coupling agents.
Figure 4.5
Illustration of the probable alignment of block copolymers at an interface. (Reprinted with permission from [194]; 2002 © American Chemical Society. All rights reserved)
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1
(a) Formation of the gradient phase morphology; (b) surface modification through formation of gradient phase morphology of polymer blends. (Reprinted with permission from [100]; Copyright © 1999 American Chemical Society. All rights reserved)
Figure 5.2
Two polymer melts separated by an interface diblock copolymer (Reprinted with permission from [118]; Copyright © 1996 American Chemical Society. All rights reserved)
Figure 5.3
The Tgs of immiscible, partially miscible and miscible binary blends.
Figure 5.4
Schematic phase diagram for a symmetric binary mixture of linear homopolymers showing the T
LCST
and T
UCST
(Reprinted with permission from [178]; Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved)
Figure 5.5
Oriented (a) and unoriented (b) in polymer composites.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1
Specific enthalpy as a function of temperature for different polymers. (Reprinted with permission from [22]; Copyright ©1998 All rights reserved)
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1
Schematic diagram of the formation of an interphase between two immiscible homopolymers, A and B, in the presence of block copolymer, C-block-D. (Reprinted with permission from [43]; Copyright © 2000 American Chemical Society. All rights reserved)
Figure 7.2
Portion of an equilibrium phase diagram for a binary blend in liquid state.
Figure 7.3
Schematic description of phase formations that appear in ternary immiscible polymer blends composed of polymer 1, 2 and 3. (a) Capsule formation of 2 capsulated by 1. (b) Stack formation of 1 and 2 stuck together. (c) Isolated formation of 1 and 2 dispersed separately. (Reprinted with permission from [83]; Copyright © 1997 American Chemical Society. All rights reserved)
Figure 7.4
Schematic representation of encapsulation in side-by-side two phase flow.
Figure 7.5
Dispersibility of mechanically blended polymer of Nylon 6 and PP. (Reprinted with permission from [199]; Copyright © 1974 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved)
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
Classification of polymer composites.
Figure 8.2
Hydrolysis of silane followed by reaction with an inorganic surface.
Figure 8.3
Polymer reinforcement geometry.
Figure 8.4
Schematic showing the heterogeneous and anisotropic structures of reinforced polymer matrix.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1
Graphical representation of processing window.
Figure 10.2
Schematic representation of the multigated injection molding operation using a reciprocating-type screw injection molding machine.
Figure 10.3
Single screw extruder.
Figure 10.4
Schematic representation of a single screw extruder with polymer mixing at different points with removal of volatiles.
Figure 10.5
Schematic diagram of a conical twin screw extruder, in which immiscible polymers are extruded with preset temperature along the extruder axis. (Reprinted with permission from [34]; Copyright © 2002 Elsevier Sciences Ltd. All rights reserved)
Figure 10.6
Flowchart of the possible heating/melting mechanisms in co-rotating twin screw extruders.
Figure 10.7
Thermoforming process: (a) Thermoplastic sheet is clamped onto mold and heated; (b) Heated sheet is forced into mold by plug or pressure/vacuum.
Figure 10.8
Flowchart showing the stages of the composite manufacturing process.
Figure 10.9
Schematic of a heat press device.
Figure 10.10
Schematic representation of single screw foam process. (Reprinted with permission from [109]; Copyright © 2010 American Chemical Society. All rights reserved)
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1
Recycling of polymer composite waste: a simple flow diagram showing the recovery of reinforcing agents.
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Thermoplastic polymers versus thermoset polymers.
Table 2.2
Some of the polymers and their structures.
Table 2.3
Properties of low-density polyethylene (LDPE).
Table 2.4
Properties of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE).
Table 2.5
Properties of high-density polyethylene (HDPE).
Table 2.6
Properties of polypropylene (PP).
Table 2.7
Properties of polyvinylchloride (PVC).
Table 2.8
Properties of polystyrene (PS).
Table 2.9
Properties of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Table 2.10
Properties of acrylonitrile-styrene-butadiene (ABS).
Table 2.11
Properties of polyamide (PA).
Table 2.12
Properties of polycarbonate (PC).
Table 2.13
Properties of poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA).
Table 2.14
Properties of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK).
Chapter 3
Table 3.1
Some of the physical properties versus molecular structure.
Table 3.2
Typical properties of polymers.
Chapter 3
Table 4.1
Some commonly used lubricants.
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Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener ([email protected]) Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Polymer Blends and Composites
Chemistry and Technology
Muralisrinivasan Natamai Subramanian
This edition first published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2017 Scrivener Publishing LLC For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN 978-1-118-11889-4
Preface
The emerging area of polymer blends and composites allows choosing a suitable combination of polymers and tailoring them for a desired performance. Although polymer blends and composites are relatively independent, history has shown that the interplay of new methods and ideas results in advancements in the development of new materials via properties and multifunctional approaches.
As part of the significant progress of science, engineering, and technology, it is highly gratifying that polymer blends and composites continue to advance at such a rapid pace. Today, continuously changing environmental aspects and natural resources dictate what is not allowed in the manufacture of new polymeric materials. Hence, blends and composites provide a powerful means of expanding new product development as well as new concepts in applications.
Today’s challenge for material scientists is to develop technologies that can produce blends and composite products with extended lifetime, increased safety and perhaps with little or no maintenance. Therefore a technical reference is needed to help address this challenge, with text that provides the necessary value-added information to the reader. Consequently, an important motivation behind this book was to provide information that ultimately leads to advances in blends and composites. This along with the structure-property relationships in blends and composites are presented in order to achieve a new level of understanding of the area, resulting in the synergistic outcome of new materials.
The main objectives of this book are to present state-of-the-art preparation of novel materials, and to discuss their performance and application potentials. The wide scope of material covered provides a high-level of knowledge on polymer blends and composites. At the same time, the book gives young scientists the opportunity to understand areas of blends and composites and to develop professionally as quickly as possible. In addition, this book will encourage scientific and technological investigators to expand their knowledge of commercially relevant blends and composites.
I thank Mrs. Himachala Ganga, Mr. Venkatasubramanian and Mr. Sailesh for providing the encouragement to get the job done and help bring this book to fruition. Special thanks also to Mr. Martin Scrivener, Ms. Jean Markovich and to my professors. Above all, I thank the almighty Nataraja for bringing me into this wonderful earth to complete this work.
Dr. Muralisrinivasan Natamai Subramanian Madurai January 1, 2017
Chapter 1Introduction
Polymers are considered as matrix materials in blends and composites. These polymers, which are a result of the mixing of two or more polymers, enable the production of blends and composites with required properties. As the performance requirements of polymers become more demanding, their physical properties through the use of blends and composites has become increasingly important.
Polymers have recently been used more frequently as blends and composites, resulting in good technological qualities of each of the components. Polymer blend processing has emerged as an inexpensive and versatile route to control the microstructural characteristics of polymers and enhance their properties [1–4].
Polymers are macromolecules and are insoluble material. The physical properties of the material dictate the complex structure of polymer by their ability to establish a structure-property relationship that predicts various physical properties. With the introduction of food packaging, the use of polymers has grown greatly, particularly the use of thermoplastic polymers such as high- and low-density polyethylene (HDPE and LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephtalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polystyrene (PS). Polymers have been widely used as a route to develop a combination of desired properties by blending or by composites.
1.1 Polymer Blends
Polymer blends have become a broad field that aims to tailor polymer functionality. The blending of polymers is an inexpensive route to the modification of various polymer properties. It is a viable and versatile way to control the performance of polymeric materials with available polymers [5]. There has been a significant increase in the use of polymer blends to obtain new high-performance organic materials without any synthesis, resulting in a new polymeric material. Polymer blends are composed of two or more polymers with or without compatibilizer, depending on the composition and viscoelastic properties of individual components. They have complicated properties which display elasticity and viscosity at different strain rates and temperatures [6, 7].
Polymer blending is a relatively simple process and cheaper than polymer synthesis. The blending of conventional polymers has been extensively employed to develop new polymeric materials. Polymer blends have become a traditional method for producing new, high-performance polymeric materials. Mechanical, optical and electrical properties of polymer blends depend on their morphological characteristics [8]. They are produced in order to achieve improvements in properties such as thermal stability, mechanical properties or chemical resistance [9]. Many important polymer blends are incompatible polymers [4]. Due to its utility and simplicity, blending is currently a feasible method for improving polymer surface properties [10, 11]. Polymer blends and composites improve product performance by combining different polymers with specific properties in order to combine as one material.
1.2 Polymer Composites
Polymer matrix composite is a material with at least two phases, a continuous phase as polymer and a dispersed phase as filler or fiber. The continuous phase is responsible for filling the volume and transferring loads to the dispersed phase. The dispersed phase is responsible for enhancing one or more properties of the composite.
Polymer matrix composites, due to their outstanding mechanical properties, are widely used as special engineering materials in applications for aerospace, automotive and civil engineering structures. Therefore, it is of great interest to have knowledge of the durability of these materials [12, 13]. Polymer composites are controlled by the reinforcing material content present in them. Volume fraction and orientation of reinforcing material decides the properties such as stiffness, strength, thermal conductivity, and other properties of composites. Instead of synthesizing new polymers, composites have several features in comparison with metallic and other products.
Composites have been developed to meet several industrial requirements such as the need for easier processing and broadening of the range of properties, either by varying the type, relative amounts or morphology of each component. These materials can be prepared so as, for example, to combine their high mechanical strength to a better dimensional stability and thermal resistance. Sometimes a higher stiffness is also attained with the use of reinforcing fillers [14–16]. Most of the composites target an enhancement of mechanical properties such as stiffness and strength, but other properties may be of interest such as density, thermal properties, etc.
One of the key parameters in controlling the successful design of polymer matrix composites is the efficient control of the interface between the continuous phase (polymer) and the discontinuous phase (reinforcement). The greatest advantage of composite materials is that they offer the possibility of tailoring their properties by playing with the volume fraction of the discontinuous phase, dimension of the particles (particularly when in fiber form), and their orientation [17].
1.3 Blends and Composites – Advantages
Polymers have been widely used as routes to develop a combination of desired properties by blending or by composites. Polymer blends and composites with useful combinations have increased considerably and rapidly. There has been a long practice of tailoring specific processing and performance requirements which combine both physical and mechanical properties of the existing polymers depending on the composition and level of compatibility of the materials.
Blends and composites are relatively
Low cost;
Light weight, thereby easily transported;
Easy to fabricate using extrusion, injection molding, compression molding, etc.;
Durable against environmental degradation such as corrosion, rust and higher thermal stresses which are present in metallic products.
Therefore, polymer blends and composites can be converted into products or components. They have thermal-oxidative stability with mechanical properties. Apart from consumer products, polymer blends are widely used in industrial and engineering applications, all over the world [18]. However, their conversion is not easy because most polymers are generally not miscible [19, 20].
1.4 Summary
Simple blends have poor mechanical properties and unstable morphologies.
Polymer blends offer attractive opportunities for developing new materials with a useful combination of properties.
Development of composites for replacement application is particularly demanding from a mechanical, chemical and functional point of view.
Blends and composites of commercial products are normally much cheaper than the synthesis of a new class of polymers.
References
1. Olabisi, O., Robeson L.M., Shaw M.T., Polymer-Polymer Miscibility, Academic Press, New York, 1979.
2. Ehlers, W. and Markert, B., Int. J. Plast. 19, 961–976, 2003.
3. Prince, L.M., in: Microemulsions: Theory and Practice, Academic Press, New York, 1977.
4. Mansion, J.A. and Sperling, L.H., in: Polymer Blends and Composites, 51, Plenum Press, New York, 1970.
5. Vigild, M.E., et al., Macromolecules 34, 951, 2001.
6. Haupt, P., Lion, A., and Backhaus, E., Int. J. Solids Struct. 37, 3633–3646, 2000.
7. Ehlers, W. and Markert, B., Int. J. Plast. 19, 961–976, 2003.
8. Xie, X.-M., Xiao, T.-J., Zhang, Z.-M., and Tanioka, A.J., Colloid Interface Sci. 206, 189, 1998.
9. Prince, L.M., in: Microemulsions: Theory and Practice, Academic Press, New York, 1977.
10. Xie, X.-M., Xiao, T.-J., Zhang, Z.-M., and Tanioka, A.J., Colloid Interface Sci. 206, 189, 1998.
11. Schroeder, K., Klee, D., Hocker, H., Leute, A., Benninghoven, A., and Mittermayer, C.J., Appl. Polym. Sci. 58, 699, 1995.
12. Al-Haik, M.S., Garmestani, H., and Savran, A., Int. J. Plasticity 20, 1875–1907, 2004.
13. Megnis, M. and Varna, J., Compos. Sci. Technol. 63, 19–31, 2003.
14. Saha, S., Eur. Polym. J., 37(2), 399–410, 2001.
15. Ramesh, P., J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 50, 1369–1377, 1993.
16. Freire, E., Polímeros: Ciênc. Tecnol. 3, 25–26, 1994.
17. Evans, S.L. and Gregson, P.J., Biomaterials 19, 1329–1342, 1998.
18. Chen, Z.R. and Kornfield, J.A., Polymer, 39, 4679, 1998.
19. Tepe, T., Hajduk, D.A., Hillmyer, M.A., Weimann, P.A., Tirrell, M., Bates, F.S., Almdal, K., and Mortensen, K., J. Rheol. 41, 1147, 1997.
20. Wiesner, U., Macromol. Chem. Phys. 11, 3319, 1997.
