Principles of Farriery E-Book

Christopher Colles

• Herausgeber: The Crowood Press
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 865

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

A respected equine vet and farrier have joined forces to produce this manual for trainee and working farriers. This fully updated new edition for 2022, starts with a brief history of farriery, then looks at the legalities of the job and how to control equines for trimming and shoeing. The authors describe the care and maintenance of the forge and farriery tools, as well as the anatomy and function of the horse, especially the lower limbs, the principles of foot balance, and the practice of shoeing. Shoe making, surgical shoes, lameness and shoeing are dealt with in detail, and the book is embellished with hundreds of specially taken photos, and explanatory line drawings.

Leseprobe

First published in 2010 by J.A. Allen, an imprint of

The Crowood Press Ltd

Ramsbury, Marlborough

Wiltshire SN8 2HR

[email protected]

This edition published in 2022

www.crowood.com

This e-book first published in 2022

© Chris Colles, Ron Ware and John Hayes 2010 and 2022

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 9198 3500 1

Photographs by the authors, except where stated

Artwork by Carole Vincer

CONTENTS

AUTHORS’ NOTE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 AN INTRODUCTION TO FARRIERY

1.1 A brief history of farriery

1.2 The legal position of farriers and veterinary surgeons in the UK

1.3 Relationship between farriers and veterinary surgeons

1.4 The control of horses and ponies for trimming and shoeing

2 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF FARRIERY TOOLS

2.1 Basic rules of forging

Protective equipment • Working temperatures for steel • Heat treatments for steel • Fire-welding

2.2 The forge

Gas • Coal/coke

2.3 Tools for maintaining the fire

2.4 Forging tools

Anvil • Vices, stall jacks and foot stands • Hammers • Tongs • Nails, stamp and pritchel • Fuller • Chisels, Punches and taps • Three square file cutter

2.5 Shoeing tools

Shoeing hammer • Clenching tools • Knives • Buffer • Pincers, pullers and cutters • Rasp • Tools for measuring and testing

3 GENERAL EQUINE ANATOMY AND FUNCTION

3.1 Skeleton

Types of bone • Development of bone • Structure of bone • Arthrology

3.2 Muscle and tendon

Muscle • Tendon

3.3 Cardiovascular system

Blood • The heart • Blood flow • Blood vessels

3.4 Respiratory system

3.5 Gastrointestinal tract

Teeth • Parts of the intestinal tract • Disorders of the gastrointestinal tract

3.6 Nervous system

The central nervous system • The peripheral nervous system • Nerve cells

4 ANATOMY AND FUNCTION OF THE DISTAL LIMB AND FOOT

4.1 Osteology

The carpus • The tarsus • Bones of the lower limb and foot

4.2 The hoof

Hoof wall • Sensitive and insensitive laminae • Sole • Frog • Corium • Digital cushion • Movement of the hoof • Horn quality • Foot shape

4.3 Tendons and ligaments

Flexors • Extensors • Joints and ligaments • The stay apparatus

4.4 Blood supply

Forelimb arteries • Hind limb • Forelimb veins • Hind limb veins

4.5 Nerve supply

Forelimb nerves • Hind limb nerves

5 FOOT BALANCE AND GAIT

5.1 Dynamic assessment of foot balance

5.2 Static assessment of forelimb balance

Dorso-palmar balance • Medio-lateral balance • Palmar (ground surface) balance • Problems arising from incorrect foot balance

5.3 Static assessment of hind limb balance

Dorso-plantar balance • Medio-lateral balance • Plantar (ground surface) balance

5.4 Assessing foals

5.5 Fashions in shoeing/foot balance

Natural balance/four-point shoeing • Glue-on shoes and synthetic materials used in farriery • Pads and wedges • Barefoot trimming • Foot mapping

5.6 Gait

Walk • Trot • Pace • Canter • Gallop • Jump • Tǿlt • Gait abnormalities ascribed to shoeing

6 SHOEMAKING

6.1 The horseshoe

Materials • Horseshoe section • Horse-shoeing terminology

6.2 Measuring shoe size

Differing foot sizes

6.3 Forging the shoe

Preliminary thoughts • Cutting the steel • The first heat • The second heat • The third heat • The fourth heat • Final heat – finishing the shoe

6.4 Fullering and nail positions

6.5 Hind shoes

7 SHOEING THE HORSE

7.1 Removing shoes

Front shoes • Hind shoes • Changing sides

7.2 Assessing foot balance

Forelimb balance

7.3 Trimming the foot

Trimming the normal foot • Trimming the overgrown foot

7.4 Fitting the shoe

Fitting the shoe • Fitting shoes for specific activities

7.5 Nailing on

Nailing on

7.6 Clenching up and finishing off

Clenching up and finishing off • Hammer clenching

8 SPECIALISED SHOES

8.1 Variations of conventional shoes

Calkin and wedge • Three-quarter hind shoe • Set-heeled shoe • Seated-heel shoe • Deep-seated shoe • Feather-edged shoe • Grass tips • Racing plates

8.2 Bar shoes

Straight-bar shoe • Egg-bar shoe • Heart-bar shoe • Rocker-bar shoe • Three-quarter bar shoe • G-bar shoe • T-bar or anchor shoe • Open-toed bar shoe

8.3 Extension shoes

Toe extension shoe • Lateral (medial) toe extension shoe • Spavin shoes

8.4 Preventers

Diamond-toed forging shoe • Dub-toed shoe • Medial and lateral preventer shoes

8.5 Surgical shoes

Patten or rest shoe • Keyhole and Fishtail Shoes • Fetlock splint shoe • Sidebone shoe • Swan-neck shoe • Navicular shoe • Hospital plateFabrication

9 LAMENESS AND DISEASE RELEVANT TO FARRIERY

PART 1 DIAGNOSING LAMENESS

9.1.1 The farrier’s role

9.1.2 Progression of diagnosis

History • Visual examination • Palpation of the leg • Detailed examination of the foot • Veterinary examination techniques

PART 2 CAUSES OF LAMENESS

9.2.1 Lameness relating to the hoof

Injuries caused by nailing • Bruising • Hoof infections • Tissue separations and abnormalities

9.2.2 Lameness associated with foot imbalance

Medio-lateral foot imbalance of the forelimb • Medio-lateral foot imbalance of the hind limb • Long-toed, low-heeled conformation • Base-narrow conformation • Overgrown feet • Hoof cracks

9.2.3 Laminitis

Possible causes and contributory factors • Diagnosis • Medical treatments • Management • Farriery

9.2.4 Lameness associated with bones and joints

Fractures of the distal phalanx • Pedal osteitis • Sidebone • The navicular bone • The middle and proximal phalanges • The fetlock • The metacarpus and metatarsus • The hock

9.2.5 Tendon injuries

Tendon strains • Inflammation, dislocation and rupture of tendons

9.2.6 Limb problems of foals and yearlings

Physitis • Limb deviations • Limb rotation • ‘Contracted tendons’ • Hyperextension of the distal limb

9.2.7 Local infections and nervous disorders associated with lameness

Local infections • Nervous disorders

9.2.8 Infectious diseases of horses

Diseases transmissible between horses • Zoonoses

10 THE DONKEY

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Anatomy and function

Bones • The hoof • Tendons and ligaments • Blood and nerve supply

10.3 Conformation, foot balance and gait

10.4 Shoeing and trimming

10.5 Lameness and disease relevant to farriery

Overgrown feet • Seedy toe • White line disease • Abscess of the foot

GLOSSARY

COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF EQUIDS FOR IDENTIFICATION PURPOSES

REFERENCES

INDEX

AUTHORS’ NOTE

The following are a few notes of explanation that may assist readers.

Units of measurement

At the time of writing, most measurements associated with farriery in the UK are given in imperial units. There are, however, some anomalies, for example in the UK steel is generally sold in imperial cross-section, but supplied in 4-metre lengths. It is also the case that many young people training in farriery have learnt metric measurements at school, and are relatively unfamiliar with the imperial system. Being mindful of these facts, and in the hope that this book will be of use to readers in countries where both systems of measurement are employed, throughout the text, measurements are given first in imperial, followed by metric equivalents in brackets. The only exceptions are where a measurement given is clearly specific to one system only.

Anatomical nomenclature

Some anatomical features of the limbs, or conditions affecting them, may be very similar in the fore and hind legs, but have different traditional nomenclature. Key examples of this are the carpal joint (‘knee’) in the forelimb and the tarsal (‘hock’) in the hind limb, and the directional terms palmar and plantar, which refer to the ‘back’ of the forelimb and hind limb respectively. In the text, where it is significant to point out that a particular observation pertains to both fore and hind limbs, the forms carpal (tarsal) and palmar (plantar) are used. Generally, the authors have tried to use current nomenclature as laid down in Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria (6th ed., 2017). Certain names, however, have been retained as they lend themselves more easily to the use of farriers than the ‘correct’ anatomical terminology. For example, we use ‘proximal intertarsal joint’ rather than ‘Talocalcanealcentroquartal joint’, and ‘sub-carpal check ligament’ rather than ‘accessory ligament to the deep digital flexor tendon’. We have attempted to use the most recent reliable anatomical information available at the time of going to print.

‘Handedness’

The main text in this book is written for right-handed farriers. Left-handed farriers will find certain tools are made with left- or right-handed options (e.g. drawing knife and searcher). Others may be better if adapted, but can be used quite readily by a left-hander (e.g. tongs, buffer, and anvil). The majority of tools are totally without any handedness (e.g. punches, hammers, loop knives). Descriptions on toolmaking and shoemaking in this book are described for right-handed farriers, but should be easily adapted by the left-hander. Similarly, in actions such as nailing on the shoe, or punching nail holes, the left-hander will find it easier to start with the opposite branch of the shoe from the right-hander, but this is not a serious problem and any left-handed person is probably already well able to adapt directions written with right-handedness in mind.

References

Farriery has been a recognised trade in the United Kingdom since 1356, when the fellowship of farriers was first called together in London. In 1890 an examinations and training scheme was introduced by the Worshipful Company of Farriers, and much of the content of this book is based on the amalgamated knowledge and teachings of the apprenticeship scheme. Whilst much of this information is obviously not scientifically proven to be correct, the passage of time and practical experience of the apprenticeship scheme does represent a vast accumulation of practical skill and knowledge that would be unwise to ignore. Where references are not given in this book to matters pertaining primarily to farriery, it may be assumed that this is based on the apprenticeship scheme, sometimes tempered by the experience of the authors. Where relevant scientific information is available in contentious areas, we have included references, and also have added references to the information that pertains to lameness, diseases and ailments of the horse. However, we have kept references to a minimum in order to maintain the flow of the text.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

When they wrote the first edition of this book, Ron Ware and Chris Colles hoped to provide a text that covered all that a farrier apprentice needed to know about the theory of shoeing horses, as well as providing a useful text for practising farriers. In this task they were helped and encouraged by many farriers, vets, and the staff at J.A. Allen.

Now, some ten years later, we have been encouraged to write an updated edition. Ron had sadly decided he was too long retired to be able to help. John Hayes, however, has brought a wealth of experience to the book, with a particular interest and experience of teaching apprentice farriers. We have also been very grateful for feedback and criticism of the first edition, which has allowed us to modify some text and make several significant additions to the book.

We would like to acknowledge our continued thanks for all who assisted with the first edition, without which this edition could not exist. In particular, Billy Crothers and Martin Reed were both generous with their time and experience, allowing us to take many photographs of them at work.

Once again, many professional colleagues have offered help and advice in areas ranging from the practical aspects of shoemaking to detailed discussions of the minutiae of diseases processes. These include: Prof. J. Coffman; D. Duckett; S. Dunn; V. Grove; J. Johns; Prof. C. Pollitt; A. Poynton (Imprint shoes); M. Reed; Matt Sheering; F. R. Stephenson; and J. Walmsley. The staff of the Donkey Sanctuary have assisted with Chapter 10, as well as providing a series of illustrations for the section. All of the forgoing have generously read and criticized parts of our work, and we are grateful for their expert advice and assistance. Of course, any remaining errors remain entirely our own responsibility. We are also very grateful to the many horses and owners that have helped us to illustrate these pages.

The staff of the Crowood Press have worked wonders transferring our notes into legible printed words, and we remain forever grateful for their continuing support in preparing this edition for publication. Carol Vincer has repeated her magic with updating the anatomical illustrations (reported by one reviewer of the first edition as ‘minor works of art in their own right’ – an opinion with which the authors totally agree!). Finally, we must acknowledge the support, encouragement and endurance of our wives, on whose lives this book has inevitably impacted.

CHAPTER ONE

AN INTRODUCTION TO FARRIERY

Farriery, the art of shoeing horses, is necessary to enable horses to work under modern domesticated circumstances. Metalled roads result in hoof wear outstripping the rate at which the hooves can grow, and protection of the feet is required. Recently developed machine-made shoes are of a remarkably high standard, and even surgical shoes are now available ready-made. This means that even farriers with poor forging skills are able to carry out far more competent jobs than their counterparts of 40 years ago. Ultimately, however, there is still no substitute for the properly trained farrier when treating difficult cases.

The authors have tried to record their combined experience gained over some 130 years of studying shoeing. As with all textbooks, this book can only be used as a guide. Every horse must be assessed as an individual and be shod, or treated, accordingly. It is difficult to relate textbook theory to practical problems, and eventually there is no substitute for first-hand experience. Good teaching is the basis for the development of the modern farrier, combined with practice, to improve skills. There is no doubt, however, that outstanding farriers are born with natural ability, and they excel through practice and an ability to be critical of their own work. There is no substitute for hands-on tuition, especially when addressing subjects such as foot balance. Understanding foot balance is difficult. There is no easy way to teach it, but once you can see the balance of a limb, you will never forget it. This is probably the most important aspect of shoeing, and can only be understood after years of practical assessment of many different horses. It is for this reason that a whole chapter has been allotted to this topic.

We have attempted to cover the fundamental principles of farriery, starting with the assumption of no knowledge on the part of the reader. We hope we have then provided a framework on which aspiring farriers may base their everyday practical work. Whilst attempting to stay abreast of modern techniques and methods, it is essential not to lose sight of the basic elementary skills and principles. However good shoes may be, they are of no benefit if fitted to an unbalanced foot. A good understanding of the anatomy of the limbs of the horse is also necessary, linked to knowledge of how a horse moves. Every time you pick up a leg, try to think what you have in your hand – what is in your fingers, and what is under your thumb. As this becomes routine, slight abnormalities will quickly be evident. Before long it only needs a cursory glance to notice curbs, spavins, splints, windgalls, signs of brushing, a horse back at the knee, etc. Recognising these problems will enhance the ability to anticipate how a horse will move – particularly important when few farriers have either the time or opportunity to see the horse trotted up before shoeing.

Knowledge and experience are essential to first-class shoeing. The teaching of farriery theory is improving all the time, but learning from the experience of others remains the essential element of the craft. It is unfortunate that, after their apprenticeship period, so many newly qualified farriers wish to set up their own business. Long gone are the days when some of the larger forges contained ten or twelve farriers plus two or three general smiths. With these older forges, although each farrier had his own individual style, each was in the position, if so inclined, to compare his own skills to that of his fellow tradesmen. Only an egotist or an idiot could fail to recognise the level of his own ability. One of the main problems with working alone is that a gradual change from a sound basic style of shoeing to a ‘method’ style can take place without actually being aware of it.

Finally, the authors cannot overemphasise the importance of discussing cases and problems with fellow professionals, and associated professions. Having worked together for many years, we value the knowledge this combined approach to shoeing and movement has given us.

1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF FARRIERY

The earliest ancestor of the horse (Eohippus) lived in central Asia about 15 million years ago. The size of a small dog, it had four toes on the front feet and three behind. These ‘horses’ spread east into Mongolia, west into central Europe, and south-west into Arabia. They gradually became larger, and only the centre toe made contact with the ground, eventually evolving into the ‘single-toed’ animal we recognise today. Probably the closest surviving relative of the modern-day horse (Equus caballus) is Przewalski’s horse, the wild pony found in Mongolia. These ponies were still to be found in the wild until the 1980s, when they probably became extinct other than in zoos, having fallen prey to various wars. Subsequently they have been reintroduced to their native areas, but there is probably some native pony blood mixed in, so that there are now no truly wild horses left in the world (as opposed to feral horses found in places such as the Camargue, parts of the USA and the moors of the south-west of England).

It is not known when man first tamed horses, but there are records of Egyptians riding and driving them in 1900 BC. The Greeks undoubtedly used horses, but there is no record of them using any form of horseshoe. The Romans are generally considered not to have had a great deal of interest in the horse, but they made use of them as their empire spread. It is probable that they first provided protection for their horses’ feet using ‘shoes’ made from rope or leather (soleaesparteae). It is assumed that these were only a temporary measure for a sore-footed horse although, even in the nineteenth century, the Japanese still used plaited rice straw for shoes. The Roman soleaeferreae was a leather shoe, probably with iron studs in the sole, similar to the Roman sandal. This, also, was probably only used as a measure to help footsore horses. There is much discussion about the ‘hipposandal’. This was probably a horseshoe, held in place by leather or rope. It would have been a relatively crude form of shoe, and it is doubtful whether it could have been used constantly to protect feet like the modern horseshoes. There are also suggestions that the hipposandal was not actually a shoe at all, but was used to hold dressings in place, used as a skid pan, or even that it was a candle holder!

There is little doubt that the first people to nail shoes to horse’s feet were the Celts and Gauls. The early custom of burying horses with their masters has given evidence of nailed-on shoes in early Celtic barrows, probably around 50 BC, but it is reasonable to assume that such shoes were in use prior to this time. The Romans probably learnt from the Celts and improved on their techniques of forging and nailing. It seems likely that the Romans did not need to provide metal protection for their horses whilst in central Europe and the Low Countries, but once they arrived in England’s wet and humid climate, the horses needed extra protection.

In the Middle Ages the shoes changed little. The Normans certainly recognised the importance of farriers and, in 1359, Edward II took forges to France to make horseshoes for his army. In 1356, the Mayor of London established the ‘Marshals of the City of London’, and wardens to govern the trade of farriery.

In 1564 a treatise on shoeing by Cesar Fiaschi published in France described twenty varieties of horseshoe. During subsequent years many theories about shoeing practice with regard to paring soles and frogs were expounded, mainly based on erroneous assumptions. This continued until 1863 when Sir Frederick Fitzwygram published Notes on Shoeing Horses. This text provided excellent information on the anatomy and functions of the foot, and ended any excuse for ignorance resulting in abhorrent farriery practices – although some unfortunately still persist!

In about 1356, the farriers in London were called together by the Mayor, and established a ‘fellowship’. Little is known about these early years, as nearly all the records were lost in the Great Fire of London in 1666. We do know, however, that in 1692 The Farriers Company of London was recorded by the Court of Aldermen of the City of London as having been in existence since 1356, as marshals of the city. In 1890–91 the Worshipful Company of Farriers first instigated examinations to allow the registration of skilled farriers in the United Kingdom. In 1907 and 1923 respectively, they introduced the Associate and Fellowship exams. In 1975 the Farriers Registration Act was introduced, making it illegal for anyone other than a registered farrier to shoe horses in the UK.

There are numerous types of shoes and styles of farriery still in vogue. It is important to assess each critically, and decide whether they really do what is claimed for them, or whether they are simply based on an unsubstantiated idea, or fashion.

1.2 THE LEGAL POSITION OF FARRIERS AND VETERINARY SURGEONS IN THE UK

Veterinary medicine has been practised since prehistory, the earliest records dating to 2100 BC. The art was developed in Greek and Roman times, but had gradually died out by the fourteenth century. The first veterinary school was set up in Lyons, France, and a graduate of this school, Charles Benoit Vial de St Bel, later became the first principal of the first veterinary school in the UK (the Royal Veterinary College in London) founded in 1791. The second school (the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College) in Edinburgh was founded in 1823. Although, when first started, teaching in these schools was very poor, as time has passed the UK schools have established a reputation as the foremost schools in the world, a position they are now striving to maintain.

In the UK, two Acts of Parliament have been passed that have strict legal implications for farriers working within the UK. They also provide a good basic framework for farriers everywhere, since their objective is to safeguard the welfare of the horse. Farriers must, however, be aware that different laws do exist in other countries, and they must ensure they comply with these when working outside the UK.

The Veterinary Surgeons Act 1948 makes it illegal in the UK for any person other than a registered veterinary surgeon to carry out any act of veterinary medicine or surgery. This means that in the UK it is illegal for any person other than a registered veterinary surgeon to diagnose or treat any condition in any animal. There are two minor exceptions to this:

1. The rendering of first aid for saving life or relieving pain.

2. Any treatment given to an animal by its owner, a member of his household or his employee.

The Farriers Registration Act 1975 makes it illegal for any person other than a registered farrier (or veterinary surgeon) to shoe or prepare for shoeing any foot of any horse. (Here, ‘horse’ includes donkeys.) Both Acts embody in law what may and may not be done.

Acts of Parliament are very difficult to change, and tend to become unwieldy as time passes and situations alter. For this reason Orders can be made by the Privy Council to amend certain aspects of them. Such Orders are, however, seldom forthcoming. The result is that there are areas of activity covered by both the Veterinary Surgeons Act and the Farriers Registrations Act which are not clear, and may even appear nonsensical. Technically no farrier should ever make a diagnosis, or treat any horse for lameness. In fact it is generally considered acceptable for a farrier to search a foot for causes of lameness such as nail bind, or infection, and to treat it by removing the nail, or letting out pus. It can be argued that this is first aid, relieving pain, and it would seem logical for the farrier to correct any errors in shoeing that might result in lameness. Care should, however, be exercised when lameness may be centred elsewhere as technically it is illegal for anyone other than a vet to diagnose, for example, a strained tendon. A farrier treating a foot should be aware that in doing so he is leaving himself open to litigation should anything go wrong (e.g. if chronic infection sets in, or the horse contracts tetanus). In the eyes of the law letting out pus is treatment, and therefore technically the vet’s province. Farriers should, therefore, always recommend that a veterinary surgeon be consulted after having rendered first aid of this type.

This book covers many veterinary aspects of farriery, in order to help the farrier understand how shoeing can assist in the treatment of certain conditions, and how the farrier’s role can augment that of the vet. It should not, however, be taken as an indication that the farrier should undertake such treatment without consultation between himself and the vet. Veterinary surgeons spend at least 5 years full time at college, the first 2 years studying anatomy and physiology, the last 3 working on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Following qualification, many vets specialise in a particular species, and in certain systems (e.g. hearts or orthopaedics). In addition to the facilities and services offered by the veterinary colleges, there are now many specialist veterinary practices that understand farriery, and work closely with farriers on difficult cases. If a farrier encounters a horse with particular shoeing problems, it is quite possible for him to obtain expert advice from such a centre. The other side of the coin is that, whilst vets have considerably more knowledge about disease and disease processes than farriers, farriers have skills in trimming, shoeing, forging and prefabricating metals that few vets will ever acquire. On this basis, it is invaluable for vets and farriers to discuss cases, and to pool their specialist knowledge to help resolve a shoeing problem. There is no right or wrong way to shoe any condition that will alleviate pain in every horse. All feet are different, and an understanding of the principles of why certain things are done is more important than learning techniques without understanding why they are applied.

In the UK, farriers now have the option of obtaining further qualifications, and learning more. Beware the man with Remedial Farrier painted on the van. Look for the farrier who has acquired additional qualifications, who works with several vets, and tends to keep quiet until asked for an opinion. In particular, the really good farrier (or vet) will never run down a colleague to an owner, and is slow to criticise another farrier’s work, always looking for reasons to explain a truly abysmal job! Corrective or remedial farriery cannot readily be taught. It is acquired through a thorough understanding of the principles of farriery, an ability to be self-critical, and years of experience working with and listening to other farriers and vets. Don’t forget that the owner/rider is, in the end, the person who needs to be satisfied with the work done, and their opinion is also important. Many riders are extremely knowledgeable about how a horse is working, and listening to their comments and relating them to your work is always beneficial – also of course, it is the client who pays your bills!

1.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FARRIERS AND VETERINARY SURGEONS

As mentioned in the previous section, the professional treatment of lameness and disease in horses is a matter for the veterinary surgeon under the Veterinary Surgeons Act 1948, but the successful treatment of much of the lameness and imbalance of the equine limb depends also on the skilled farrier – and farriers can also cause lameness if their work is bad. The well-being of the horse will be best promoted if there is well-mannered cooperation between the veterinary surgeon and farrier in which mutual trust and good practice prevail.

A clear line of demarcation between the veterinary surgeon and the farrier in the exercise of their professional responsibilities towards the horse does not exist. It depends on their respective abilities and the relationship established between the two, and so it varies from case to case. For instance, some veterinary surgeons prefer (and others positively insist) that a farrier takes the shoes from a lame horse and searches the foot before or during the veterinary examination. Others prefer to do this themselves.

Where a relationship has not yet developed the farrier should be guided as follows:

1.

He should not extend beyond the brief of trimming and balancing the equine hoof and applying conventional shoes, including recognised shoes (see Chapter 5).

2.

He should not penetrate the sensitive structures, cause unnatural stress to the limbs or administer drugs.

3.

He should not reduce the animal’s mobility by his actions nor cause it any pain nor increase its suffering (even temporarily).

4.

If cooperation and agreement with a veterinary surgeon can be reached, any treatment should continue as a joint action.

5.

If a farrier feels that a veterinary surgeon is not treating an animal correctly he should first contact him verbally or in writing and attempt to discuss the matter with him, before involving the client. A farrier should never attempt to take a client out of a veterinary surgeon’s charge.

6.

If a veterinary surgeon is of the opinion that a farrier’s work is not correct he should first contact the farrier directly to discuss the matter.

7.

Where a veterinary surgeon requires specific work from a farrier he should make personal contact verbally or by letter.

8.

Both parties should avoid passing detrimental comment on each other’s work unless they are prepared to substantiate it with evidence of malpractice. In the UK this might be to either the Farriers’ Registration Council or the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.

9.

A farrier should not offer to treat a horse that is being treated by another farrier or veterinary surgeon without discussing the case with them and obtaining permission to do so.

The primary need is for the farrier and the veterinary surgeon to get together and make their own local arrangements in the light of prevailing circumstances, bearing in mind the need for ethical standards to be maintained. The customer will also determine to some extent what has to happen, and this must be borne in mind.

1.4 THE CONTROL OF HORSES AND PONIES FOR TRIMMING AND SHOEING

Basic training of the horse. Few horses are aggressive, but many are nervous and apprehensive. Young horses should be accustomed to handling from birth, be used to wearing a headcollar, and be used to being lead in hand, and to having their feet picked up. This basic training is the responsibility of the breeder and owner. The farrier should always approach horses with understanding of their nature, and sympathy for their temperament, but if this basic training has not been carried out, then the farrier may advise the owner that the feet cannot be trimmed or shod until the horse has received this basic training.

Facilities for farriery. Farriers’ shops or forges provide the facilities needed for safe, efficient trimming and shoeing. If a travelling farrier is employed it is the responsibility of the owner to provide the necessary environment for shoeing to be carried out. This should include:

• A clean, dry standing with good light and a non-slip surface.

• A secure, safe ring to which the horse can be tied.

• Protection from rain, wind and bad weather.

• A properly fitted headcollar with a good rope of adequate length (broken headcollars or poorly repaired halters are not safe).

• Competent assistance.

The rope should be tied with a quick-release knot. Tying the horse to a loop of string, which will break if the horse runs back, is another useful precaution.

Handling the horse. The farrier should handle the horse kindly and firmly. In the event of a horse being difficult or unruly, the farrier should agree with the owner on the management of the horse. Normally the farrier will reprimand with the voice only. A rope or humane twitch should only be applied to the upper lip.

It is the responsibility of the owner to provide competent help. Farriers are strongly advised only to shoe a horse in the presence of the owner or the owner’s representative.

Special measures of restraint. If the measures described above are not sufficient to control the horse for the purpose of farriery, consideration should be given to making a further attempt after the horse’s excitability has been reduced by exercise and possibly a reduction of rations. If these measures are not adequate, the farrier should advise the owner that the presence of a veterinary surgeon to sedate the horse is required. The farrier should not be expected to prescribe or predict the effects of drugs on horses; this is the role of the veterinary surgeon. Horses should only be cast under the direct supervision of a veterinary surgeon. However, a cast horse is almost impossible to work on. It really needs to be standing for any kind of farriery to be carried out.

Insurance, health and safety. Farriers must comply with the provisions of the Health and Safety at Work and Employment legislation. A non-cancellable sickness and accident policy is advisable for self-employed persons. Farriers should also be insured against damage or loss to horses, their owners and third parties arising in the general course of their business.

Responsibilities of the farrier. It is the responsibility of the farrier to trim and shoe the horse or pony properly. It should be able to be handled for the procedures and be presented under conditions suitable for the purpose.

Owners often rely upon the farrier to attend, catch, and tie up the horse before trimming and shoeing it. If the farrier accepts these additional tasks, he must perform them with all due skill and care. The extra work is at the farrier’s own risk to both the horse and himself. To reduce that risk, the farrier should ask the owner or owner’s representative to handle the horse at the relevant stages. It may be that the professional indemnity insurance held by the registered farrier effectively covers the farrier from the moment of arrival to shoe to immediately after departure. If there is any doubt about the extent of cover however, it is the responsibility of the farrier to contact his insurer for confirmation of what cover they do have.

It is the farrier’s responsibility to decide if a situation is too risky to the horse, the owner or himself for farriery to continue. If an accident does occur, then the farrier is likely to be held responsible in the eyes of the law, and called on to answer for why he continued to work in dangerous circumstances.

CHAPTER TWO

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF FARRIERY TOOLS

Before any shoe can be made or fitted, it is necessary to obtain and maintain farrier’s tools in good working order. Whilst items such as the gas forge or hoof cutters are suitable for use as purchased, others such as the turning hammer and anvil will benefit from careful adaptation to suit each individual. Other items such as stamps and pritchel may be best made to suit individual requirements. The shoe is only as good as the nail holes, and the farrier should take care that his tools enable him to live up to expectations.

2.1 BASIC RULES OF FORGING

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Forging involves handling and working hot metals. This produces hot sparks and hot scale. Serious burns can result from accidents with handling, and injuries to eyes can result in loss of sight. For this reason you are advised to use some basic protective equipment whenever you are carrying out any forging work.

•Ear plugs are recommended, as the constant sound of hammering and the ringing of an anvil can result over time in loss of hearing sensitivity.

•Safety glasses are essential. Hot scale or sparks can lodge in the eyes, and apart from being very painful, many farriers have lost the sight of an eye as the result of such an accident.

•Steel toe-capped boots are recommended for forging, to protect the toes, but are very important when handling and shoeing horses. A horse’s foot placed on your toes is painful; if stamped down on your foot it will result in fractured toes unless they are protected.

•Apron. The hot sparks and scale produced when forging will burn through clothing. A leather apron will provide good protection from hot materials in the most high-risk areas, protecting yourself and lengthening the life of your clothing.

•Clothing with low combustibility (cotton/denim) should be worn at all times, to cover arms legs and torso, however hot it may be. Many man-made fibres are combustible, or melt when in contact with hot metal, and can cause serious burns.

This level of basic protection will save you from many injuries and scars when working at the forge.

WORKING TEMPERATURES FOR STEEL

Modern steels contain many additives, to give torque strength, wearing properties, flexibility, etc., which makes it extremely difficult to guess what any random piece of steel can be used for.

The most basic element that transforms iron to steel is the addition of carbon. Generally speaking, the greater the carbon content, the harder the steel. It is important to know (or have a good idea of) the carbon content of any steel, in order to temper it.

A rough method of determining the quality of steel is to balance a length over one finger, and ‘bounce’ one end on the beck of the anvil. The sharper, or higher pitched, and longer lasting the ring, the higher the carbon content, equating to a better quality steel. Wrought iron gives a dull clunk, and high-quality tool steel rings like a bell. The exception is high speed steel, which has a slightly dead sound, considering its quality.

Another test is by use of a grindstone. Dull yellow sparks signify very little carbon content. Light yellow sparks, a number of which are explosive, indicate steel with enough carbon content to be satisfactory for chisels, pritchels, etc. High-quality tool steel produces an extremely white, highly explosive spark. High speed steel (for lathe tools) produces dull red sparks – in fact more like globules than sparks. High speed steel is of little use to the farrier for making tools.

All steels have a different heat range at which they can be worked satisfactorily. By rule of thumb, the lower the carbon content, the higher the temperature that can be used. These heats range, in difference of colour, from white (snowball) heat for wrought iron, to blood red for high speed steel. Mild steel can be worked at bright yellow, whilst tool steel, suitable for stamps, pritchels and chisels, should only be worked at bright orange.

There are now so many types of steel that it is impossible to give guidance for each one. Overheating any piece of steel will cause it to fracture or shatter when struck with a hammer. Should this happen, always cut the fractured end back to solid metal before re-forging.

For fire welding purposes, the less carbon the metal contains, the easier it is to weld, as a greater heat can be obtained. However there are fluxes available that enable steels of quite high carbon content to be welded quite satisfactorily at a much lower temperature than would otherwise be possible.

HEAT TREATMENTS FOR STEEL

For stamps, pritchels and hot chisels – tools that are continually used on hot metal – the steel has to be of a quality that doesn’t need tempering, and yet still holds its shape when hot. Otherwise the continual use on hot metal will quickly take away any temper.

Tempering steel means taking steel to a maximum hardness, and then softening it to a controlled degree, so that it remains hard enough for the job required, but loses the brittle nature of hardened steel. For example, to temper a cold chisel, it is first necessary to know, or guess, what the chisel may be used for. The shaping of the chisel’s cutting edge is dependent upon its use. A chisel that will be used to cut rivet heads, bolt heads, etc., needs a much stouter blade than a chisel that will be used for cutting light metal plate. Driven under the head of a rivet, or a bolt head, a chisel that is too hard will quickly fracture, as will a chisel with too thin a blade. This also applies to hardies and cold sets.

When carbon steel is brought up to its ‘estimated’ working heat, and then allowed to cool down gradually, it loses its initial hardness, becoming more malleable. To bring it back to the hardness required for cutting steel, it is necessary to introduce a tempering process. With the exception of specialist steels, i.e. high speed steel (which is tempered in oil), tempering carbon steel is achieved using clean water.

The steel is first brought up to red hot. If it is then quenched in cold water, it will change colour, as its surface oxidises, to silver grey, becoming immensely hard and very brittle. In order to obtain hardness without the brittleness, some heat has to be gradually introduced. This is called tempering, and is done visually by gauging the heat indicated by colour changes in the oxidised surface layer. Starting with silver grey, the coldest and hardest, the colours range through light straw, dark straw, brown, blue, pigeon blue and then dull red.

For example, when the chisel is forged, the blade is put in the fire and brought up to a red heat over the end 2 inches (5cm). Then, gradually immerse the blade into clean water (usually the bosh or trough) until there is only about ¼ inch (6.5mm) of red remaining (towards the shaft of the chisel). Immediately withdraw the chisel and rub the flat surface with a piece of sandstone, or carborundum stone. This will shine the surface, and make the run of colours more easily visible. It will now be seen that the heat in the shaft of the tool will gradually pass down to the far edge, giving the complete range of colours running down from the red (hot area) to the cutting edge (initially silver grey). The more slowly this process occurs the better, although if it is too slow, the heat source will disperse and the colours will cease to travel.

Once the light straw colour (this colour will give the hardest practical edge) has reached the tip of the cutting edge, immediately plunge the chisel blade briefly into the cold water, to stop the tempering (stop the run of colours). If there should be any trace of red hot metal showing, plunge the blade of the chisel briefly into the water again, then leave it to cool, before quenching out completely. Should any trace of red hot metal be visible, and the chisel is quenched out fully, then the chisel will be hard at this point and very likely break at this point when used.

It is important that the head of the chisel isn’t quenched whilst still hot, as it could very well chip, or fracture in use, which is potentially very dangerous!

FIRE-WELDING

Fire- or forge-welding is a process whereby two or more pieces of steel can be joined together, simply using the heat of the forge. The metals are brought up to melting point in the fire, quickly placed on the anvil and rapidly hammered/ forged together to form a solid join.

The actual melting point of various steels will differ according to their carbon content (see above). Once a metal has reached its melting point, it will then begin to burn. (Melting point in this instance refers to the surfaces of the metal, not bringing the metal to a molten, or liquid, state.) As explained earlier, mild steel, with its low carbon content, is considerably easier to weld in this manner than the higher grades of steel. Higher grade steels (containing a greater amount of carbon) can be forge-welded with the use of specialist fluxes. In such cases, the steel is only brought up to a temperature at which the flux produces the ‘wet’ surface areas to weld together. The basic skills of forge-welding need to be mastered before moving on to higher grades of steel.

In order that complete fusion is obtained within the joint, the two surfaces to be joined must both be brought up to melting point. Visually, the metal becomes the same colour as the heart of the fire (light yellow); it will have a ‘wet’ appearance and a few explosive sparks will be visible amongst the flames. Once this ‘wet’ surface is obtained, the metal is at the point of being burnt. A sprinkling of silver sand at this point, over this molten area, acts as a flux which retards oxidisation and allows the metal to attain a greater heat before it begins to burn. If left within the fire, the metal will begin to ‘crystallise’ as it burns. The iron and carbon contents separate and give off a mass of explosive sparks (just like hand-held sparklers). At this stage, the pieces of metal are beyond any hope of making a successful union. When brought together on the anvil face and struck with a hammer, they simply crumble or disintegrate completely. Even if only slightly burnt (‘scorched’, as it is generally termed) a forged weld will be of very poor quality.

For a weld to be successful, it is necessary to prepare the ends of metal that are to be joined. The metal around the area to be welded needs to have an increase in volume, to allow for wastage and for forging/hammering.

For the newcomer to forge-welding, the simplest way to learn is to make a series of small chain links from 5∕16 or 3∕8 inch (8 or 10mm) round bar. These can be made separately, or joined together to form a short chain. (In times past, almost all apprentice general smiths and farriers learned to weld by renewing links in trace chains.) When making a chain link, the link is forged so that the ends are held in the position they need to be for welding. Until a certain amount of experience is gained, it will be found considerably more difficult to cope with two separate pieces of metal.

Fig. 2.1 Forge-welding: the ends of U-shaped round bar are ‘scarfed’, or thinned down in steps at a 45-degree angle across the ends of the bar (a); after scarfing, the ends can be brought together and a solid join made (b).

The preparation and welding of a chain link is exactly the same procedure as is used to weld a shoe. First, cut a 6–8 inch (15–20cm) piece of round bar. Heat the centre and bend to form a U-shape. Next, put the two ends in the fire and bring the fire to a good heat. Hold the centre of the bend in the tongs and lay the half-formed link on the anvil face, open end away from you. Using the inside heel of the hammer (that is, the edge nearest the hammer’s shaft), set down the inner edge of the open end of the branch of the link that is nearer the hammer hand. The setting down should be at an angle of approximately 45 degrees across the section (as shown in Figure 2.1a) and in a series of ‘steps’ – the furthermost edge being extremely thin. This is termed ‘scarfing’ and all joints for welding have to be prepared in this way. By ‘stepping’ these surfaces as described, rather than making a smooth wedge with the flat face of the hammer when the surfaces are molten, there is less chance of the two surfaces sliding apart as the first blow of the hammer is applied. Now turn the half-formed link over and do exactly the same with the other branch. Next, turn the ends of the link inwards, over the beck of the anvil, to close the two scarfs together. The ends overlap, and meet at an angle of about 90 degrees (Figure 2.1b). All of this should be achievable with one heat.

The scarfs of the weld should always be kept as short as possible. If too long, the metal either side of the weld will be subject to loss of volume through overheating. From Figure 2.1b, it is evident that the area to be welded (X) now has a considerably greater volume of metal than if the two ends were scarfed in line with the section, and then bent with the ends of the link in line (Y). If there was no extra thickness of metal, then once it was brought up to a molten state and hammered, there would be a considerable loss of thickness of the link, and a weakness at this point.

It is important to have a clean fire for welding. Clear the fire of all clinker and make sure there is a good heart to the fire. A fire that has just been made up with a quantity of fresh coal/coke isn’t suitable. Grasp the U-bend of the link with a suitable pair of tongs and push the scarfed ends into the hottest part of the fire. The link needs to be held continually from this point onwards and be continuously turned over and over in the fire. Make sure that it is only the weld area that is beginning to show a wet look and that the scarves are not burning. A sprinkle of silver sand will usually prevent burning.

Once the joint is molten, draw the link from the fire onto the anvil and, with a series of very light, rapid blows, seal the uppermost scarf. Very, very quickly, turn the link over and seal the other scarf. If the scarf loses its heat, no amount of hammering will make it stick: it will simply decrease the volume of metal. It must be brought back to melting point again. When both scarves are sealed, it is possible to offer heavier blows on both sides of the weld (be careful not to flatten the side of the weld) before rounding the link over the beck of the anvil.

Welding two separate pieces of steel together is slightly different. First, the ends that are to be welded have to be of sufficient volume to allow for ‘wastage’ during the welding process. If a bar has to retain its thickness after welding, the end will need to be ‘jumped up’ before it is scarfed. Thus a bar that is jumped up has had its end portion brought up to a greater volume. This is achieved by heating the end of the bar to white heat, placing the hot end of the bar on the anvil face and then hitting the upper end of the bar so that the bottom end gradually spreads and thickens. If two pieces of bar of equal dimensions are to be welded, then both bars would have one end jumped up in similar fashion. If round bars are to be welded together, then the ends of the bars are generally jumped up to a square section and scarfed. After welding, the welded area is then run through top and bottom swages to regain the round section, without loss of thickness.

Welding ornamental handles to pokers, or reins to tongs, only requires that the round section of steel be jumped up. The other attachment can be left at a suitable section.

When welding a short piece of steel to a longer section, always make sure that the shorter section will lie flat on the anvil, with the scarf in a position to correspond with the opposite scarf. The longer section of steel is then held in the left hand, whilst the shorter section is held by tongs in the hammer hand (assuming a right-handed farrier). This means that, after both sections have been brought up to the correct heat, the short piece can be placed on the anvil, the tongs discarded, the hammer picked up, and the scarfed end on the long section placed in position without loss of heat (i.e. the metal between the scarves is still molten). These actions have to be carried out extremely quickly in order that the ends of the scarves are sealed. It is important to ensure that the scarves are well sealed before offering any heavy blows with the hammer over the welded area. Failure to seal the scarves can result in the molten metal in the joint being forced out, leaving a ‘dry’ area that will not fuse. Remember, there is no substitute for experience and practice.

The term ‘jump up’ has been explained as thickening the end of a bar. An alternative term is ‘upsetting’. Jumping up generally relates to increasing the volume of the end of a piece of steel rod or bar, whilst the term upsetting generally relates to increasing the volume in the mid-section of a steel rod or bar. ‘Upsetting into itself’ is a term that is used to describe the act of turning the end section of a bar, then ‘squashing’ the end to make a solid block from which to forge a calkin or wedge.

2.2 THE FORGE

GAS

Acquisition

Nowadays almost all farriers work from a mobile gas forge (Figure 2.2) for a good part of their time. There are many makes and types available, and information about their performance can be obtained from their suppliers. Because they are continually developing, it would be beyond the scope of this book to recommend any particular type of forge. However, it is probably wise to invest in a forge with a heat output in excess of your anticipated needs. Most modern forges do have an adequate output, but it can be very frustrating trying to obtain that extra heat for fire-welding or dealing with an unexpectedly large shoe when the forge is struggling to give the output you require.

Fig. 2.2 An example of a gas forge as used by travelling farriers.

Maintenance

Gas fires require a minimum of maintenance. The firebrick tiles on the floor, as well as linings, will require replacement occasionally if damaged, and of course the gas cylinders will require replacement on a regular basis. The greatest damage caused to firebrick tiles is by the deposits from the flux when fire-welding. Should firebrick tiles need to be replaced, it is worthwhile keeping one spare as a base for future welding.

Occasional cleaning of the gas jets will ensure efficient use of fuel, and maximum heat delivered from the forge. Other occasional maintenance may be required, and this is listed by the manufacturers of the various forges available. Generally, the gas forge is better returned to the manufacturer for relining and/or repairs to gas control.

Although the gas forge is ideal for altering and fitting shoes, most farriers would choose a solid fuel fire for shoemaking, for reasons which are explained below.

COAL/COKE

Acquisition

Figure 2.3 shows a suitable hearth for a farrier’s forge. This depicts a brick-built hearth, suitable for use in a permanent farrier’s forge. Commercially built coal/coke forges are available (see Figure 2.4). These are relatively cheap to buy and set up, having a metal fire pan (or grate), but will have a limited life compared to a brick-built forge, and are not as satisfactory to work with.

Fig. 2.3 A brick-built coal forge with two hearths, set in a permanent farrier’s shop.

Fig. 2.4 A commercially available coal forge, set in a permanent farrier’s shop.

Fig. 2.5 The tuyere set at the back of the fire. A jet of air is forced through the tuyere to give a hot centre to the fire when working metal. This is a water-cooled tuyere; the tank of water can be seen behind the forge, and this circulates through the tuyere itself to keep it cool when in use.

The back of the forge is a cast iron plate, against which the fire is built (Figure 2.5). In this plate is set a tube or nozzle, known as a tuyere. Through the tuyere a stream of air is blown – usually nowadays by an electric fan, but not so long ago, often by hand bellows. The fan should have a variable speed control, in order to regulate the heat of the fire. In forges burning coke, the tuyere needs to be water cooled, to prevent it from burning. The tuyere is hollow, and fitted to a water container built into the back plate to keep the whole cool, and stop it burning. In a coal forge this is less necessary. At the front of the hearth is a trough of water (or bosh). This can be used to cool the shoes during forging, and to cool the fire if parts become too intensely hot.

The traditional forges of either coal or coke still reign supreme for all types of ironwork and, in particular, shoemaking. Heat from these forges can be localised and appears to stay in the metal longer than from a gas forge and renders the metal itself much more malleable to work. Although clean and convenient to use, gas forges do produce more scale (oxidised iron) on the metal than a solid fuel forge. It is important to remove this scale before hammering the metal, otherwise the metal will be badly marked. Often this scale is quite difficult to remove and the metal may lose a considerable amount of heat during the removal. The more often scale has to be removed, the more the volume of the shoe is reduced. It is also important to keep the face of the anvil free from loose scale. With solid fuel fires the scale on the metal is relatively easy to remove. The blows from the hammer in forming the toe bend will usually be sufficient to shake the scale loose, which is followed by a few brisk strokes with a wire brush. (For brushing scale from hot metal, the brush needs to have extremely strong and stiff bristles. The type of brush as used by butchers to scrub their wooden block is the one most favoured by farriers. Usually a looped handle is screwed on to allow for a better grip and more powerful brush strokes.)

Note (RW’s comment): My preference is for a coal fire rather than coke, although the types of coal available today are somewhat limited. Coal can be used without the necessity of a water-cooled tuyere (which is an absolute must for coke) and it does not spit like a coke fire. Coal has a somewhat ‘softer’ heat than coke, and is more comfortable to work beside. It is also cleaner to work with, especially when fire-welding.

Maintenance

A coal fire does need more managing than coke but with a little experience this is no problem. It is important to look after the back of the fire. Keep a quantity of wet coal against the back plate, flattened down with the slice, and occasionally dampen it to prevent the fire burning backwards. If good-quality washed coal is available it is well worth trying. The shoemaking described later in the book will be as performed in a traditional coal forge. The only way this really differs from a gas forge is the ability to localise heat areas better in the coal forge.