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Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
One-stop reference on important recent research accomplishments in the field of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites
Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites: Materials, Properties, and Applications is a unique book that focuses on polymer matrix wave-transparent composites for electromagnetic wave transmission of a certain frequency, discussing various aspects of design, fabrication, structure, properties, measurement methods, and mechanisms, along with practical applications of functional polymer composites in industrial fields ranging from aircraft radomes, to radomes for ground, shipborne, and airborne purposes, to radomes for 5G communication, to printed circuit boards and beyond.
Edited by four highly qualified academics and contributed to by well-known experts in the field, Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites includes detailed discussion on sample topics such as:
- Interface between the reinforced fiber and polymer matrix, including basic concepts, characterization, and the most common method of functionalization for the interface
- Mechanism of wave-transparent, factors that influence wave-transparent performance, and fabrication techniques
- Processes of hand paste molding, pressure bag molding, laminated molding, resin transfer molding (RTM), and winding molding
- Physical and chemical properties of the inorganic fibers (glass fibers and quartz fibers) and organic fibers (aramid fibers, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene fibers and poly-p-phenylene benzobisoxazole fibers)
Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites is an essential reference on the latest research in the field for researchers and related professionals, as well as for individuals who are not familiar with the field and wish to gain a holistic understanding in one place.
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Seitenzahl: 538
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Outline on Wave-Transparent Composites
1.2 Composition of Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
1.3 Factors Influencing the Wave-Transparent Performances of Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
1.4 Property Requirements for Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
References
2 Wave-Transparent Mechanism, Test Methods for Dielectric Properties and Wave-Transparent Models of Wave-Transparent Materials
2.1 Wave-Transparent Mechanism of Wave-Transparent Materials
2.2 Dielectric Parameter Equations for Wave-Transparent Materials
2.3 Test Methods for Dielectric Properties of Wave-Transparent Materials
2.4 Wave-Transparent Model of Wave-Transparent Materials
2.5 Summary
References
3 Polymer Matrix
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Common Polymer Matrix
3.3 Design and Preparation of Polymer Matrix with Low Dielectric Constant
3.4 Summary
References
4 Reinforced Fibers
4.1 Inorganic Fibers
4.2 Organic Fibers
4.3 Summary
References
5 Interfaces of Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
5.1 Basic Concept of Interfaces
5.2 Formation of Interfaces
5.3 Interfacial Interaction Mechanism of the Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
5.4 Characterization of Interfacial Performances
5.5 Improvement of Interfacial Compatibility for Reinforced Fibers/Polymer Matrix
5.6 Summary
References
6 The Molding Technologies of Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
6.1 Structural Design of Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
6.2 Molding Process of the Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
6.3 Summary
References
7 Application of the Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
7.1 Aircraft Radomes
7.2 Radomes of Airborne, Shipborne, Ground, and Vehicle
7.3 5G Communication Radomes
7.4 Printed Circuit Board
7.5 Summary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Main physical and chemical properties of the common polymer matrix...
Table 1.2 Main physical and chemical properties of common reinforced fibers....
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Primary physical and chemical properties of common polymer matrix....
Table 3.2 Chemical structures of common epoxy resins.
Table 3.3 Specification and properties of common thermosetting phenolic resi...
Table 3.4 Basic structural unit of silicone resins.
Table 3.5 Fiber-reinforced silicone resins wave-transparent composites.
Table 3.6 The monomer structures and basic properties of CE resins.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Comparison of the properties of common glass fibers.
Table 4.2 The components of NE-glass fibers.
Table 4.3 Types and application of quartz fiber products.
Table 4.4 Common aramid fibers and their properties.
Table 4.5 Main physical performance of PBO-AS and PBO-HM fibers.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 The dielectric properties of the polymer matrix wave-transparent c...
Table 7.2 Nominal radar frequency codes and bands.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Application examples of polymer matrix wave-transparent composite...
Figure 1.2 Composition of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites (common...
Figure 1.3 Application examples of D-glass fibers reinforced polymer matrix ...
Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of the two-phase interface for polymer matrix w...
Figure 1.5 Schematic representation of wave transmission versus material thi...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram of electromagnetic wave transmission in wave-tr...
Figure 2.2 Dielectric polarization diagram: Electron polarization (a), atomi...
Figure 2.3 Schematic diagram of electromagnetic wave transmission at the int...
Figure 2.4 Interface diagram of modified PBO fibers/BADCy wave-transparent c...
Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of perturbation test device: Rectangular pertur...
Figure 2.6 Schematic diagram of high
Q
cavity test principle.
Figure 2.7 Schematic diagram for the testing principle of quasi-optical cavi...
Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram of dielectric properties testing by waveguide t...
Figure 2.9 Testing diagram of the free space method.
Figure 2.10 Three-dimensional schematic diagram (a) and planar diagram (b) o...
Figure 2.11 Three-dimensional schematic diagram (a) and planar diagram (b) o...
Figure 2.12 Schematic diagram of electromagnetic wave transmission in multil...
Figure 2.13 Schematic diagram of electromagnetic wave transmission in the th...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the curing reaction mechanism for epoxy resi...
Figure 3.2 Schematic diagram of the synthesis route for thermoplastic phenol...
Figure 3.3 Schematic diagram of the synthesis route for thermosetting phenol...
Figure 3.4 Schematic diagram of the synthetic route for BMI resins.
Figure 3.5 Chemical structure formula of PTFE resins.
Figure 3.6 Molecular structure formula of the typical UP resins.
Figure 3.7 Schematic diagram of triazine ring network structures via cycliza...
Figure 3.8 Copolymerization between epoxy resins and CE resins.
Figure 3.9 Schematic diagram of phase separation structures when the concent...
Figure 3.10 Schematic diagram of IPN and semi-IPN structures.
Figure 3.11 Schematic diagram of preparation for BPA-EP, BPF-EP, TMBP, and D...
Figure 3.12 Synthesis route of TFMEP monomer and 4-TFMBI curing agent (a) an...
Figure 3.13 (a) Synthetic route of HPAEK, (b) Schematic preparation of ES-HP...
Figure 3.14 Schematic diagram of the preparation for BZPOSS-modified DCPD re...
Figure 3.15 Schematic preparation and dielectric properties of the F4-UIO-66...
Figure 3.16 Schematic diagram of preparation for AEAF-
co
-BADCy resins.
Figure 3.17 Schematic diagram of the preparation for P(PFS-
co
-GMA) modified ...
Figure 3.18 Schematic diagram of the preparation for EFPAEK-modified BADCy r...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of the preparation process for glass fibers.
Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of classification for glass fiber products.
Figure 4.3 Irregular network theory of internal structure model for sodium–c...
Figure 4.4 Natural quartz stone (a) and ultra-high purity synthetic quartz s...
Figure 4.5 Patriot missile of the United States (a), the Aspide missile of I...
Figure 4.6 Quartz yarn (a), quartz cotton (b), quartz fabric (c) Credit: DHg...
Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of the preparation process for quartz fibers.
Figure 4.8 Schematic diagram of SiO
2
structure inside quartz fibers.
Figure 4.9 Molecular structure of para-aramid fibers.
Figure 4.10 Molecular structure of meta-aramid fibers.
Figure 4.11 Molecular structure of heterocyclic aramid fibers.
Figure 4.12 Schematic diagram of dry spraying-wet spinning process.
Figure 4.13 Schematic diagram of the internal structures for aramid fibers....
Figure 4.14 Schematic diagram of the preparation for UHMWPE fibers by solid-...
Figure 4.15 Process flow chart of preparing UHMWPE fibers by dry spinning.
Figure 4.16 Process flow chart of the preparation for UHMWPE fibers by wet s...
Figure 4.17 Schematic diagram of the structure for UHMWPE fibers and PE stru...
Figure 4.18 Synthetic route of trichlorobenzene as raw material for DAR·2HCl...
Figure 4.19 Synthetic route of aniline as raw material for DAR.
Figure 4.20 Synthetic route of the polyphosphate system synthesis method.
Figure 4.21 Synthetic route of complex salt polymerization method.
Figure 4.22 Synthetic route of trimethylsilylation method.
Figure 4.23 Synthetic route of AB-type monomer self-condensation method.
Figure 4.24 Structure diagram of PBO fibers.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of the interfaces for polymer matrix wave-trans...
Figure 5.2 Schematic diagram and XPS spectra of the BN–PDA–PBO fibers (a) [8...
Figure 5.3 Schematic diagram of the test principle for contact angle method....
Figure 5.4 Dynamic contact angle and surface free energy of the PBO@PDA*ZIF-...
Figure 5.5 High-temperature contact angles and the modification mechanism be...
Figure 5.6 Schematic diagram of the preparation for PBO@Fe-MIL-88B-NH
2
-GO fi...
Figure 5.7 SEM images of pristine PBO (a), UV96-PBO (b, b’), UV240-PBO (c), ...
Figure 5.8 TEM images of interfaces between the PBO (a) or PUFs (b–d) fibers...
Figure 5.9 Schematic diagram of the single fiber fracture tests.
Figure 5.10 Schematic diagram of the single fiber pull-out tests (a) and sam...
Figure 5.11 Schematic diagram of the preparation for PBO–ZnO–POSS fibers (A)...
Figure 5.12 SEM images (a–e), single fiber pull-out strength (f), and interf...
Figure 5.13 Schematic diagram of the fiber indentation/ejection test (A, B) ...
Figure 5.14 Characterization of mechanical properties for PBO fibers/epoxy r...
Figure 5.15 Nano-indentation test near the interface between PBO fibers and ...
Figure 5.16 Contact angles of VA-CNT modified quartz fiber with water (a)....
Figure 5.17 Schematic diagram of the acid etching modification for glass fib...
Figure 5.18 Schematic diagram of modification mechanism for silane coupling ...
Figure 5.19 Aramid nanofiber adsorbed on the surface of aramid fibers (a); L...
Figure 5.20 rGO-UIO-66 hybrid coatings modified PBO fibers.
Figure 5.21 Schematic diagram of the mechanism for DA self-polymerization (a...
Figure 5.22 DA/amino-functionalized graphene modified aramid fibers (a)....
Figure 5.23 Schematic diagram of preparation for POSS-
g
-PBO@TA-APTES fiber....
Figure 5.24 Biomimetic interfacial modification of lysozyme phase transition...
Figure 5.25 Synergistic modification of PBO fibers by lysozyme and POSS.
Figure 5.26 Schematic diagram of the preparation for PBO–MEL–CNTs fibers....
Figure 5.27 Mechanism diagram of the PBO fibers modified by Ce
0.8
Ca
0.2
O
1.8
/P...
Figure 5.28 Schematic preparation diagram for UV-PBO@P fibers and its lamina...
Figure 5.29 Schematic diagram of preparation for interfacial compatibilizer ...
Figure 5.30 Schematic diagram of preparation for HABO interfacial compatibil...
Figure 5.31 Schematic diagram of preparation for small molecule interfacial ...
Figure 5.32 Schematic diagram of preparation for linear interfacial compatib...
Figure 5.33 Schematic diagram of preparation for hyperbranched structure int...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The integrated process of the structural design for polymer matri...
Figure 6.2 Relationship between initial cost, maintenance cost, total cost, ...
Figure 6.3 Schematic diagram of layers in different directions.
Figure 6.4 The relationship between raw materials and the three elements.
Figure 6.5 Schematic diagram of the wet molding.
Figure 6.6 Schematic diagram of the vacuum bag molding.
Figure 6.7 Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of the PI
TF-BP
/GF co...
Figure 6.8 Schematic diagram of the double vacuum bag.
Figure 6.9 Schematic diagram of the pressure bag molding.
Figure 6.10 Schematic diagram of the stacking sequence for the vacuum bag-au...
Figure 6.11 Schematic diagram of the preparation for Kevlar fiber cloths/BAD...
Figure 6.12 Schematic diagram of main process flow for RTM.
Figure 6.13 3D four-direction (a), 3D five-direction (b), 3D six-direction (...
Figure 6.14 3D braiding machine produced by 3Tex, USA (a); the preformed bla...
Figure 6.15 Molding machine of the two-component pump RTM (Nodopur B 1000) f...
Figure 6.16 Schematic diagram of the wet winding.
Figure 6.17 Schematic diagram of hoop winding (a), longitudinal winding (b),...
Figure 6.18 Diagram of the dipping method (a) and the rubber roller contact ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Patriot air defense missile (PAC-3) (a) and Aspie air-to-air miss...
Figure 7.2 Typical airborne radomes. Credit: Courtesy of hobbyboss.
Figure 7.3 Shipboard radomes (a) Credit: Sohu/https://www.sohu.com/a/1931280...
Figure 7.4 120 shipboard radome (a) credit: Mingtang Group, and civil shipbo...
Figure 7.5 Ground radomes applied in different natural environments.
Figure 7.6 Typical images of the vehicle-mounted radomes. credit: 1688.com....
Figure 7.7 The images of 5G communication radomes: hemispherical (a) and cyl...
Figure 7.8 PCB (a) and its applications in electronic components credit: She...
Figure 7.9 Schematic diagram of signal transmission of PCB in electronic equ...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
Materials, Properties, and Applications
Junwei Gu
Yusheng Tang
Jie Kong
Jing Dang
Authors
Prof. Junwei GuNorthwestern Polytechnical University127 West Youyi RoadXi’ anCH, 710072
Prof. Yusheng TangNorthwestern Polytechnical University127 West Youyi RoadXi’anCH, 710072
Prof. Jie KongNorthwestern Polytechnical UniversityXi’anCH, 710072
Dr. Jing DangAVIC the First Aircraft InstituteYanliang, Shaanxi, 710089, PR China
Cover: © AndSus/Adobe Stock Photos
All books published by WILEY-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
© 2024 WILEY-VCH GmbH, Boschstraße 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Print ISBN: 978-3-527-35099-5ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-83960-5ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-83961-2oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-83962-9
Preface
With the rapid development of information technologies, the increasing frequency of electromagnetic waves transmission and reception has placed higher demand on the wave-transparent performances, mechanical properties, and environmental resistances of the composites in service. Polymer matrix wave-transparent composites present lightweight, high strength, low dielectric constant (ε) and dielectric loss (tan δ), and materials/structure/function integration, which have promising applications in the fields of aviation/aerospace, transportation, and 5G communications. In recent years, polymer matrix wave-transparent composites have become one of the key materials in many major engineering fields.
At present, the research progress and achievements in the field of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are complex, and it is necessary to summarize the basic concept and research progress in this field for the reference of researchers. Currently, there are few books on polymer matrix wave-transparent composites. The authors wrote this monograph to summarize the latest scientific research achievements worldwide.
This book is divided into seven chapters. After the brief introduction to polymer matrix wave-transparent composites, it first introduces the measurement method of the dielectric properties as well as the mechanism and models of the wave transmission. Then, starting from reinforced fibers and polymer matrix widely utilized in recent years, it elaborates on the structures and properties of the common reinforced fibers and polymer matrix. Furthermore, the interface between the reinforced fibers and polymer matrix is also introduced. Finally, the practical applications of the polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are introduced in detail. Chapter 1 is written by Prof. Junwei Gu, where the introduction of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites is given from the basic concept, the composition of polymer matrix and reinforced fibers and their advantages and disadvantages, the factors influencing the wave-transparent performances, and the performance requirements under actual service condition. Chapter 2 is written by Dr. Jing Dang, Dr. Lin Tang, and Prof. Junwei Gu, where the relationship between the wave-transparent performances and ε and tan δ of wave-transparent materials is discussed, and the equation for dielectric parameters, test methods for dielectric properties, and wave-transparent models are introduced. Chapter 3 is written by Prof. Jie Kong, Dr. Zheng Liu, Dr. Jing Dang, and Prof. Junwei Gu, where the basic structure, physical and chemical properties, and modification methods of the polymer matrix are described in detail. Chapter 4 is written by Dr. Lin Tang, Prof. Yusheng Tang, Jiani Zhang, and Prof. Junwei Gu and mainly covers the structures, composition, preparation methods, and physical and chemical properties of the inorganic fibers (glass fibers and quartz fibers) and organic fibers (aramid fibers, ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene fibers, and poly-p-phenylene benzobisoxazole fibers). Chapter 5 is written by Dr. Zheng Liu, Prof. Jie Kong, Dr. Jing Dang, and Prof. Junwei Gu, which describes the basic concepts of interfaces for polymer matrix wave-transparent composites, the formation of the interfaces, the mechanism of interfacial action, the interfacial characterization methods, and so on. This chapter also introduces the research progress of surface functionalization for reinforced fibers and the design and synthesis of interfacial compatibilizers. Chapter 6 is written by Prof. Yusheng Tang, Dr. Lin Tang, Yuhan Lin, and Prof. Junwei Gu, which introduces the structural design and molding principle of the polymer matrix wave-transparent composites as well as the processes of hand paste molding, pressure bag molding, laminated molding, resin transfer molding (RTM), winding molding, and so on. Chapter 7 is written by Dr. Jing Dang and Prof. Junwei Gu and introduces the application of the polymer matrix wave-transparent composites in radomes for aircraft, airborne, shipborne, ground vehicle radar, 5G communication, printed circuit boards, and so on.
Part of the research in this book is supported by the following grants: National Scientific Research Project (Basis Strengthening Plan); State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing in NWPU (SKLSP202103); Lin Tang and Zheng Liu would like to thank the Innovation Foundation for Doctor Dissertation of Northwestern Polytechnical University (CX2021036 and CX2023026). Yuhan Lin thanks the Practice and Innovation Funds for Graduate Students of NPU (PF2023034). This work is also financially supported by the Polymer Electromagnetic Functional Materials Innovation Team of Shaanxi Sanqin Scholars. At the time of publication of this book, the authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the above-mentioned funding projects.
On the occasion of the publication of this book, I would like to express my sincere thanks to the family, friends, colleagues, and editors of Wiley who have worked so hard to make the book go smoothly. We would like to thank the “Structure/Function Polymer Composites” (SFPC) research group of Northwestern Polytechnical University for their help in preparing this book. This book is mainly aimed at scholars, scientific researchers in universities and research institutes, as well as related technology developers of companies engaged in the research and development of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites.
Prof. Junwei Gu
Northwestern Polytechnical University
Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
1Introduction
1.1 Outline on Wave-Transparent Composites
Wave-transparent composites are a class of functional composites that can pass through electromagnetic waves. On the one hand, wave-transparent composites can provide electromagnetic windows for the transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves to ensure their efficient operation [1]. On the other hand, they can protect the radar antennas, communication, and microwave systems from the harsh external environment such as heavy rain, strong winds, snow, sand, solar radiation, and salt spray [2], ensuring the stability and reliability of electromagnetic wave transmission. With the rapid development of modern electronic information technology as well as the aviation and aerospace industries, the requirements for comprehensive performance of wave-transparent composites are becoming more and more demanding [3].
As far as matrix classification, wave-transparent composites can be divided into ceramic-based and polymer matrix wave-transparent composites [4]. Ceramic-based wave-transparent composites can meet the electrical performance requirements of radar radomes in the centimeter-band electromagnetic wave range. However, for millimeter-band electromagnetic waves (wavelength in the range of 1–10 mm and frequency in the range of 30–300 GHz), ceramic-based wave-transparent composites have disadvantages such as low strength, thick cover walls, and poor wave-transparent performances, which make it difficult to meet the performance requirements of radar radomes for millimeter wave [5, 6].
Polymer matrix wave-transparent composites have the advantages of lightweight, high strength, low dielectric constant (ε) and dielectric loss (tan δ), and materials/structure/function integration, which have a wide range of promising applications in satellite antennas, aircraft, missiles, 5G ground communication base stations, printed circuit boards, and so on. (Figure 1.1) [7].
This book will describe the wave-transparent mechanism, polymer matrix and reinforced fibers, their two-phase interfaces, molding process, and application prospects of the polymer matrix wave-transparent composites.
Figure 1.1 Application examples of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites.
Source: Polymer matrix wave-transparent composites: A review. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2021, 75: 225–251 (Figure 1).
1.2 Composition of Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
Polymer matrix wave-transparent composites consist of polymer matrix, reinforced fibers, and two-phase interfaces [8]. Polymers with low ε and tan δ values as the matrix fibers with high strength and modulus as reinforced fibers produce advanced polymer-based composites (Figure 1.2) with both mechanical properties and wave-transparent performances via hot pressing, vacuum bagging, or resin transfer molding [9].
The heat resistance of polymer matrix determines the thermal stability of the composites in this case, and the fibers mainly serve as reinforcement [10]. Because the dielectric properties of different polymer matrices differ substantially. However, the ε value of reinforced fibers is generally larger than that of polymer matrix. Therefore, the selectively reinforced fibers possess excellent mechanical and thermal properties but also wonderful dielectric properties [11].
Figure 1.2 Composition of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites (commonly used polymer matrix and reinforced fibers).
1.2.1 Polymer Matrix
Polymers commonly used in wave-transparent composites mainly include epoxy resins [12], phenolic (PF) resins [13], polyimide (PI) resins [14], bismaleimide (BMI) resins [15], silicone resins, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) resins [16], unsaturated polyester (UP) resins [17–19], and cyanate (CE) resins [20]. Table 1.1 shows the main physical and chemical properties of the common polymer matrix.
Epoxy resins have good flowability, low curing shrinkage, and high thermal decomposition temperatures (300–350 °C), but their high ε and tan δ values limit their application in high-performance polymer matrix wave-transparent composites [21–23]. PF resins have good heat resistance (long-term service temperature at 250 °C), mechanical properties, and weatherability [24]. However, the ε values of PF resins increase significantly with increasing temperatures [25–27]. PI resins have high heat resistance (Tg ≥ 250 °C), ε, and tan δ values that remain stable over a wide range of temperatures and frequencies [28]. At the same time, PI resins have excellent mechanical properties, chemical resistance, and dimensional stability [29–31]. However, PI resins are costly and difficult to process [32, 33]. BMI resins are an ideal polymer matrix for advanced composites due to their good heat resistance, excellent mechanical properties, relatively low ε value, resistance to humidity, chemical reagents, and good processability [34, 35]. However, the relatively high tan δ values of BMI resins limit their wider application to a certain extent [36–38]. Silicone resins have excellent heat resistance and stable ε and tan δ values under a wide range of environmental conditions [39–41], but their poor mechanical strength makes them rarely used alone [42–44]. PTFE resins have the lowest ε and tan δ[45, 46] but are not easy to process and have low bonding properties between PTFE matrix and reinforcements [47–49]. UP resins have better mechanical properties than PF resins and have low ε and tan δ values [50–52], which can be cured at room temperature. UP resins have a simple molding process, making them suitable for large-scale or large radome production [53–55]. However, UP resins have a short storage period, relatively low heat deflection temperature, and large curing shrinkage, which makes them unsuitable for the preparation of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites with high dimensional accuracy requirements [56–58].
Table 1.1 Main physical and chemical properties of the common polymer matrix.
Types
Density (g/cm
3
)
Flexural strength (MPa)
Flexural modulus (GPa)
ε
(10
6
Hz)
tan
δ
(10
6
Hz)
Epoxy
1.30
97
3.8
3.0
0.020
PF
1.30
92
3.5
3.2
0.020
PI
1.36–1.43
170
3.8
3.2
0.007
BMI
1.30
150
3.7
3.0
0.014
Organic silicon
—
85
—
3.0–5.0
0.003–0.050
PTFE
2.20
90
—
2.1–2.3
0.0003–0.0004
UP
1.29
85
3.2
3.0
0.018
CE
1.29
80
2.8
2.8–3.2
0.002–0.008
In comparison, CE resins combine the high-temperature resistance of BMI and PI resins with the good processing properties of epoxy resins [59–61]. The highly symmetrical triazine ring structure and low polarity of the cured CE resins also make them low ε (2.8–3.2) [62–64], good heat resistance, and dimensional stability over a wide temperature and frequency range [65]. The structure and properties of commonly used polymer matrix are described in detail in Chapter 3.
1.2.2 Reinforced Fibers
Reinforced fibers for polymer matrix wave-transparent composites mainly include glass fibers [66, 67], quartz fibers [68], Kevlar fibers [69, 70], ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fibers [71, 72], and poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) (PBO) fibers [73, 74]. Their main physical and chemical properties are shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Main physical and chemical properties of common reinforced fibers.
Properties Types
Density (g cm
−3
)
Tensile strength (GPa)
Modulus (GPa)
ε
(10
6
Hz)
tan
δ
(10
6
Hz)
E-glass fibers
2.54
3.75
72
6.13
0.0038
S-glass fibers
2.49
4.00
85
5.21
0.0068
D-glass fibers
2.6
2.40
52
4.00
0.0025
Quartz fibers
2.20
1.70
72
3.78
0.0002
Kevlar49 fibers
1.45
3.45
137
3.85
0.0010
UHMWPE fibers
0.97
5.01
193
2.25
0.0002
PBO fibers
1.56
5.80
280
3.00
0.0010
Figure 1.3 Application examples of D-glass fibers reinforced polymer matrix wave-transparent composites: MIRAGE 2000 (France, a); GRIPEN JAS 39 – Credit: Thierry ducros/Airliners.net (Sweden, b); HAWK 200 – Credit: Ben Stacey/Flickr (United Kingdom, c); HARRIER – Credit: Weimeng/Air Team Images (United Kingdom, d). HARRIER GR.9 – Credit: Titan Miller/Airliners.net.
Source: (b) Ben Stacey/Flickr.
Glass fibers are the most commonly used inorganic reinforced fibers for wave-transparent composites. The earliest glass fibers used were E-glass fibers [75, 76]. Then, high-strength glass fibers (S-glass fibers) [77–79] and high-silica glass fibers (D-glass fibers) [80, 81] were developed to meet the special needs of aviation, aerospace, military, and other high-tech fields. Compared to E-glass and S-glass fibers, D-glass fibers have relatively lower ε and tan δ, which has been used in the radomes of MIRAGE 2000 (France), GRIPEN JAS 39 (Sweden), HAWK 200 (United Kingdom), and HARRIER (United Kingdom) (Figure 1.3) [82, 83].
However, with the rapid development of information technology, electronic components receive and transmit electromagnetic waves at increasingly high frequencies [84]. The high content of alkali metal oxides in glass fibers and the strong signal hysteresis and attenuation produced during electromagnetic wave transmission limit their application in high-frequency and high-precision wave-transparent composites [85]. Quartz fibers contain only a single component of silicon dioxide (SiO2) with purity of over 99.9% and have excellent high-temperature resistance, electrical insulation properties and ablation resistance, low ε and tan δ values, and so on [86, 87], which have been one of the most commonly used reinforced fibers in wave-transparent composites in the military and civilian sectors. However, quartz fibers have disadvantages such as high density, poor mechanical properties, and large ε values [88].
With the increasing demand for comprehensive performances of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites in terms of weight reduction, wave-transparency, and loading, researchers have carried out relevant research on organic reinforced fibers such as Kevlar fibers [89], UHMWPE fibers [90] and PBO fibers [91, 92]. Kevlar fibers, with low density, high specific strength, and specific modulus, are one of the most commonly used organic reinforced fibers in polymer matrix wave-transparent composites [93–95]. However, the high moisture absorption of Kevlar fibers is susceptible to moisture swelling and cracking, resulting in the degradation of wave-transparent performances and mechanical properties [96]. UHMWPE fibers, also known as high-strength, high-modulus polyethylene fibers, have a relative molecular mass of over 1 million, which is beneficial to outstanding impact resistance, cut resistance, chemical resistance and UV resistance, excellent low-temperature resistance, and low ε and tan δ values [97, 98]. However, as the macromolecular chains of UHMWPE fibers are connected by a highly symmetrical methylene structure, the intermolecular Van der Waals forces are weak, making their Tg and melting point low, resulting in their high-temperature resistance and poor creep resistance [99].
Moreover, the surface of UHMWPE fibers does not contain polar groups, resulting in low surface energy, which creates poor bond strength between the UHMWPE fibers and polymer matrix [100, 101]. As a super fiber of the twenty-first century, the large number of rigid aromatic and oxazole rings in the PBO fiber molecular chain and a highly ordered crystal structure give PBO fibers excellent mechanical properties, heat resistance, chemical stability, and low ε (3.0) and tan δ (0.001) values, which are of wide interest in the field of airborne/starborne radar radomes. Furthermore, PBO fibers have higher tensile strength, lower density, and ε values than those of inorganic reinforced fibers such as quartz [102]. Compared to those of other organic fibers, PBO fibers have about twice the strength and modulus of para-Kevlar fibers, and the thermal decomposition temperature of PBO fibers in the air is about 650 °C, which is approximately 100 °C higher than that of Kevlar fibers and much better than that of UHMWPE fibers (300 °C) [103]. As a result, PBO fibers have received a lot of attention as potential reinforcements for light weight/loading/wave-transparent integrated wave-transparent composites [104]. However, PBO fibers still have disadvantages of high cost, smooth and inert surfaces, and so on [105–107]. The structure and properties of these commonly used reinforced fibers are described in detail in Chapter 4.
In addition, the microscopic phase interface links the polymer matrix and reinforced fibers [108]. Defects are likely to arise at the poor two-phase interface (Figure 1.4), which would affect the overall performance (especially the interlaminar shear strength, ILSS) of the polymer-matrix wave-transparent composites [109, 110].
Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of the two-phase interface for polymer matrix wave-transparent composites.
Therefore, how to effectively enhance the interfacial compatibility between polymer matrix and reinforced fibers has become a hot and difficult issue in this field [111]. Chapter 5 provides a detailed description of the two-phase interface inner polymer matrix wave-transparent composites and their optimal control strategies.
1.3 Factors Influencing the Wave-Transparent Performances of Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
Polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are mainly used for electromagnetic windows and radomes in the fields of aviation/aerospace, 5G communication, and electronic information [112]. In order to ensure that all types of radar and antenna systems remain in stable operating conditions under harsh external environments, polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are required to have excellent wave-transparent performances (low ε and tan δ values) [113].
The main factors affecting the wave-transparent performances of polymer matrix composites are divided into internal factors (intrinsic ε and tan δ) and external factors (thickness and electromagnetic wave frequency) [114, 115]. In general, the lower the molecular polarization rate and the density of polarized molecules of polymer matrix and reinforced fibers, the lower the ε and tan δ of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites, the less energy is reflected and lost during the transmission of electromagnetic waves, and the correspondingly higher the wave-transparent rate [116]. In addition, polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are typically multiphase systems, and the interface between polymer matrix and reinforced fibers is prone to interfacial polarization, increasing the ε and tan δ values, which is not conducive to improving the wave-transparent performance [117].
In addition, the thickness of polymer-based wave-transparent composites also affects their wave-transparent performances [118]. When the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is constant, the thickness of the wave-transparent composites increases, resulting in a tendency for the wave-transparent rate to decrease and then increase (Figure 1.5) [119]. This is mainly due to the reflection and loss (both absorption and interference shifts) that occur on the surface and inside the wave-transparent composites as the electromagnetic waves pass through [120, 121]. When the thickness approaches an odd multiple (d = nλ/4, n = 1, 3, 5, etc.) of its quarter wavelength (λ/4, Eq. 1.1), electromagnetic waves cause strong interference cancellation in the wave-transparent composites. This leads to an attenuation of the electromagnetic wave energy and a significant reduction of the transmitted waves, resulting in the reduction of the wave transmission [122–124]. When the thickness is close to an even multiple (d = nλ/4, n = 2, 4, 6, etc.) of λ/4, the electromagnetic waves reflect less at the incident interface and can enter the interior almost unharmed, with the high wave transmission rate [125, 126].
Figure 1.5 Schematic representation of wave transmission versus material thickness for polymer matrix wave-transparent composites.
where λ represents the wavelength of the incident waves; c represents the speed of light; fm represents the frequency of the incident waves; ur represents the magnetic permeability of the medium; and εr represents the dielectric constant of the medium.
1.4 Property Requirements for Polymer Matrix Wave-Transparent Composites
1.4.1 Wave-Transparent Performances
The ε and tan δ values of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are among the most important parameters affecting the wave-transparent performances [127]. In practice, the transmission rate of electromagnetic waves is usually required to exceed 70% in the broad frequency range (0.3–300 GHz), which usually requires the corresponding ε of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites to be stable in the range of 1–4 and tan δ in the range of 10−2–10−3. Meanwhile, the ε and tan δ are required to remain constant in the broad frequency and temperature range (0–220 °C) [128, 129].
1.4.2 Mechanical Properties
As structural loading materials, polymer matrix wave-transparent composites must have a certain degree of stiffness and strength to ensure the stability and reliability of the antenna system in various complex operating environments [130]. The tensile strength of polymer matrix wave-transparent composites for high-performance radomes is generally not less than 400 MPa. The compressive strength is more than 350 MPa to ensure the integrity of the antenna system under aerodynamic loads and impact of foreign objects, thus ensuring the normal operation of the electronic components inside the radomes [131–133].
1.4.3 Heat Resistant Properties
When the vehicle is flying at ultra-high speed in the atmosphere, the surface temperature of vehicle rises sharply with the increase in Mach number due to the heating of the high-temperature compressed gas between the excitation wave and the body and the strong friction between the surface of the body and the air (usually when the Mach number is 2, the surface temperature of the vehicle is about 150 °C; while when the Mach number increases to 3, the surface temperature rises sharply to about 350 °C, even exceeding the strength limit temperature of aluminum alloy) [134], therefore, when polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are used as radomes for aircraft, they should have excellent heat resistance (pyrolysis temperature greater than 300 °C) to overcome the high thermal stresses of external aerodynamic heating and to avoid deformation or even cracks under rapid temperature change [135, 136].
1.4.4 Environmental Resistance Properties
As protective materials for radar antenna systems, polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are subject to surface aging, polymer matrix degradation, and interfacial debonding between the polymer matrix and reinforced fibers during long-term service, which would seriously affect their service stability and reliability [137, 138]. Therefore, polymer matrix wave-transparent composites are required to have excellent environmental aging resistances. Current research revealed that environmental factors (humidity, heat, high and low-temperature alternation, and light) had a significant effect on the mechanical and dielectric properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy resin wave-transparent composites. When the relative humidity increased from 25% to 85%, the ε and tan δ increased by 10% and 18.6%, respectively. In addition, the mechanical properties were strongly influenced by the hygrothermal conditions. The retention of tensile and flexural strengths after boiling for 200 hours was about 90%, but the retention of ILSS was only 61% [139].
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