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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Wiley-ASME Press Series
- Sprache: Englisch
A Clear, Comprehensive Introduction to Standards in the Engineering Professions
Standards supplement the design process by guiding the designer toward consistency, safety, and reliability. As daily life involves increasingly complex and sophisticated instruments, standards become indispensable engineering tools to ensure user safety and product quality. Primer on Engineering Standards: Expanded Textbook Edition delves into standards creation and compliance to provide students and engineers with a comprehensive reference.
The different types of standards are dissected and discussed in terms of development, value, impact, interpretation, and compliance, and options are provided for situations where conformance is not possible. The process of standards creation is emphasized in terms of essential characteristics and common pitfalls to avoid, with detailed guidance on how, where, and with whom one may get involved in official development.
Organized for both quick reference and textbook study, this new Expanded Textbook Edition provides a quick, clear understanding of critical concepts, ramifications, and implications as it:
- Introduces the concepts, history, and classification of standards, rules, and regulations
- Discusses the federal, state, and local government’s role in standards development and enforcement
- Distinguishes voluntary consensus standards, limited consensus standards, and jurisdictional versus non-jurisdictional government standards
- Covers the need for and process of exemptions to existing standards
- Examines the characteristics of a good standard, and discusses opportunities for involvement in development
- Includes case studies to demonstrate standards applications, and extensive appendices to direct further inquiry
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Seitenzahl: 238
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
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Table of Contents
Wiley-ASME Press Series List
Title Page
Dedication
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Procedures and Rules
1.3 Standards
1.4 Applicability of Standards
1.5 Summary
Chapter 2: Role of Governments in Standards
2.1 Overview
2.2 History
2.3 Aspects of Governmental Involvement with Standards
2.4 General Policies
2.5 National versus State, Provincial, or Local Standards Involvement
2.6 The US Government and Standards
2.7 US Government OMB Circular A119
2.8 National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act
2.9 National Science and Technology Council
2.10 Other US Government Actions
2.11 How the Government Uses Standards
2.12 US Government as a Participant in VCS Activities
2.13 State and Local Standards Use
2.14 Other Countries
2.15 Summary
2.16 Case Studies
Chapter 3: Voluntary Consensus Standards and Codes
3.1 Purpose of Standards
3.2 Voluntary Consensus Standards
3.3 American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
3.4 Codes
3.5 Some ANSI Accredited Organizations
Chapter 4: Limited Consensus Standards
4.1 Types of Standards
4.2 Proprietary versus Nonproprietary Standards
4.3 Governmental and Jurisdictional Limited Consensus Standards
4.4 Case Studies
Chapter 5: Jurisdictional Standards
5.1 Regulations and Jurisdictional Requirements
5.2 Jurisdictional Standards Implementation
5.3 Incorporation by Reference
5.4 Sample Jurisdictional Standard: The OSHA Regulations
5.5 Summary
Chapter 6: Standards Development Process
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Voluntary Consensus Standards (VCS)
6.3 Government Nonjurisdictional Standards: DOD, NASA, etc
6.4 Governmental Jurisdictional Standards: DOT, FAA, FCC, OSHA, etc
6.5 Corporate Standards
6.6 Limited Consensus Standards
6.7 Standards Maintenance
6.8 Summary
6.9 Case Study
Chapter 7: Types of Standards
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Performance versus Prescriptive
7.3 Geographical, Political, or Economic Extent
7.4 Mandatory or Voluntary
7.5 Consensus versus Nonconsensus
7.6 Purpose
7.7 Subject
7.8 Surprise Consequences of a Successful Standard
7.9 Summary
7.10 Case Study
Chapter 8: Conformity Assessment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Users of Conformity Assessment
8.3 Applicability of Conformity Assessment
8.4 Verification and Validation Process
8.5 Conformity Assessment Organizations
8.6 Summary
8.7 Case Studies
Chapter 9: Standards Interpretation and Relief
9.1 General Discussion
9.2 Standards Adoption
9.3 Effect of Noncompliance with Standards
9.4 Standards Interpretation
9.5 Tailoring
9.6 Waivers and Variances
9.7 Summary
9.8 Case Study
Chapter 10: Characteristics of a Good Standard
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Clarity and Understanding
10.3 Scope
10.4 Terminology
10.5 Structure and Organization
10.6 Consistency
10.7 References to Other Standards
10.8 Attention to Details
10.9 Supplementing a Standard
10.10 Timeliness
10.11 Sample Standard Structure
10.12 Summary
10.13 Case Studies
Chapter 11: Getting Involved in Standards Development
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Reasons to Get Involved
11.3 Opportunities for Involvement in Standards
11.4 Selecting a Committee
11.5 What Does It Require?
11.6 Summary
Acronyms
Appendix A: Deciding Not to Use a Standard
A.1. Introduction
A.2. Reasons Not to Use a Standard
A.3 Consequences of Not Using a Standard
A.4 Mitigations for Not Using a Standard
A.5 Summary
Appendix B: Some SDOs developing Voluntary Consensus Standards
Appendix C: Some Industrial Organizations That Publish Limited Consensus Standards
Appendix D: Some US Government Jurisdictional Agencies
Bibliography
Biography
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
Wiley-ASME Press Series List
Primer on Engineering Standards: Expanded Textbook Edition
Greulich
April 2018
Robust Adaptive Control for Fractional-Order Systems with Disturbance and Saturation
Chen
December 2017
Stress in ASME Pressure Vessels, Boilers, and Nuclear Components
Jawad
October 2017
Robot Manipulator Redundancy Resolution
Zhang
October 2017
Combined Cooling, Heating, and Power Systems: Modeling, Optimization, and Operation
Shi
August 2017
Applications of Mathematical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Models in Engineering and Medicine
Dorfman
February 2017
Bioprocessing Piping and Equipment Design: A Companion Guide for the ASME BPE Standard
Huitt
December 2016
Geothermal Heat Pump and Heat Engine Systems: Theory And Practice
Chiasson
September 2016
Nonlinear Regression Modeling for Engineering Applications
Rhinehart
September 2016
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibrations
Cai
May 2016
Introduction to Dynamics and Control of Mechanical Engineering Systems
To
March 2016
Primer on Engineering Standards
Expanded Textbook Edition
Owen R. Greulich
Vienna, Virginia, USA
Maan H. Jawad
Global Engineering & TechnologyCamas, Washington, USA
This Work is a co-publication between ASME Press and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
To those who seek excellence through their knowledge of standards
© 2018 ASME
This Work is a co-publication between ASME Press and John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Owen R. Greulich and Maan H. Jawad to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Preface
Engineering principles including classical and numerical analysis as well as other engineering techniques are essential for the engineer to perform various designs. However, as society gets more interdependent and the common implements of daily life more complex and sophisticated, standards become more and more indispensable as additional engineering tools. This book introduces the concept of standards as well as their impact and value. It includes a brief history of standards and it addresses the different ways in which they come about. Some of the chapters discuss the role of government in creating standards as well as the processes by which nongovernmental standards are produced. Other chapters discuss the different types and applications of standards, how interpretations of standards are obtained, the problem of how to ensure conformity with standards, and what might be done when conformity cannot be attained.
Some characteristics of a “good standard” are presented, along with some pitfalls to avoid in producing a standard. Benefits of getting involved in the standards development process are explained, along with pointers on both selecting a standards organization to get involved with and how to go about it. This book provides a short synopsis of “Standards” to enable the reader get a quick understanding of the various aspects, ramifications, and implications of standards. It consists of eleven chapters and four appendices. Various case studies are included to help the reader develop an in-depth understanding of the topics discussed. The wide range of topics covered in this book is intended to give the reader a good starting point in understanding how standards play an integral part of the engineering profession.
There are tens, perhaps hundreds of thousands of engineering standards worldwide, covering every imaginable subject related to engineering. Listing them all would be a monumental undertaking and this book, by necessity, covers only a small portion of them. The appendices at the end of this book provide assistance in identifying a few of these engineering standards, who developed and maintains them, and contact information to help the reader obtain further information.
April, 2018
Owen R. Greulich
Washington, DC
Maan H. Jawad
Camas, Washington
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge Mark Jawad for providing background information on the USB standard and Kevin Jawad for providing history regarding computer development.
We also acknowledge Cathy Greulich and Dixie Jawad for their patience while the authors were writing the manuscript, and special thanks are extended to Mary Grace Stefanchik and to all the other ASME and Wiley personnel for their valuable assistance and guidance on the book.
Chapter 1Introduction
(Courtesy of XKCD, www.xkcd.com)
1.1 Background
Standards, including procedures, rules, codes, regulations, and jurisdictional requirements, play an important role in the engineering world. They furnish a means of ensuring consistent designs, quality, and operating characteristics, with adequate reliability, safe operation of components, and well-defined configurations. This book details their development, applications, limitations, and benefits to give the user, specifier, and standard writer a proper perspective of their importance, usefulness, and limitations, to promote their effective use and to improve the quality of future standards. While focusing on standards themselves, it also provides a brief introduction to the field of conformity assessment, by which compliance with standards is assured and verified.
This book does not attempt to address legal, commercial, or other nonengineering aspects of standards.
Rules, procedures, and standards can be developed by a single individual within or with authority over an organization or operation, by a subgroup of an organization, by the organization as a whole, or by other groups with a common interest.
The reader will find that common usage of terminology related to standards is inconsistent in the literature. Accordingly, the following definitions are provided and will be used in this book:
Rule:
A single specific requirement that must be met. Many types of such requirements exist, such as requirements to perform actions, for how to perform actions, for results that must be achieved, for specific properties or characteristics that must be attained, and for dimensions that must be met.
Procedure:
A set of rules regarding how a task or function is performed. Procedures are used to ensure consistency of results and to promote efficiency.
Standard:
A set of rules and/or procedures recognized as authoritative in a particular area of interest.
One definition of standards given by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is as follows:
A set of technical definitions, instructions, rules, guidelines, or characteristics set forth to provide consistent and comparable results, including:
Items manufactured uniformly, providing for interchangeability.
Tests and analyses conducted reliably, minimizing the uncertainty of the results.
Facilities designed and constructed for safe operation.
It is of interest to note that by custom, some standards are called codes.
The effectiveness of standards in conducting business is best explained by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) in a 1991 report:
Standards are the vehicle of communication for producers and users. They serve as a common language, defining quality and establishing safety criteria. Costs are lower if procedures are standardized; training is also simplified.
While the importance of standards is well recognized and while there is what might be called the “legal” definition, as provided in the National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act (NTTAA) (see below), even the National Institute of Standards and Technology, a part of the US Department of Commerce and that part of the US Government most directly charged with standards development, coordination, and quality, approaches the definition of standards by offering multiple explanations from different sources.
The following text provides the definition from the NTTAA of a standard (clearly covering more than just the engineering standards that are the subject of this book):
DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL STANDARDS – As used in this subsection, the term ‘technical standards’ means performance-based or design-specific technical specifications and related management systems practices.
The Office of Management and Budget OMB Circular A-119 further amplifies upon this:
The term “standard,” or “technical standard,” (hereinafter “standard”) as cited in the NTTAA, includes all of the following:
common and repeated use of rules, conditions, guidelines or characteristics for products or related processes and production methods, and related management systems practices;
the definition of terms; classification of components; delineation of procedures; specification of dimensions, materials, performance, designs, or operations; measurement of quality and quantity in describing materials, processes, products, systems, services, or practices; test methods and sampling procedures; formats for information and communication exchange; or descriptions of fit and measurements of size or strength; and
terminology, symbols, packaging, marking or labeling requirements as they apply to a product, process, or production method.
The term “standard” does not include the following:
professional standards of personal conduct; or
institutional codes of ethics.
“Government-unique standard” is a standard developed by and for use by the Federal government in its regulations, procurements, or other program areas specifically for government use (i.e., it is not generally used by the private sector unless required by regulation, procurement, or program participation). The standard was not developed as a voluntary consensus standard as described in Sections d and e.
“Voluntary consensus standard” is a type of standard developed or adopted by voluntary consensus standards bodies, through the use of a voluntary consensus standards development process as described in
Chapter 3
. These bodies often have intellectual property rights (IPR) policies that include provisions requiring that owners of relevant patented technology incorporated into a standard make that intellectual property available to implementers of the standard on nondiscriminatory and royalty-free or reasonable royalty terms (and to bind subsequent owners of standards essential patents to the same terms). In order to qualify as a “voluntary consensus standard” for the purposes of this Circular, a standard that includes patented technology needs to be governed by such policies, which should be easily accessible, set out clear rules governing the disclosure and licensing of the relevant intellectual property, and take into account the interests of all stakeholders, including the IPR holders and those seeking to implement the standard.
“Voluntary consensus standards body” is a type of association, organization, or technical society that plans, develops, establishes, or coordinates voluntary consensus standards using a voluntary consensus standards development process that includes the following attributes or elements:
Openness:
The procedures or processes used are open to interested parties. Such parties are provided meaningful opportunities to participate in standards development on a non-discriminatory basis. The procedures or processes for participating in standards development and for developing the standard are transparent.
Balance:
The standards development process should be balanced. Specifically, there should be meaningful involvement from a broad range of parties, with no single interest dominating the decision-making.
Due process:
Due process shall include documented and publically available policies and procedures, adequate notice of meetings and standards development, sufficient time to review drafts and prepare views and objections, access to views and objections of other participants, and a fair and impartial process for resolving conflicting views.
Appeals process:
An appeals process shall be available for the impartial handling of procedural appeals.
Consensus:
Consensus is defined as general agreement, but not necessarily unanimity. During the development of consensus, comments and objections are considered using fair, impartial, open, and transparent processes.
Some definitions of standards include only those standards with which compliance is voluntary, referring to mandatory standards as technical regulations or by other names. Because many voluntary consensus standards have been incorporated into laws and regulations, confusing the meaning of voluntary, this book does not make this distinction.
Other definitions require consensus, or establishment or approval by a recognized body. These distinctions are often significant, but would exclude such important documents as the standards of the American Boiler Manufacturers Association and the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) as well as certain standards developed by private corporations but well recognized as authoritative (An example of the latter is a series of material and other standards developed by the AO Smith Company and used by them and other companies in the construction of many thousands of pressure vessels beginning in the 1940s and continuing into the 1960s.).
Conformity Assessment: Processes used to verify the compliance of a product, service, person, process or system to either a standard or a regulation (e.g., testing, certification, inspection).
1.2 Procedures and Rules
Procedures and rules are usually developed within an organization to establish operating methods that will lead to consistent desired results. They include such items as drawing and calculation formats, dimensional standards, checking sequences, and hierarchical progression of a task within the organization. The applications of procedures and rules form the operating norm of an organization, and they differ from one organization to another. Hence, the procedures and rules used for the design and manufacturing of the same product at two companies may differ substantially even though the end product is the same.
One company manufacturing a light switch, for example, might bring in large quantities of component parts from suppliers and depend on a high level of automation and process control to ensure a consistent product. A competitor may choose to manufacture all parts in-house, use hand assembly, and control product quality through a rigorous inspection process. The final products may be practically indistinguishable in spite of procedures that have little in common.
Procedures and rules, by their general nature, are limited in scope to an individual task or component within an organization such as a how to manufacture and assemble a gear box, or a methodology for project progression within the organization. A separate procedure then details the next step, whether packaging the gearbox for shipping or assembling it into an automobile. Procedures and rules also can be updated or revised frequently to fit the changing requirements of the organization.
1.3 Standards
1.3.1 History and Purpose of Standards
Any discussion of the purpose of standards is nearly impossible without a concurrent look at their history. The nature of society, the natural human resistance to accept constraints, the thought and effort needed to develop standards, and general inertia have dictated that they not be produced and imposed without a reason. As society has become more complex, the need for standards has occurred more frequently, and the increasing sophistication of society has been mirrored by an increasing sophistication in the standards developed.
While there is sometimes resistance to their development and implementation, the term “Voluntary Consensus Standard” refers to the benefits that standards provide to business and to society in general, and it is applicable to a vast number of standards developed for a wide range of reasons and applications. People, companies, and other organizations now generally recognize that standards can have a favorable effect on their lives, the quality of their work, and their business opportunities. Companies and individuals are therefore willing to apply resources, to give up a certain amount of freedom, to admit that they may function better and be more successful operating as a part of a larger whole than with complete independence, and to share a certain amount of what may be proprietary knowledge. These things are given up in the interest of a safer home or society, efficiency in design, improved business opportunities, a certain amount legal protection in case of product failure, and other benefits.
While standards can be categorized in a number of ways, for purposes of this chapter we will consider the following categorization on the basis of benefits: safety and reliability, quality, uniformity, cost reduction, increased flexibility, variety control, promotion of business, and generally helping society to function. Most standards provide more than one of these benefits.
1.3.2 A Few Examples of Standards throughout the Ages
One of the first known, and very rudimentary, standards, known as the Code of Hammurabi, was developed approximately 4000 years ago, apparently to ensure fairness in the kingdom of Babylonia. In this case, the standard was promulgated by the king and enshrined in laws. Many of the laws included in this document related to crimes, torts, marriage, and general legal obligations. The Code of Hammurabi may be most well-known for its “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” approach to justice, but portions of this document also provide very basic performance standards for construction of buildings and boats. That is, the document specified what must be achieved. Walls must not fall down, and boats must be tight.
It appears that there was a problem with the quality of workmanship in the kingdom of Babylonia, but the solution had no specific criteria for how things were to be constructed. Rather, the standard that was put in place simply required that the construction be good, and if it failed, specified the penalty. This approach, using what are referred to as performance standards, typically provides little or no guidance as to how the requirements are to be met, simply specifying the required result. A performance standard is in some cases the easiest to write, and it allows the maximum level of flexibility to the implementer, since any means of accomplishing the end is sufficient. This particular standard promoted a fair and just – if somewhat brutal – society. It should also be noted that this standard dealt with very limited aspects of the products, and including in a performance standard all the details that are needed to ensure a successful product can be challenging.
Another step on the way to modern standards came about as a result of a massive fire that burned most of the city of London in 1666. The Rebuilding London Acts, promulgated by the Parliament of England over the following several years, are precursors of current building and safety codes. The specific motivation of these acts was first to ensure safety and stability in society, and they did so by widening streets and by specifying brick construction, so as to prevent recurrence of the disastrous fire.
Compared to the Code of Hammurabi, these Acts are quite prescriptive, specifying street widths, brick construction, thickness of walls (in terms of bricks), story heights and maximum heights of houses, and requirements for roof drainage. The effect of these and other associated requirements was to improve access, provide fire breaks in case another fire got started, and reduce the probability of its spread by replacing what was previously almost entirely wooden construction largely with bricks. Safety was enhanced, and it is to be expected that quality of life may also have been improved.
With the advent of the industrial revolution, other benefits of standards became obvious. As society developed the ability to produce products in quantity and, as machine tools were developed, the interchangeability of components became desirable. In the mid-1800s, for example, the British Standard Whitworth thread system was developed to allow for interchangeability of threaded parts.
Throughout the 1800s, there were many boiler explosions [3]. While mourned, these seemed to be somewhat accepted as a cost of having boilers, which were providing benefits to society in the forms of more efficient transportation, working efficiency, and heating. The explosion of the boiler in a shoe factory in Brockton, MA, in 1905, which resulted in close to 60 deaths, and another shoe factory boiler explosion in Lynn, MA, the following year led to a greater concern with industrial safety. In 1907, the Massachusetts legislature passed the Massachusetts Boiler Law. This was followed by the first ASME Boiler Code in 1914.
The years between then and now have seen a proliferation of standards. These include the further development of the ASME Boiler Code (later to become the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)) with sections on various types of pressure vessels, materials, welding, inspection, etc., and piping codes, lifting devices standards, electrical codes, and more. More recent work includes standards in the fields of energy efficiency, electronic components, software development, assessment of risk, and conformity assessment, and every time a new technology arises, it seems that standards for its application are not far off.
1.3.3 Classification
Engineering standards are sets of rules and procedures developed, documented, approved by general consensus, and configuration managed to assure the adequacy of a given product, methodology, or operation. Standards are normally developed in committees by people who have experience in a particular field of endeavor and who have an interest in the outcome that the standard is intended to ensure.
There are many ways of looking at and classifying standards. These include
performance versus design (descriptive, or prescriptive)
mandatory versus voluntary
purpose
intended user group
the way they were developed.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Guide 2, Standardization and related activities – General vocabulary, offers a number of ways of looking at standards in addition to providing vocabulary such as the following:
Level of standardization, which is a generally geopolitical classification based on the coverage of the standard.
Aims of standardization, addressing issues from fitness for purpose and safety, through protection of the environment.
Category of the standard, such as technical specifications (e.g., ASME B16.5), codes of practice (e.g., ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code), and regulations (e.g., OSHA and DOT regulations).
Type of standard, from terminology to testing, product, process, service, interface, and data to be provided.
With many possible approaches, we will first look at standards as they fit into the following three categories:
Limited consensus
General consensus (also referred to as Voluntary Consensus Standards)
Governmental action.
1.3.4 Limited Consensus Standards
Limited consensus standards, by their nature, are developed by experts in a given organization and then made available to the organization for its guidance. Prime examples are some internal company standards for work hardened, heavy wall, stainless steel tubing for ultrahigh pressure applications, and a number of company standards for compression fittings. Trade groups such as the Heat Exchange Institute (HEI) and the TEMA
