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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Research Recipes for Midwives
A 16-step guide to writing a research proposal
Development of a research question, identification of a research method, and working through the steps to build a sample are complex and hugely important stages in the career of a student midwife. A good research ‘recipe’—a specific method geared to address a certain kind of question—can be critical to the creation of a successful proposal.
Research Recipes for Midwives offers a selection of thoroughly tested research methods from which student midwives can choose in developing their own projects, expertly directing the reader through a 16-step process for applying a ‘recipe’ to their own proposal. Reader will also find:
- Information regarding the relationship between midwifery research and practice
- A thorough introduction to research methods built around clear concepts
- Tools for making a complex and challenging process manageable and exciting
Research Recipes for Midwives is the ideal resource for student midwives developing research proposals, particularly those enrolled in research methods modules, providing readers with an edge in this foundational element of the research process.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Author
Foreword
A Memorandum from the Author
Acknowledgements
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Research Methods
1.1 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
1.2 GLOSSARY OF RESEARCH TERMS
1.3 ONTOLOGY
1.4 EPISTEMOLOGY
1.5 GENERIC STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1.6 TRIANGULATION
1.7 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS CHAPTER SUMMARY
1.8 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 1 SAQs
CHAPTER 2: Inductive Versus Deductive Approaches
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO INDUCTIVE VERSUS DEDUCTIVE APPROACHES
2.2 MORE ABOUT THE (QUANTITATIVE) DEDUCTIVE APPROACH
2.3 MORE ABOUT THE (QUALITATIVE) INDUCTIVE APPROACH
2.4 THE QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE DEBATE
2.5 THE DIFFERENCE(S) BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA
2.6 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ASSUMPTIONS
2.7 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 2 SAQs
CHAPTER 3: Literature Searching and How to Critique a Research Paper
3.1 DEFINE THE TERM LITERATURE REVIEW
3.2 OUTLINE THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
3.3 WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW?
3.4 WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW?
3.5 WHAT SHOULD A LITERATURE REVIEW CONSIST OF?
3.6 STEPS INVOLVED IN WRITING A LITERATURE REVIEW
3.7 OUTLINE THE FOUR STAGES OF DEVELOPING A LITERATURE REVIEW
3.8 WHAT IS A RESEARCH CRITIQUE?
3.9 STAGES INVOLVED IN CRITICAL READING OF RESEARCH ARTICLES
3.10 RESEARCH CRITIQUING MODEL
3.11 SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS
3.12 THE HOLLINS MARTIN RESEARCH CRITIQUING TOOL
3.13 META‐ANALYSIS
3.14 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 3 SAQs
CHAPTER 4: Stating the Objectives, Aim(s), Research Question(s), Sub‐Question(s), Hypotheses, and Null Hypotheses of the Proposed Research Study
4.1 WHAT IS AN OBJECTIVE?
4.2 WHAT IS AN AIM?
4.3 WHAT IS A RESEARCH QUESTION?
4.4 WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS?
4.5 WHAT IS A NULL HYPOTHESIS?
4.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NULL HYPOTHESIS AND THE THESIS STATEMENT
4.7 THE METHODS SECTION OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL WILL FOLLOW
4.8 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 4 SAQs
CHAPTER 5: Choosing an Appropriate Research Method (Recipe) to Answer the Question
5.1 SELECTING AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH METHOD (RECIPE) TO ANSWER YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION
5.2 CHOOSING A QUANTITATIVE METHOD
5.3 CHOOSING A QUALITATIVE METHOD
5.4 SELECTING WHICH RESEARCH METHOD (RECIPE) TO USE
5.5 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH METHOD
5.6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHOD
5.7 SURVEY RESEARCH METHOD
5.8 ACTION RESEARCH METHOD
5.9 CLINICAL AUDIT RESEARCH METHOD
5.10 GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH METHOD
5.11 PHENOMENOLOGY RESEARCH METHOD
5.12 ETHNOGRAPHY RESEARCH METHOD
5.13 CASE STUDY RESEARCH METHOD
5.14 TRIANGULATION
5.15 A SUMMARY OF HOW PAPERS ARE WRITTEN
5.16 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 5 SAQs
CHAPTER 6: Accessing Populations of Participants and Sampling Them
6.1 IDENTIFYING THE APPROPRIATE PARTICIPANTS TO ANSWER YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION(S)
6.2 WHAT IS A POPULATION?
6.3 WHAT IS A SAMPLE?
6.4 STAGES OF THE SAMPLING PROCESS
6.5 SUMMARY OF THE SAMPLING PROCESS
6.6 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 6 SAQs
CHAPTER 7: Data Collection Methods
7.1 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
7.2 DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND TOOLS
7.3 GUIDELINES FOR DATA COLLECTION PROCESSES
7.4 QUESTIONNAIRES
7.5 MEASUREMENT
7.6 INTERVIEWS
7.7 OBSERVATIONS
7.8 SUMMARY OF DATA COLLECTION CHAPTER
7.9 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 7 SAQs
CHAPTER 8: Analyzing Qualitative Data
8.1 INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
8.2 BASIC PROCESSES OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
8.3 CODING THE DATA
8.4 SPECIFIC ANALYTIC STRATEGIES
8.5 COGNITIVE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
8.6 SUMMARY OF ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA CHAPTER
8.7 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 8 SAQs
CHAPTER 9: Analyzing Quantitative Research
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
9.2 WHAT THE TERM STATISTICS MEANS?
9.3 WHAT ARE DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS?
9.4 DISTRIBUTION OF DATA
9.5 WHAT ARE INFERENTIAL STATISTICS?
9.6 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA PRODUCED
9.7 CALCULATING PROBABILITY
9.8 RESEARCH VARIABLES
9.9 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
9.10 HOW TO SELECT THE APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TEST
9.11 CORRELATIONS
9.12 SUMMARY OF ANALYZING QUANTITATIVE DATA
9.13 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 9 SAQs
CHAPTER 10: The Role and Procedures Involved in Gaining Ethical Approval
10.1 ETHICAL ISSUES THAT RELATE TO IMPLEMENTATION OF RESEARCH
10.2 ETHICAL TERMS
10.3 PREVENTING HARM
10.4 WHAT IS ETHICAL APPROVAL?
10.5 WHY IS ETHICAL APPROVAL NECESSARY?
10.6 MONITORING OF RESEARCH PROJECTS
10.7 OBTAINING ETHICS COMMITTEE APPROVAL
10.8 GENERAL QUESTIONS ASKED FOR ON AN ETHICS APPLICATION?
10.9 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 10 SAQs
CHAPTER 11: An Empty Template for Designing a 16‐STEP Research Proposal
11.1 RECAP ON HOW TO DESIGN A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
11.2 AN EMPTY 16‐STEP RESEARCH TEMPLATE
11.3 BOOK CONCLUSION
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
A Memorandum from the Author
Table 1 The 16 steps involved in writing a research proposal.
Table 2 BLANK TEMPLATE: The 16 steps involved in writing a research proposal...
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 The 16‐step model to writing a research proposal.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Summary of the main differences between quantitative and qualitat...
Table 2.2 Inducing themes from the data (qualitative approach).
Table 2.3 Deducing numbers from the data (quantitative approach).
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 CASP checklist for qualitative studies.
Table 3.2 CASP checklist for a Cohort Study.
Table 3.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Table 3.4 Identified studies for inclusion
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods...
Table 5.2 Example of one difference between an
objective
and
subjective
met...
Table 5.3 Example of another difference between an
objective
and
subjective
Table 5.4 Values of correlation coefficients.
Table 5.5 Item 5 taken from the Birth Satisfaction Scale‐Revised (BSS‐R)....
Table 5.6 Examples of open‐ended survey questions.
Table 5.7 Summary of processes involved in recording a
critical incident
.
Table 5.8 Specific processes involved in a
grounded theory research method
....
Table 5.9 Principles of
phenomenology method
.
Table 5.10 Reflexivity.
Table 5.11 Specific processes involved in a
phenomenology research method
....
Table 5.12 Five criteria to evaluate whether or not your
ethnographic resea
...
Table 5.13 The extreme case study of Genie.
Table 5.14 An example method STEP 7.
Table 5.15 Examples of types of triangulations.
Table 5.16
General sequence that research papers follow
.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Stages of the sampling process.
Table 6.2 Examples of inclusion criteria.
Table 6.3 Examples of exclusion criteria.
Table 6.4 Example of sample taken from a population.
Table 6.5 Factors that influence choice of sampling method.
Table 6.6 Types of probability sampling and non‐probability sampling.
Table 6.7 Example of stratified sampling.
Table 6.8 How to determine sample size from a population.
Table 6.9 Participant sampling plan template.
Table 6.10 Data collection plan template (Continued from Table 6.9).
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Summary of differences between primary and secondary data.
Table 7.2 Examples of quantitative and qualitative data collection tools.
Table 7.3 Example Participant Information Sheet (PIS).
Table 7.4 Example of a participant consent form.
Table 7.5 Examples of how to gather important details and demographic data....
Table 7.6 Tips for filling in the questionnaire.
Table 7.7 Examples of numeric responses in quantitative research.
Table 7.8 Examples of inductive responses in qualitative research.
Table 7.9 Example of a psychometric plan to validate a quantitative survey ...
Table 7.10 Examples of parallel form questions.
Table 7.11 Common types of validated intelligence tests.
Table 7.12 Example of a semi‐structured interview schedule.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Themes and subthemes identified in the data.
Table 8.2 Steps involved in coding qualitative data.
Table 8.3 Themes and subthemes.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Main differences between parametric and non‐parametric tests.
Table 9.2 Examples of hypotheses that relate to midwifery practice.
Table 9.3 Examples of null hypotheses that match the alternative hypotheses...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Notable events that influenced development of ethical principles...
Table 10.2 Potential cause(s) of harm during a research study may include:...
Table 10.3 The Milgram (1963) experiment.
Table 10.4 Extract from the NMC Code (NMC 2015), which justifies when a mid...
Table 10.5 Identifiers that should be removed from data and tagged in accor...
Table 10.6 As a consequence of the Nuremberg Trials, the following principl...
Table 10.7 Example of a PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET (PIS).
Table 10.8 Example of a research participant CONSENT FORM.
Table 10.9 Example of a data protection plan (DPP).
Table 10.10 Example of an ethics statement (STEP 11).
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 The 16‐steps involved in writing a research proposal.
Table 11.2 Example plan for proposed analysis of qualitative data.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.1 A model of religious value systems that persuade an individual's ...
FIGURE 1.2 Partograph.
FIGURE 1.3 Apgar scoring system.
FIGURE 1.4 Wong–Baker pain scale.
FIGURE 1.5 Birth Satisfaction Scale‐Revised (BSS‐R).
FIGURE 1.6 Photograph to illustrate ActivPAL activity monitors in situation....
FIGURE 1.7 The research cycle.
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2.1 Premise of quantitative research.
FIGURE 2.2 Premise of qualitative research.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.1 Prisma Flow Diagram (Moher et al. 2009)
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.1 Visual graphs of correlations.
FIGURE 5.2 Cyclical process of
action research method
.
FIGURE 5.3 Illustration of the overlapping phases of
grounded theory researc
...
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.1 Graph of plotted data that presents as a normal distribution.
FIGURE 9.2 Standard deviations within normally distributed data.
FIGURE 9.3 Percentages of data within normal distributed data.
FIGURE 9.4 Illustration of negatively skewed data.
FIGURE 9.5 Illustration of positively skewed data.
FIGURE 9.6 The distribution of
Heads (H)
on a graph.
FIGURE 9.7 Means of gathered samples from the whole population to illustrate...
FIGURE 9.8 Illustration of widths of variability.
FIGURE 9.9 Decision grid to aid selection of the most suitable statistical t...
FIGURE 9.10 Illustration of a perfect positive correlation.
FIGURE 9.11 Illustration of a perfect negative correlation.
FIGURE 9.12 Negatively skewed data.
FIGURE 9.13 Normally distributed data.
FIGURE 9.14 Positively skewed data.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Author
Foreword
A Memorandum from the Author
Acknowledgements
Begin Reading
References
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Research Recipes for Midwives
FIRST EDITION
Caroline J. Hollins Martin
Edinburgh Napier UniversityEdinburghUK
This edition first published 2024© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyThe contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting scientific method, diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied for[Paperback ISBN: 9781394180080]
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: © FatCamera/Getty Images; MartinPrescott/E+/Getty Images; mith_67/E+/Getty Images; svetikd/E+/Getty Images
With great pride, I would like to dedicate this book to my niece Anna Hollins, who is studying at Robert Gordon University in Scotland (UK) to become a midwife. Anna and her cohort of peers at all universities worldwide are the future of midwifery clinical practice. Welcome aboard.
About the Author
Prof Caroline J. Hollins Martin PhD MPhil BSc RM RGN MBPsS Senior Fellow HEA is a Professor in Midwifery within the School of Health and Social Care (SHSC) at Edinburgh Napier University (ENU) in Scotland (UK). Caroline’s professional experience covers a career in women’s reproductive health that spans 38 years. The first 11 years were spent as a clinical midwife working in Ayrshire (Scotland), and the remaining 27 have been spent teaching and researching women’s reproductive health in a variety of settings. Caroline is a Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) registered midwife and lecturer/practice educator. She is also a graduate and postgraduate in psychology and a Member of the British Psychological Society (MBPsS). Caroline’s research interests principally lie in psychology that speaks to childbearing women’s reproductive health, with her earlier work relating to midwives’ autonomy, evidence‐based practice, and providing choice and control to women over the childbirth continuum. Of late, her interests have transferred to research that produces functional tools for midwives to use in clinical practice. For instance, the Birth Satisfaction Scale‐Revised (BSS‐R©), which measures women’s experiences of labour and childbirth (https://www.bss‐r.co.uk/). More current research interests lie in the midwife’s role in providing perinatal bereavement care to women, partners, and families. To date, Caroline has published 135 papers and has a lot of experience of writing research proposals.
Prof Caroline J. Hollins Martin PhD MPhil BSc RM RGN MBPsS Senior Fellow HEAProfessor in Midwifery, School of Health and Social Care, Edinburgh Napier UniversityWorktribe: https://www.napier.ac.uk/people/caroline‐hollinsmartinResearch Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Caroline_Hollins_MartinScopus Author ID: 8665735000Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000‐0002‐3185‐8611/print
Foreword
Nothing has such power to broaden the mind as the ability to investigate systematically and truly all that comes under thy observation of life (Marcus Aurelius, 120–180 AD).
Professor Hollins Martin had a wealth of clinical midwifery experience before moving into the field of teaching and research. To many midwives (and many others), research can seem a taunting task, with a confusing method and an uncertain end. Caroline’s book shows a clear path to help that uneasy traveler along the research process road. It is important for those involved in clinical practice to understand that the collection of data is vital towards providing the best and safest of care.
It is a capital mistake to theorise before one has data (Arthur Conan Doyle).
T.V. Nivison Russell (FRCOG)
Ayrshire, Scotland (UK) (2023)
Acknowledgements
I dedicate this book to all the student midwives I have taught over the years, along with colleagues past and present who have worked with me on research projects that have delivered papers to evidence‐base midwifery practice. I also dedicate this manuscript to all the booklovers I have known, which includes my father, mother, teachers, and university lecturers, who, akin to me, love the smell of a freshly published book. I blame you all for injecting me with an addiction to writing, acknowledging that without your input, my path as a researcher, educator, and writer would not have been possible. I would also like to thank my beloved companion, Arnie Burgoyne, who has always kept the kettle on and looked up at the stars with me. I would like to thank you Arnie for all the coffee, coffee, coffee, prosecco, and more coffee. Furthermore, I dedicate this book to those also awed by the incredible voyage of the research process, which includes my lifelong research mentor Prof. Colin Martin and the many great research students, doctors, and professors I have worked with and published with across my lifetime. Thank you all for your company, humour, teaching, patience, support, and nurturing.
CHAPTER 1Introduction to Research Methods
1.1
What is Research?
1.2
Glossary of Research Terms
1.3
Ontology
1.4
Epistemology
1.5
Generic Stages of the Research Process
1.6
Triangulation
1.7
Introduction to Research Methods Chapter Summary
1.8
Self‐Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1.1 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
The word research is used in everyday speech to cover a broad spectrum of meaning. This makes it a confusing term for learners. Much of what student midwives are taught, they may sometime later down the line be told to unlearn. Merchandisers use the word research to suggest the discovery of a revolutionary product, with the term used as an attention‐grabbing sales pitch. When in truth, there may be only a minor alteration to the existing product. Other activities have been called research, but more appropriately should be called information gathering, library skills, documentation, or self‐enlightenment. Real research follows a systematic set of steps, which are prescribed like a recipe. The process involves a systematic way of collecting and analyzing information (data), for the purpose of increasing understanding of a particular phenomenon.
The word research has a certain amount of mystique about it. Researchers may be considered to be mystical people who hide in laboratories, in scholarly libraries, or within the academic institutions. Generally, the public is unaware of what activities are undertaken by a researcher or of the important contributions their work may make to people's comfort or general welfare. The intention of this book is to dispel any misconceptions the student midwife may have about research and present an accurate outline of its function and purpose. The first concept to grasp is that research is not:
Simply information gathering.
Mere transportation of facts from one place to another.
Purely delving for information.
A slogan to simply sell a product.
Instead, research is a formal process which follows a set of concrete repeatable steps. To define the term research:
1.1.1 DEFINITION
Research is a systematic process which produces data to answer a specific question. Several processes (recipes) may be followed, each of which has distinct characteristics. The generic term given to each possible recipe that could be used is research methods. As such, the variety of research methods that a researcher chose from have distinct and shared characteristics. That is, every research method (recipe):
Originates from an identified problem.
Is guided by a research question, and if quantitative in approach a hypothesis.
Follows a specific set of systemic steps and procedures.
Requires data to be collected and interpreted in attempts to resolve the problem that initiated commencement of the study.
A large amount of knowledge about certain subjects is incomplete, along with many unsolved problems. Hence, to address a recognized void in knowledge, researchers ask questions and formulate plans to answer them. There are many ways to answer a research question, with the choice made dependent upon the specifics of the question asked. In other words, the suitable ‘research method’ or recipe selected, involves a prescribed sequence of steps specific for the situation. At present, you may not understand what each of the different ‘research methods’ are, e.g. grounded theory (Birks and Mills, 2023), ethnography (O'Reilly, 2012), phenomenology (Smith et al. 2009), discourse analysis (Paltridge, 2021), randomized controlled trial (RCT) (Shih and Aisner, 2021), or survey (Groves et al. 2009), with the specifics of each different ‘research method’ (recipe) explained further on. In essence, ‘research methods’ involves a whole new glossary of terms, which the student midwife requires to learn for the purpose of passing a university research module, to evidence‐based clinical midwifery practice, and take part in recruitment and data collection for the organization they work for.
1.2 GLOSSARY OF RESEARCH TERMS
A dictionary of research terms is helpful towards educating student midwives to understand the meaning of words used in ‘research methods’. It is impossible to cover all research terms used; however, a few have been selected to help you get on your feet (see Activity 1.1). Outside of the selected list, it could be useful to purchase a dictionary of terms used in research methodology (Sharmer and Navar, 2020).
Activity 1.1
Look up the internet and write down definitions of the following terms.
Control _____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Control group _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Correlational studies __________________________________________________________________________________________
Deduction __________________________________________________________________________________________________
Epidemiology _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Ethics ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Experiment _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hypothesis __________________________________________________________________________________________________
Induction ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Informed consent ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Likert scale _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Literature review _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Null hypothesis ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Objective measures ___________________________________________________________________________________________
Qualitative methods _______________________________________________________________________________________
Quantitative methods _________________________________________________________________________________________
Quasi‐experimental designs ____________________________________________________________________________________
Questionnaire _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Range ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Relationships ________________________________________________________________________________________________
Repeated measures ___________________________________________________________________________________________
Phenomenology ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Sample _____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sampling error _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Sampling method ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Subjective measures __________________________________________________________________________________________
Validity ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Variable ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.3 ONTOLOGY
Ontology is the study of the nature of reality. Traditionally listed as part of philosophy, ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said to exist and how they can be grouped within a hierarchy and subdivided according to similarities and differences. One common approach is to divide the existent entities into groups called categories. Such lists of categories differ widely from one another, and it is through the co‐ordination of different categorical schemes that ontology relates to fields of information. For example:
1.3.1 SUBJECTIVISM
Subjectivity holds that the nature and existence of everything depend solely on a person's individual personal awareness of it. For example, one person may perceive that cricket is exciting, whilst another finds it boring. The tenet of qualitative research is to study individuality, which involves the assumption that all is not the same. In other words, the way each person views the world is different, with each of us having (like glasses) different prescriptions.
1.3.2 RELATIVISM
Relativism is the idea that aspects of experience are dependent upon incidents that we encounter. For example, what is true to one person may differ from another. That is, in relation to internal forces, such as religious beliefs, people hold different ideas about what does and does not matter.
1.3.3 OBJECTIVISM
Objectivism is the belief that reality is independent of thinking. An objective account is one that captures the nature of an object, which is studied in a way that it is not influenced by features of the person who studies it. In other words, it stands outside individuality (subjectivism). An objective account is an impartial interpretation, which is not influenced by a person's perceptions of the object under discussion. Objectivism does not draw on assumptions, prejudices, beliefs, or values of the participant. Objectivism is the tenet of quantitative research and deals in numbers from which a conclusion is derived.
Scientific research (objectivism) involves clearly defined actions, which are carried out in a laboratory or distinctly defined environment. Objectivism is the general approach taken by the theoretical sciences, e.g. ecology, chemistry, biology, and psychology. Objectivism is deductive in nature and is called the quantitative approach. Deductive means that the answers are reduced to one single outcome.
In contrast, social researchers find the objective approach concerning, since the idea of individuality is impossible to define as one thing. What people mean in each situation is influenced by their beliefs, e.g. religious convictions (see Figure 1.1).
FIGURE 1.1 A model of religious value systems that persuade an individual's perceptions.
Heidegger suggests that our way of being human and the way the world is perceived by us is underpinned by ontological assumptions that are part of our language (Heidegger, 2010). This assumption provides the context for communication, which is influenced by a horizon of unspoken background of meaning. Each person's individual assumptions are embedded and recycled within everyday interactions, with the locus of being rooted in the language used to communicate events. This appreciation is the premise of the qualitative (inductive) research approach, which includes many points of view.
1.4 EPISTEMOLOGY
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that addresses philosophical problems surrounding the theory of knowledge. What is knowledge? How is knowledge obtained? What makes knowledge fact? Rene Descartes provided strong evidence against empiricism, scientific objectivism, or the quantitative approach (Descartes and Moriarty, 2008).
1.4.1 THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
The theory of knowledge is tied up with the history of its evolution, with new ideas developed on top of foundations created by earlier philosophers (Nagael, 2014). For example, Socrates (Ahbel‐Rappe, 2011) and Plato (Allen, 2012) were amongst the first group of philosophers to study knowledge and its social influence. In essence, epistemology tackles the deeper philosophical issues surrounding knowledge, such as the question about what it is possible to know, which is underpinned by the following influential elements.
Sources
: Sources of knowledge can be either perception or reason.
Reason
: Some people believe that reason or abstract knowledge is superior to sensory perception.
Basic beliefs
: Knowledge provides a basis for reason, and it is argued that some beliefs can be taken as true and certain.
Perception
: Some believe that perception is not a valid source, whilst others argue that without perception there is nothing to reason about.
Representation
: The holder of the knowledge must represent knowledge formed from perception or reason. This representation is about the thing that is knowledge but is used by the holder of the knowledge.
Knowledge
: For something to be classified as knowledge, it must be traceable to true and justified beliefs, which are based upon basic beliefs and/or valid perceptions.
Not knowledge
: Evaluation may result in rejection of a belief.
Justification: If beliefs
can be justified and held as true, then they can be classed as knowledge.
Justified true belief
: Knowledge is justified true belief.
Epistemology is concerned with knowledge and how we know what we know (Nagael, 2014). A range of epistemologies exist. At one extreme, the epistemology of objectivism asserts that there exists a singular, concrete reality that can be understood by logical means. This is the epistemology that underpins science and the quantitative paradigm. At another extreme, constructionism rejects this view of knowledge. Constructionists assert that individuals generate meaning as they engage with the world they are interpreting. This is the epistemology that underpins the qualitative paradigm. Accordingly, multiple realities exist and there is no objective reality to be discovered. The lines between epistemologies have become blurred and so most researchers do not operate at these extreme poles of objectivism and constructionism. They may work somewhere between.
1.5 GENERIC STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
This section reports the contents of a short paper published by the author in 2010 (Hollins Martin and Fleming, 2010), which discusses the 16 steps involved in writing a research proposal. This initial paper has been elaborated upon quite considerably. Initially, the 15‐step model was designed by the author to guide student midwives through the process of writing a research proposal, either for assessment, for dissertation, to apply for a grant, to or present a potential future research supervisor. The contents reported in Section 1.5 underpin the substantial evolution of this book, which comprises 25 years of knowledge accumulated by the author during teaching university‐based research methods modules. What follows is a template of the generic 16 steps involved in writing any research proposal (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 The 16‐step model to writing a research proposal.
Source: Hollins Martin and Fleming, 2010 / MA Healthcare Ltd.
STEP (1): Give the research proposal a title. STEP (2): Provide relevant personal and professional details. STEP (3): Provide a short abstract or summary of around 300 words. STEP (4): Supply six keywords to describe the research proposal. STEP (5): Construct an introduction that contains a relevant literature review and rationale. STEP (6) State the objectives, aim(s), research question(s), sub‐question(s), hypotheses, and null hypotheses of the proposed research study. STEP (7): Outline the research method. STEP (8): Select setting, participants, sampling method, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and method of recruitment. STEP (9): Describe data collection instruments. STEP (10): Detail intended data processing and analysis. STEP (11): Declare any ethical considerations and outline data protection procedures. STEP (12): Produce a timetable and consider potential problems that may occur. STEP (13): Estimate resources that may be required. STEP (14): Detail a public engagement plan. STEP (15): Append a reference list. STEP (16): Appendix relevant additional material.
1.5.1 THE HOLLINS MARTIN 16‐STEP MODEL TO WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
STEP (1): Give the Research Proposal a Title
The title should accurately reflect the content and scope of the proposed study. It is important to present a consistent title throughout all of the regulatory documents; this includes the proposal itself, the ethics and grant application, and all associated appendices, forms, and questionnaires. An example of a project title is provided below to facilitate understanding of the first step in developing a research proposal.
STEP 1: Example project title (Acronym: Physical Activity Labour (PAL)
Describing and quantifying maternal physical activity and postures during first stage of labour and determining relationships with length of first stage, pain experience, infant condition immediately post birth, and birth satisfaction.
STEP (2): Provide Relevant Personal and Professional Details
On the first page of the research proposal, it is imperative to state the names and titles of the principal researcher(s), supervisor(s), their professional qualifications, the intended study site(s), and contact information. In addition, the principal researcher should appendix a curriculum vitae (CV), which cites their publishing record. The writer of the research proposal will need to justify why members of the research team are suitable people to deliver the project, which will be evidenced in their qualifications, CV, publications, and experience. Amongst the myriad of appendices attached to the final proposal, an up‐to‐date version of each team members CVs will need to be attached.
STEP 2: Example of relevant and professional details.
STAFF DETAILS 1 (see Appendix 1)
Name: Caroline J. Hollins Martin (Proposed Principal Investigator [PI)
Grade: Professor
Professional certifications and academic qualifications, date obtained, and who awarded
Employing organization: Named university
Education
Work experience, skills, and awards
Contact information
Prior projects delivered to completion
Personal statement of why suitable to deliver the research project
Publications
Conference presentations.
STAFF DETAILS 2 (see Appendix 2) etc.
STEP (3): Provide a Short Abstract or Summary of Around 300 Words
The purpose of the abstract is to present a clear summary of the intended project. It is normal to write this concise synopsis at the end of the proposal development, once the project has been methodically assembled and written. Since the writer is limited to 300 words, they must be brief in abridging the relevant sections.
A good abstract should present:
A brief background to the proposed study.
The aim(s) of the proposed study.
The research methodology (recipe) that will be used.
The study design (i.e. declare measuring tools, variables (if quantitative), and describe data to be collected).
The setting of the research (i.e. where the research will be conducted).
Who the intended participants are (i.e. population, sampling method, groups, and numbers).
Proposed data processing and analysis (i.e. proposed descriptive and inferential statistics if numeric quantitative data are to be collected. Thematic analysis and coding processes if qualitative data are to be collected).
The potential use of outcomes for developing professional practice.
STEP 3: Example abstract (283 words)
Background: A Cochrane collaboration review of 21 studies (Lawrence et al. 2009) concluded that the first stage of labour was around an hour shorter for women who labour upright instead of semi‐recumbent. None of the 21 studies used physical activity monitors to record maternal activity or measured birth satisfaction and outcomes for babies.
Aim: To measure the effects of activity in the first stage of labour upon specified maternal and neonatal outcomes.
Method: An observational analytical experimental research methodology will be used.
Design: At commencement of labour, an activity monitor (ActivPAL) will be taped to the consenting woman’s right thigh. Quantitative scales will be used to measure:
(i) length of first stage (partogram), (ii) perinatal condition (Apgar scores), (iii) pain (Wong–Baker scale), and (iv) maternal birth satisfaction (Hollins Martin Birth Satisfaction Scale [BSS).
Setting: Maternity unit (specify).
Participants: A convenience sample of healthy childbearing women:
(i) Primigravidas (n = 40) and (ii) Multiparous (n = 40).
Data processing and analysis: Participants will be sorted into 1 of 4 groups according to ActivPAL results: (i) No activity (control), (ii) Mild activity, (iii) Moderate activity, and (iv) High activity. Means and standard deviations will be presented in tables and graphs. ANOVA' will produce ‘p’ values for mean differences between groups.
Triangulation component: A phenomenological study will be conducted six weeks postpartum to explore women's experiences of being active in labour and their reports of birth satisfaction and pain (n = 10). This qualitative component that will consist of women's opinions will enrich quantitative findings. Interview scripts will be analyzed using inductive thematic analysis.
Use of outcomes: Results should facilitate midwives with providing evidence‐based information to childbearing women about the advantages/disadvantages of being active during first stage of labour whilst birth planning.
STEP (4): Supply Six Keywords to Describe the Research Proposal
Keywords are intended to facilitate the reader who wants to search databases and electronic journals for pertinent research studies cited in the literature review.
STEP 4: Example keywords
Physical
Activity
Labour
Childbearing
Midwife/midwives
Experiment
STEP (5): Construct an Introduction that Contains a Relevant Literature Review and Rationale
Present a literature review that summarizes and critically appraises previous research in the field, draws attention to gaps in current knowledge, and cites key references. Relevant research papers are accessed from appropriate databases (e.g. MEDLINE, CINAHL, APA PsycInfo, and Cochrane Library) and electronic journals (e.g. Midwifery, Women and Birth, and Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology). These research studies are analysed, and the findings are summarized and discussed in relation to the aim of the proposed research study. Where appropriate the research methodology used in previous studies should be reviewed, making comment on relative strengths and weaknesses. An example summary of a literature review follows.
STEP 5: Example summary of a literature review
In a Cochrane systematic review of studies on first stage of labour, 21 controlled studies from a number of countries randomly assigned a total of 3706 women to
(i) upright or (ii) recumbent positions during the first stage of labour (Lawrence et al. 2009). Results found length of second stage and use of opioid analgesia to be similar between groups, although women randomized to upright positions were less likely to have epidural analgesia (Lawrence et al. 2009). Five studies in the review that examined position and mobility of women receiving epidural analgesia (n = 1176 women), upright or recumbent position in first stage, did not change length or rates of spontaneous vaginal, assisted, or caesarean delivery. No research on maternal satisfaction or outcomes for babies has yet been conducted. Overall from the studies reviewed, first stage of labour was assessed to be around an hour shorter for women who are upright or walking.
None of the studies reviewed used ActivPAL physical activity monitors to measure maternal activity during labour and its effects on maternal and neonatal outcomes. Use of activity recorders should allow for more precise quantification of maternal movement in relation to length of first stage and measured pain experience. Since no research on maternal satisfaction or outcomes for babies has been conducted, this merits some research attention.
Give the background and justification for the research study. This rationale provides information to the reader that will promote their understanding of the purpose of undertaking the study. This justification communicates the link between the research question and its relationship to advancing the literature and improving professional practice.
STEP 5: Example rationale for study
Women in western countries generally lie in the semi‐recumbent position during the first stage of labour, when perhaps it is more natural for women to labour standing, sitting, kneeling, or walking around (Hollins Martin et al. 2015). Woman semi‐reclining during first stage of labour has evolved because it is more convenient for midwives to monitor progress and assess foetal condition whilst the woman is lying down (Gizzo et al. 2014). In addition, current obstetric interventions, e.g. cardiotocography, epidurals, and intravenous infusions, limit maternal movement during labour (Akyıldız et al. 2021).
The literature that relates to activity in first stage of labour and its effects upon maternal and neonatal outcomes is insufficient at providing evidence to underpin midwifery practice. That is, there is a dearth of literature (research studies) to support or reject the idea that midwives should or should not encourage women to be physically active or otherwise during the first stage of labour.
STEP (6): State the Objectives, Aim(s), Research Question(s), Sub‐question(s), Hypotheses, Null Hypotheses of the Proposed Research Study
Research forms a circle. In other words, it starts with a problem and ends with a solution to the problem and/or a roadmap for further research. The researcher should think about what stimulated them to research the problem. Are there questions about the stated problem to which answers have not been found? The research aims and questions should be stated in a way that leads to analytical thinking and potential concluding solutions to the stated problem.
Stating the objectives, aim, research questions, hypotheses, and null hypotheses makes explicit the purpose of the proposed research study. That is, what the researcher hopes to achieve (hypotheses are only relevant in quantitative studies).
The introduction should provide some background that stands in support of the aim. The objectives, aim, research questions, and hypotheses should be grammatically correct and avoid meaningless words. Demarcating the research study into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into sub‐problems is of utmost importance. The following serves as an example:
Objectives
Research objectives describe the processes involved in carrying out the research proposal.
STEP 6: Example objectives
Publish a systematic literature review that reports on what research already states about maternal physical activity and postures adopted during labour, and their effects upon length of first stage, pain experience, infant condition, and birth satisfaction.
Develop an evidence‐based guideline for midwives, which evidences the effects maternal physical activity and postures have upon length of first stage of labour, pain experience, infant condition, and birth satisfaction.
Build an education program for pregnant couples to practice and learn about the value of walking, moving, and postures and their effects upon length of labour, their pain experience, baby's condition, and birth satisfaction.
The aim
A clear statement of the aim of the research study is crucial. This statement cannot be vague and should sum up the goal of the research study. In summary, it encapsulates what precisely the researcher intends to do?
STEP 6: Example aim(s)
To measure the effects of women's activity in the first stage of labour and its effects upon specified maternal and neonatal outcomes. Based on our current understanding, the postures and activities adopted by women during labour will influence key physiological processes which in turn may influence maternal and infant outcomes. We also know that these postures and activities can have profound psychological impact on women's experiences of labour. However, previous studies have limitations in terms of adequately detailing time spent and what in fact constituted particular positions and activity, and hence failed to clearly establish relationships with specified labour outcomes. An improved understanding of these relationships would be of great value (benefit) to childbearing women’s (patients’) obstetricians and midwives. In this study, guided by our PPI input, we plan to address this clear gap in the current literature in an interdisciplinary project involving midwifery academics, practicing midwives, an obstetrician, and biomedical engineers. Specifically, we will ask women and service providers for their views of physical activity in labour. We will also use an unobtrusive activity monitoring system to record and describe the amount of time women in the first stage of labour elect to adopt different postures and activities and look at relationships to four clinical outcomes (length of first stage, pain experience, infant condition immediately post birth, and birth satisfaction).
AIMS:
To explore women's and service providers' views of physical activity during labour.
To adapt and find out if the system we have designed to measure maternal activity in labour is accurate and acceptable in an NHS context and by maternity care providers.
To provide immediate patient benefit through enabling midwives and obstetricians to answer part of the unanswered question about benefits/drawbacks of having an ‘active or passive’ birth.
The research question(s)
The research study is underpinned by a question. Why? What is the cause of that? What does it mean? The research question is the first step the investigator takes when designing the project. It precedes selection of an appropriate research method (recipe) to answer the question. The question must be clearly articulated since it underpins the entire project.
STEP 6: Example research question(s)
What are women's and service providers' views of physical activity during labour?
Is the activity monitoring system designed by the research team, acceptable to women in labour and staff working in NHS maternity services, and is it able to measure maternal physical activity during real labour?
What are the effects of time spent in different postures (measured using a novel activity monitoring system) during labour upon length of fist stage (measured on a partograph), pain experience (measured using the Wong–Baker Pain Scale), infant condition immediately post birth (measured using Apgar scores at 1, 5, and 10 minutes postdelivery), and maternal perceptions of birth satisfaction (using the Birth Satisfaction Scale‐Revised [BSS‐R])?
The sub‐questions
The research question may be divided into further manageable sub‐questions. A simple primary question may require answering before the overarching principal research question can be attended to.
STEP 6: Example of sub‐questions
What are the effects of women's physical activity during labour upon:
Length of first stage?
Perinatal outcomes?
Pain experience?
Maternal birth satisfaction?
Hypotheses/null hypotheses
If a quantitative numerical approach has been adopted, the attendant sub‐questions are further encapsulated in objective hypotheses. A hypothesis is a logical statement which the statistical results of the study either support or reject. Each hypothesis provides information that is pertinent to answering the sub‐questions and ultimately the overarching research question. A hypothesis is stated in an explanatory form, because it indicates the expected reference of the difference between two variables. The research hypothesis may be stated in a directional or non‐directional form. A directional hypothesis statement indicates the expected direction of results, while a nondirectional one indicates no difference or no relationship. A hypothesis should be:
Testable.
A tentative answer to the stated problem.
Specific, logical, and simplistic (not vague).
Supported or rejected post statistical analysis.
STEP 6: Example hypotheses and null hypotheses
Hypothesis 1:
Maternal activity shortens length of first stage of labour.
Null Hypothesis 1:
Maternal activity makes no difference to length of first stage of labour.
Hypothesis 2:
Maternal activity in first stage of labour raises perinatal Apgar scores.
Null Hypothesis 2:
Maternal activity in first stage of labour makes no difference to perinatal Apgar scores.
Hypothesis 3:
Maternal activity in first stage of labour reduces women's reports of pain experience.
Null Hypothesis 3:
Maternal activity in first stage of labour makes no difference to women's reports of pain experience.
Hypothesis 4:
Maternal activity in first stage of labour improves women's reports of birth satisfaction.
Null Hypothesis 4:
Maternal activity in first stage of labour makes no difference to women's reports of birth satisfaction.
STEP (7): Outline the Research Method
The research method (recipe) provides practical details of the sequential processes involved in answering the research question(s). A well‐designed research proposal should be written in such a way that an unfamiliar person could pick up the proposal and repeat the study. Each research method (recipe) follows a recognizable template, e.g. randomized controlled trial (RCT), grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, or survey, to name but a few. The selected research method is declared and referenced. It is also underpinned by a written rationale for why the indicated method (recipe) is the most appropriate choice to answer the research question(s).
Selecting an appropriate research method
Research follows a carefully planned formula or recipe. That is, it follows a specific plan, with several methods available to select from. The method (recipe) chosen should be a suitable formula to answer the research question(s). The researcher then outlines the steps of the selected research method. It is not enough to follow the research procedures without an intimate understanding that the research method directs the whole endeavour. The research method clearly outlines the steps involved from beginning to the end of the study. For example, it dictates how data will be acquired and arranges it into logical relationships. The entire process is a unified effort, as well as an appreciation of its component parts.
An analogy to selecting an appropriate research method is as follows. When a person organizes a dinner party, they typically select an appropriate recipe for the occasion. Choices that a person makes are influenced by characteristics of the occasion, such as resources, applicability (e.g. Christmas or a Burn's supper), and specifics of the guests' requirements. In an analogous fashion, the researcher may elect to follow the recipe for a grounded theory study or alternatively use an experimental design, such as an RCT. There is a vast array of research methods to select from, with each following a universally prescribed process. An important factor to grasp is that the research method of choice is selected from one of two camps. That is, either from the ‘quantitative’ (deductive) or ‘qualitative’ (inductive) camp. What are the differences between the two?
Quantitative research
In quantitative research, the information collected takes the form of measurements or numbers that can be analysed statistically to determine whether or not a treatment has made a real difference. This type of research requires standardized procedures, which involve specific research methods (e.g. RCT, quantitative survey, and experimental design), all of which involve statistical analysis of numerical data designed to maximize objectivity.
