Single and Double Bed Machine Knitting - Vikki Haffenden - E-Book

Single and Double Bed Machine Knitting E-Book

Vikki Haffenden

0,0

Beschreibung

Single and Double Bed Machine Knitting: The Designer's Guide, is an absolute necessity for anyone with a knitting machine. Written in clear and accessible language by an experienced knit designer and educator, and using step-by-step explanations and inspirational examples, this comprehensive guide gives practical insight into knit design and techniques for single bed and double bed knitting. Systematically organised chapters explore the fascinating and inexhaustible possibilities of surface pattern and garment design for machine knitting, with or without a ribber. Written by Dr Vikki Haffenden, an experienced knitted textile designer and educator who holds a doctorate in knitting, this book reveals the possibilities of machine knitting whilst discussing, exemplifying and contextualising creative design approaches. Using over 500 images and step-by-step instructions, Vikki shares her knowledge and understanding of knitted textiles from the basic stitch structures and knit constructions to developing these into your own designs for machine knitting. She discusses suitable fibres and yarns for single bed and double bed knitting using the ribber, and describes the characteristics of these different knits. To enable unique knit developments Vikki discusses sourcing design inspiration and explains how to create your own repeating patterns, punchcards and digital patterns. Owners of the even the simplest machines will be inspired by sections on hand-manipulating stitches, developing your own colour palette, designing with stripes and garment design. With step-by-step instruction and in clear language Vikki explains how to master the ribber, the intricacies of shaping ribs and how to design and knit multi-colour double jacquards and other exciting double bed fabrics. In a complete chapter on garment design she offers practical advice and examples of how to include unique details, and takes the mystery out of calculating shaping with the help of ready-reckoner shaping tables. Throughout the book there are tips on machine maintenance, plus advice on getting the most from your knitting machine whilst creating unique design outcomes.

Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:

Android
iOS
von Legimi
zertifizierten E-Readern

Seitenzahl: 498

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Das E-Book (TTS) können Sie hören im Abo „Legimi Premium” in Legimi-Apps auf:

Android
iOS
Bewertungen
0,0
0
0
0
0
0
Mehr Informationen
Mehr Informationen
Legimi prüft nicht, ob Rezensionen von Nutzern stammen, die den betreffenden Titel tatsächlich gekauft oder gelesen/gehört haben. Wir entfernen aber gefälschte Rezensionen.



Jammie Dodgers. Double bed pockets. Design and photograph by Connie Howard-McCombe, TAT Collection

Fox face. Design process, knit samples and garment conceptualisation by Harriet Silverson

CONTENTS

Introduction

1. Single and Double Bed Knitting: A Detailed Overview

2. Establishing the Basics of Single Bed Knitting

3. The Fundamentals of Double Bed Knitting

4. Patterning with Manual Manipulation and Stitch Transfer

5. Rib Structures, Pattern, Shaping and Design Potential

6. Designing with Colour

7. Finding Inspiration and Designing Pattern

8. Garment Design, Shaping and Making: Beyond the Basics

9. Designer Insights

Appendix I - Blank Needle Arrangement Diagram

Appendix II - Blank 1cm Grid

Appendix III - Quick Reference Shaping Tables

Knitting Software and Online Resources

Glossary of Terms

Abbreviations

List of Suppliers

Bibliography

Index

INTRODUCTION

It is never too late to be what you might have been.George Eliot

I was overjoyed when I discovered the knitting machine … I could put designs in the fabric, and I could also design the fabric.Susanna E. Lewis, Introduction to A Machine Knitter’s Guide to Creating Fabric

Motivation for writing this book comes from my professional experience of teaching design, but my inspiration comes from my joy at the breadth and beauty of what can be produced on a knitting machine. I am continually enchanted by the quickening enthusiasm displayed once someone lays their hands on a machine. This reflection of my own initiation into machine knitting has warmed my heart through many years of explaining, demonstrating and applying skills from an e-wrap cast to a four-colour jacquard. It has been a privilege to enable students to unravel perceived mysteries and redefine them as process, thus allowing design to take centre stage – an approach that has led to truly remarkable results.

Top row: Brother KH881 and Knitmaster SK700 with single bed colour changer front plate attached. Middle row: Singer KE2500 and Knitmaster SK250. Bottom row: Dubied NHF4 industrial hand-flat and an Imperia circular sock machine during renovation.

As a developing designer I extended my knowledge of machine knitting through the work of UK authors Kathleen Kinder, Denise Musk and Mary Weaver and discovered US experts Susanna Lewis and Susan Guagliumi. Since then, there has been little new writing about machine knitting, so I am delighted to have the opportunity to follow in their footsteps. Of course, there is a vast range of online resources which are great for quick reference, but these are labyrinthine and not always verified, which is why I still prefer a book. Therefore, this book is intended for machine knitters of all types, providing a ‘go-to’ reference on your studio book-shelf, or right beside your machine.

It was not intended that this book should provide all the answers to design, nor illustrate every knitting technique or colour combination. That would require several books! I believe that what inspires is personal, but developing ideas from this inspiration is key to the designing process. Therefore, this book does not provide direct design inspiration material. Instead, it uses examples to illustrate the knit design process combining techniques, colour and fibre choices alongside some inspirational sources. It does not feature knitted garment patterns, but has been written to share the ‘how’ of designing knitted textiles and knitwear. I set out to demystify this process and encourage the reader to explore, play and enjoy designing knitted textiles. Along the way, this may challenge areas that have previously been stumbling blocks. For example, drawing can be a difficult area for many people, but always remember that no one is looking over your shoulder. Mistakes don’t matter; learn from them and try again. Trust your own decisions, experiment for creative pleasure and fulfilment, and embrace serendipitous discoveries.

I invited seven contemporary knitwear designers who work with domestic knitting machines to talk about their business and design process and they have generously shared their experience and insights. Each of them brings their personal creative perspective to knit design, and the breadth of their work celebrates the versatility and potential of machine knitting.

As the chapters progress, they will hopefully disentangle the complexities of machine knitting so that you can unlock your creativity and explore new and exciting avenues of ideas. You will find detailed explanations about how a machine creates stitches and how, when this knowledge is combined with careful planning, you might maximise design through form and function in your machine knits. Whether you are an experienced knitter, an old hand at machine knitting, or just starting to develop your skills, this book aims to delight and tempt you with new possibilities.

This book assumes that the reader is already a machine knitter and is not a beginner’s guide. If you are looking for basic skills in machine knitting you will find these, related to the perhaps more common skill of hand-knitting, in my earlier book, Translating Between Hand and Machine Knitting, also published by Crowood. That book contains the fundamentals of stitch construction, fabric structures and how to work stitch patterns by hand and machine, as well as garment construction. Whilst the two books complement each other, they are written from different perspectives, though there is naturally some common ground.

Therefore, this book starts from the premise that you know a little about machine knitting and probably own a single bed knitting machine. It might be that you have exhausted your exploration of the single bed and would like to add a ribber, turning it into a double bed machine, and push your technical knowledge and design concepts further. Questions such as, ‘Is it worth it?’, or ‘What will a ribber enable me to do?’ might be floating around your head and hopefully this book will help you to make that decision. Alternatively, you may already own a double bed machine or have a ribber attached, but are seeking design inspiration and technical input to get the most out of your machine.

IS MY MACHINE INCLUDED IN THIS BOOK?

Understandably, I had to set some boundaries before starting to write and because I have my own machines, I will be referencing these as I write. Therefore, this book will focus on the Japanese-made Silver Reed (formerly known as Knitmaster in the UK and as Singer/Studio in the US) and Brother (also known as Knitking) domestic knitting machines, along with their relevant ribbing attachments and accessories. For clarity, the machines listed above and those makes and models that conform to a similar design will be referred to generically as Japanese machines, except where significant differences exist. Toyota and Japanese Singer machines will not be shown in detail as these are comparable in many ways, albeit with slightly different terminology and controls. Bond and other simple machines are not named in the text, but most manual single bed techniques shown in this book will be applicable to this type of machine.

If you are the owner of a purpose-built double bed Passap, Pfaff, Singer or Superba machine please don’t put the book down straight away, as many of the techniques and design ideas are easily translatable on to these machines. However, with apologies to Singer and Superba owners, due to economy of words models of this type will be referred to as Passap or Passap type machines throughout the text, unless there is good reason to include separate details.

Diagrams of the carriages and needle beds of two models of Japanese machines and their ribber attachments have been included to aid owners of other machines to identify the equivalent setting whilst reading instructions.

Other terminology

Instruction manuals describe needle positions by the letters (A to D, or E) engraved on the side of a particular model’s bed, but needle positions across Japanese machines are fundamentally the same. In this book, the positions will be designated as: ‘NWP’ (non-working position), ‘WP’ (working position), ‘UWP’ (upper working position) and ‘HP’ (holding position). UWP is the approximate position to which machines select needles when automatic patterning; those not selected will remain in WP. What stitch these create is governed by the stitch selector dial or buttons. When a needle is at HP, it does not knit if the carriage is set to hold, but will otherwise knit back to WP. A needle in UWP will knit back to WP even if it is midway between WP and HP. If the stitch is behind the latch and a needle is returned to WP without yarn in the hook, the stitch will drop. To prevent this, remove the stitch and place it in the hook after it is returned to WP. The needle positions for most Silver Reed and Brother models are shown in the accompanying illustration but these may vary between makes.

The four needle positions on the main bed with Silver Reed/Brother equivalents. Positions are the same on ribbers. Main bed UWP varies slightly by make, but when a ribber needle is in UWP the stitch always lies behind the latch.

Plain single bed knitting (stockinette) is termed single jersey, stocking stitch or reverse stocking stitch, whilst plain all-needle double bed knit is termed double jersey or double bed fabric. Further knitting and fabric terms and their characteristics are described in detail in the relevant chapters. ‘Patterning mechanism’ will refer to push-buttons, Passap pushers, punchcard or electronic needle selection methods unless otherwise defined. ‘Carriage’ will refer to that on the main or ribber bed and the ‘locks’ on a Passap.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Susanna Lewis, in A Machine Knitter’s Guide to Creating Fabric, advised her readers to read the Introduction and then approach the book section by section, making their own notes and exploring their machine’s capabilities on an individual schedule, and I cannot better this advice. The chapters in this book are designed as a series of building blocks, which progress from the simpler aspects of machine knitting to more complex combinations of technique, colour and stitch manipulations. Each chapter stands alone and those with more experience may wish to drop straight into a later chapter, only occasionally referring to earlier ones. Those just starting their journey will benefit from working through chapter by chapter, building their skills as they progress. At the end of each chapter, you will find a section discussing design development using the techniques and methods from the chapter, sometimes in combination with those described elsewhere.

One of the most important aids a designer can have is a notebook and pencil; I keep a current workbook into which I can add details and information in an almost stream of consciousness way. Noting something down in your own words can help you to retain the information and your own diagrams are brilliant aide-memoires.

To be a knit designer is to produce outcomes that exceed working from someone else’s pattern. It is necessary to develop an aesthetic vocabulary of practical as well as theoretical knowledge that are not knitting skills. Yes, this book has a wealth of technical information, but its focus is on how to develop this technical knowledge into individual and exciting designs. Technical knowledge and craft skills are what enable you to translate your design concepts into artefacts. Developing design concepts is not easy; if it was, you wouldn’t be reading this book. Montse Stanley, the acclaimed hand-knitter, wrote in 1988 at the peak of a knitting wave:

Good design doesn’t come from ‘natural talent’, or ‘flashes of inspiration’. It comes from doggedly questioning every idea, exploring every path, finding out ‘what would happen if …’. It comes from not insisting on achieving at all costs, and as quickly as possible, what first came into the head, however brilliant it may seem.

This is a perfect description of my own design philosophy and when teaching I tell students that there is no magic way to achieve their goal. It requires time and practice, analysing and critiquing their own work, revising and sometimes discarding ideas, and continually questioning why things do or don’t work and what they can do to change this. At the same time, they must overcome fears about doing the wrong thing, or being the only one who does not understand something. They must observe and document the world around them and not only visit exhibitions and museums, but record what they find there and ask questions, always! Of course, there are students with natural aptitude, but in my experience Montse’s summary applies to them as well and if they do not challenge themselves, they will not develop to their full potential.

So that is what this book is about; it’s not a recipe for success, but a toolkit to help you build an individual design method with unique and individually brilliant outcomes. It is organised with a series of design workshops that will encourage you to develop the potential of new stitch and fabric constructions explained and discussed in each chapter. These sections are where you will value your notebook records and where I sincerely hope that you will choose to begin a more visual design development book as the companion to your notebook. This need not be fancy; you do not have to create works of art on paper (those will be knitted), and I have deliberately included pages from my own somewhat haphazard sketchbook to illustrate this point. You will find it more rewarding and easier to complete the exercises if you have some basic art materials, such as: pencil, eraser, coloured pencils and felt-tip pens, tissue paper in several colours, glue stick and plain paper, plus some squared paper for graphs. A pack of cheap children’s wax crayons would also be useful.

A POTTED HISTORY OF DOMESTIC MACHINE KNITTING

Now that we have the housekeeping out of the way, let’s talk about knitting. Machine knitting sometimes gets a bad press and machine-made items might appear contra to the sustainability agenda which embraces hand-knitting. However, domestic knitting machines, like their counterpart the sewing machine, have been around for over a century.

A wool sweater from Les Modes, 1914. Although we cannot tell whether this sweater was machine or hand-knitted, its simplicity and the rib edge just visible at the hem suggest it might have been machine knitted.

A charming fashion illustration of a machine knit design from Recueil de Dessins et Points des Fantaisies Dubied, circa 1900. The skirt appears to have inverted pleats and may have been knitted sideways to enable the colour stripes. The cloak features stitch transfer patterning.

Brochure for a Dubied, powered, flatbed knitting machine. The flat metal ‘steels’ running horizontally along the front of the bed and pasteboards on the right controlled needle selection and feeder sequence.

Advertisements for knitting machines from UK women’s magazines from the 1950s and 1960s. Only two have survived as recognisable brands.

I will not go too deeply into the history of the knitting machine, but suffice to say that the flat configuration, invented by William Lee in 1589 as a wooden ‘knitting frame’, has the most flexibility. Later, in the late nine-teenth and early twentieth centuries, hand-operated, double bed machines were used in the home to produce commercial knitwear as piecework, whilst larger, powered versions were in use in factories.

Circular knitting frames were invented in the early 1800s, much later than the flat versions, and first attributed to Fouquet and latterly to Brunel. In his autobiography, Ladybird Ladybird, Eric Pasold describes early hand-cranked circular machines being suspended from the ceiling and producing knitting much faster than the stocking frames they replaced.

Circular machines, although very efficient, were limited by the size of their needle cylinder and therefore were not as versatile as flat machines. Small, table-top circulars known as 'sock machines' were introduced around the turn of the twentieth century for home-working. Like Brunel’s machine, these had latch needles, but were now able to knit back and forth so could knit both flat fabric and shaped socks. Many also had a second needle-dial so they could produce rib fabrics.

Initially, industrial circulars only produced tubing, but later models could pattern and knit individual garment lengths. As with flat-bed knitting, computerisation has enabled increasingly sophisticated outcomes from circular machines.

Modern domestic machines

Domestic knitting machines as we recognise them first appeared in the 1950s, and there were numerous makes and models of these flat bed machines. Advertised as 'simple', 'rapid' and 'fast', they were marketed towards women who, through necessity, made their family's knitwear. Domestic machine knitting reached its peak of popularity in the 1970s and early 1980s, and many older models still in use date from then.

Modern industrial machines

Today, the latest models of industrial machines are computer-controlled and knit at high speed. Models capable of integrally knitting isolated, consecutive areas of short rows feature loop presser beds above the front and back beds, whilst continuing innovation has enabled production of fully shaped, seamless knitwear requiring minimal hand finishing. Sophisticated 3D rendering of knits and virtual sampling of knitwear are replacing initial samples and speeding up the sampling cycle. However, these cannot replace the designer, who must still understand stitch structures and all the complexities of creating knit fabric to achieve high-quality and attractive aesthetic outcomes.

The four beds of a Shima Seiki SRY 123LP machine. The front and back loop-presser beds that form the top arms of the ‘X’ beds enabled increased capability in both fléchage and inlay.

WHY DO WE KNIT?

Before we become over-involved in design, it is worth considering why we knit. Over the years, I have learnt that there are many reasons, but what is perhaps not always appreciated, is that the act of machine knitting is different from that of hand-knitting. I have been told so many times that someone has been, ‘…given the knitting machine because I like knitting’. Let me stop you there; this generous gesture might be fruitful, but often it is not. When comparing machine to hand-knitting, the preparation; choosing or working out of your pattern, yarn and colours, is the same, but the processes diverge at this point. A knitting machine requires more dedicated space than hand-knitting, (unless you are prepared to pack the machine away after every use) and because of its noise it is unlikely to be welcomed in shared spaces. Many people hand-knit while watching television, and when working crochet or hand-spinning I like to be sociable, but personally I dislike distractions when I am machine knitting.

Concentration is necessary due to the speed of machine knitting, because when (and it is usually when, not if) one notices a mistake, 100 stitches, or even 100 rows, may have been knitted in the time it would take you to work one row by hand. Of course, hand-knitting requires concentration, but I can’t help wondering whether it is the lack of direct contact with yarn and needles, combined with the speed of accomplishing each row, that enforces a different level or form of concentration when using a machine. However, I still find the repetitive movement of sliding the carriage as soothing and beneficial to my well-being as hand-knitting.

My experience in workshops is that many knitters use headphones as the preferred methods to aid concentration, but we are individuals, and there are machine knitters who can chat and operate the machine at the same time; I’m just not one of them.

Is this key to who ‘takes’ to machine knitting? Consider what aspects you find enjoyable about machine knitting, and what you do not. Can you improve on the negative aspects in any way?

What am I seeking to achieve when I machine knit?

Knit design comprises a blend of colour choice, fibre content, yarn type, stitch pattern and any budgetary constraints, which knitters will order in an individual hierarchy based on what they wish to achieve. There are those who require utility from their machine knits; for example, washability might be the most important requirement, in which case fibre may take precedence, whilst there are others for whom the aesthetic is paramount and colour might be the first consideration.

I suspect that we swap our hats between projects, something that may also be influenced by the cost of raw materials. Someone who produces a utilitarian baby blanket for charity, (low cost followed by washability being the most likely order for the yarn choice, and speed for the stitch pattern) might follow this with a shawl for a new grandchild using high-value alpaca yarn in a complex transfer lace pattern.

Innovative knit design for aiding arthritis. The fingerless glove has a pocket that holds the physio ball, making it less likely to be dropped in use. The cheerful colours encourage use of the glove. KATIE WITHAM, HELPING TO HANDLE ARTHRITIS COLLECTION, 2018

If this is true, and I believe it is, there is a designer hiding inside every machine knitter, in which case the most utilitarian items can be taken to a new level with a dab of design thinking. The flip-side of this is that those who focus mainly on the aesthetic have the option to improve durability and wearability through fully understanding the technical properties of the fibre, yarn and stitch patterns they work with.

The very nature of knit, in which the fabric is being built stitch by stitch, offers a wonderful opportunity to create customised items for the individual. A virtually limitless palette of stitch and colour combinations can be used to enhance, emphasise or disguise body shape, or to create pieces for the home, decoration or art.

It takes a lot of time and money to look this easy!

Has an admirer ever lost interest once you tell them that the ‘hand-made’ sweater they have just complimented is machine knitted? Recognise the scenario? Whenever someone comments that machine knitting is ‘cheating’, I am reminded of Dolly Parton’s observation that, ‘It takes a lot of time and money to look this cheap’. Dolly’s quip, (with a twist) is the perfect response, but sadly not one I have yet had the wit to deliver! As every machine knitter knows, it takes a lot of practice for the process of producing knitwear by machine to appear simple. Of course, like Dolly, our intention is not to emulate, but to create a unique aspect through individual interpretation. Machine knitters create beautiful knits by exploiting the strengths of the tool they are using, not by copying hand-knitting.

Part of the practice required to nurture your skills will inevitably involve developing your own workflow. This might happen unconsciously, or you may deliberately sit down to chart one out. Workflow order and length will vary depending on the type of textile and outcome you are designing, but will inevitably involve fundamental decisions and actions. Machine gauge and capabilities, yarn selection, colour choice and stitch pattern are the four that underpin the rest, but these may take different precedence in each project and will be influenced by whether there is more than one machine available.

Workflow A. In this example, the designer has specific colour and design requirements. The design they develop affects their machine choice and therefore yarn quality.

I recommend occasionally reviewing your workflow. This may prevent some of the confusion that can stall the start of a project and can help you to make decisions more efficiently right through to sewing up and finishing a garment.

Workflow B. In this example, the designer only has one machine to work with. They make their colour choice from existing yarns, adapting the yarn thickness to suit the gauge and develop a stitch pattern within these parameters.

Having an outline plan of how you will work through a project not only helps you to organise your resources, but also gives you some parameters within which to develop designs. This may seem anathema to the creative spirit, but I find it helpful to have some boundaries, otherwise choice can become overwhelming. However, don’t be hidebound by the plan; remain flexible and be prepared to respond to serendipitous events that may lead to changes in the design.

When working double bed, design scope becomes ever wider; having two beds that can knit, tuck, slip and hold brings another whole dimension to the fabrics that can be produced. Knitters must consider the stitch a needle on one bed is making and understand how that will affect the stitch being formed on the opposite bed. They must also consider gauge and any consequential fabric behaviours. For example, a tuck on one bed will open the gap between the bracketing stitches on the other bed, whilst repeating tucks along a row will add overall width. In my opinion, this makes double bed knitting a three-dimensional design challenge, something that is far more complex than knitting is given credit for.

FIBRE AND YARN

Whether working on a single or double bed machine, yarn choice can make or break a project, so knowing the properties and behaviours of fibres and yarn types is fundamental to design. It is also worth remembering that double bed knitting consumes more yarn. When compared to single jersey, 1x1 rib takes approximately 20 per cent and 2x2 rib 30 per cent more yarn, whilst double jersey and Full Cardigan stitch can require an additional 70 per cent.

Yak hair is one of the most rare and expensive fibres. It is fine and luxurious, but is usually blended with other fibres to reduce cost. GEOFF MOTHERSOLE

For practical reasons, the way in which yarn is spun is important. For example, singles yarn spun for weaving is unlikely to make a good knitting yarn as it will be weak and produce a bias fabric. Fibre content is a significant factor in wearer comfort, with overall behaviours such as stretch, recover and the way that an item responds to finishing, washing and wear being important to wearer satisfaction.

Yarn thickness and yarn counts

Machine knitting yarns are generally plied, or ‘doubled’, to make a balanced yarn that does not twist back on itself. This differs from hand-knitted yarns, in which ‘ply’ is a generic rather than a precise descriptor. Overtwisted and singles yarns that twist back on themselves are unbalanced and best avoided for single bed knits, as they will knit with a bias (the stitches, and therefore the whole fabric, will lean to one side). However, if singles are strong enough they can be used to knit rib without any bias.

When yarns are plied, they are twisted in the opposite direction to that in which they were spun, which may be ‘S’ or ‘Z’. To ascertain the number of plies, untwist a short length of the yarn. If you purchase a yarn that has ‘30/2nm’ or ‘2/30nm’ written on the cone, the ‘2’ means that it is two ends of 30nm thickness singles plied together (‘nm’ indicates that this is measured in the Metric Count system). Count systems for specific fibres include the Worsted and Cotton counts and the Bradford and Dewsbury Woollen counts. Details of these can be found elsewhere and online converters are quick ways of finding equivalent yarn weights and avoiding complex calculations between these systems. The Metric system is commonly used for European staple yarns and is based on the number of 1,000m (1km) hanks in 1,000g (1kg) weight; ‘30’ in our 2/30nm example. This may also be expressed as metres per gram. It is an indirect system in which higher numbers mean thinner yarn.

Yarn twist is determined by the direction in which it is spun. ‘S’ twist is spun anticlockwise so that the fibres slope to the left, resembling the central diagonal of an ‘S’. ‘Z’ is spun clockwise with the fibres sloping to the right, resembling the central diagonal of a capital ‘Z’.

To compare yarns in the same count system, divide the singles number by the plies (A in the illustration). Although plied yarns may theoretically be equivalent (B, 3/30nm and 4/40nm in the illustration), in practice more plies make a bulkier yarn. Similarly, instead of knitting with one thicker yarn, consider using multiple ends of finer yarns. For example, instead of 2/10nm work with two ends of 2/20nm (C in the illustration). This will create a more even knit than one end of thicker yarn and has the advantage that any knots in finer yarn should be taken through the hooks without any problems.

Working out comparable industrial yarn thickness. A: Dividing the singles count by the plies to find approximate equivalent weight yarns. B: Theoretically, 3/30nm wool is equivalent to 4/40nm, but 4/40nm may be bulkier. C: Replacing a thicker yarn with an equivalent combination of finer yarns.

Fancy yarns such as bouclé, gimp or slub will not necessarily follow the same rules, but sadly there isn’t space to discuss every yarn type here. However, yarn count related to machine gauge is included in Chapter 1, whilst yarn substitution is explored in Chapter 8. Whichever yarn you choose to use, it will always be necessary to sample in order to establish a yarn’s suitability for the intended fabric construction.

What does this yarn contribute to the knit?

Evaluating the contribution of a fibre/yarn to the final sample is a critical step towards success and should only be done after appropriate finishing (steaming, washing, fulling and so on). Before knitting and during evaluation, alongside the visual aesthetic of the knit consider the following:

• Are the materials/fibre/yarn suitable for the intended outcome, for example, evening wear, winter jumper, outdoor or indoor wear, fitted or loose? This may be particularly important if you want to work with sustainable/local materials.

• When selecting yarns, did you consider the quality in relation to the outcome? For example, a soft spun yarn is not as strong as firmer, smoother spun yarn. ‘Sock’ yarns are spun firmly and usually contain nylon for durability. Soft yarns in general tend to ‘pill’ and in blends such as angora and cotton, the angora will pill when the soft angora fibres rise to the surface. A little silk in a yarn can add sheen, strength and a dry handle, but there are several different silk qualities, so be sure to choose the type you want. A little viscose will add drape and a soft handle, but can make a garment heavy.

• Does the fibre and stitch structure stretch and recover as needed? Whilst it may knit well, after washing the fabric may be too dense, or stringy, depending on the fibre and yarn count.

• Was the yarn appropriate to the machine gauge? Is there a way to work around this, maybe add another strand or change the tension?

This last question brings us to thickness and density of yarn. A simple rule of thumb is that a suitable yarn for the machine should fit in the needle hook without being compressed. Understanding yarn counts, sometimes known as ‘grist’, will aid consistent yarn choices.

We are hopefully all becoming aware of the increasing need to use materials in a meaningful manner. The move towards ‘slow textiles’ and ‘slow fashion’ must only accelerate as the environmental impact of textile production and the effect of the throwaway culture of ‘fast fashion’ is further exposed. Designer-makers can contribute to these emerging movements by choosing yarns that will encourage the user to keep an item for longer and wear treasured items in a smaller wardrobe more frequently. Reasons for this might be that it feels good, is a favourite shape and fits well, is the right colour and texture for their taste, and the item washes and wears well. Clothing fit is, in my opinion, paramount in this and findings from my research in this area will be discussed in Chapter 7. Choosing colours and developing palettes will be explored in more detail in Chapter 6.

Animal fibres: overall properties and subgroup characteristics.

Vegetable fibres: overall properties and subgroup characteristics, including some man-made fibres.

Regenerated vegetable fibres: overall properties and subgroup characteristics.

Synthetic fibres: overall properties and subgroup characteristics, including some man-made fibres.

When there is a mystery yarn with no labelling, this simple burn test may help to establish the fibre content. Always work in a well-ventilated area, use a candle flame so that your hands are free, and hold the yarn sample with tweezers. Ensure there is means to extinguish a flame and avoid inhaling the smoke.

Wearer comfort and wash and wear properties are largely dependent on yarn selection, which can be especially challenging with fibre-blended yarns. To help inform this choice, some of the main characteristics of fibres have been summarised here. If the content is on a cone, after observing its physical characteristics it can be burnt to try to determine the fibre content. It may not always be possible to make environmentally neutral yarn choices, but if the aim is to work towards sustainability of materials as well as longevity of use, a fibre’s manufacturing process should be taken into consideration alongside its wearing properties.

Finally, I would like to share an anecdote. At school, my friend regularly ran out of time when writing descriptive essays, so finished them abruptly with ‘… and then I woke from the dream’. This reminds me of how it can sometimes feel when on the machine, rushing to finish and thereby tempting disaster. Experience has taught me to be kinder to myself (and my knitting machine) and take time out. When working on industrial design systems, sleeping on a problem often meant that I woke the next day with a solution. Therefore, if you become frustrated with your knitting my advice is to leave it and give your brain a rest, have a cup of tea or go outside. By the time you get back to the machine, things won’t be so intense and you will be able to work through solutions calmly and effectively.

CHAPTER ONE

SINGLE AND DOUBLE BED KNITTING: A DETAILED OVERVIEW

This chapter will look at the similarities and differences between single and double bed knitting machines and describe the primary fabrics they produce. Diagrams of carriages, needle beds and ribbing attachments will illustrate the component parts, as well as controls you might expect to use when creating stitch patterns. The final section discusses setting up a knit design space, the basic equipment you will need and how to alleviate postural problems associated with machine knitting.

DESIGN AND PHOTOGRAPH BY KARLA LOYOLA

SOME COMMON GROUND

A knitting machine’s primary element is a needle. Second to this is a sinker mechanism. Some older domestic and industrial machines have metal plates between the needles which hold down the old stitch, thus helping loop formation and enabling the old stitch to ‘knock-over’ (or clear) and create a new stitch with the loop. In modern single bed domestic machines these actions are carried out by the fabric presser, the wheels of which mesh with the gate pegs. It is because of this that the fabric presser is sometimes called the ‘sinker plate’, whilst gate pegs are also known as ‘sinker posts’. A sinker holds an individual stitch (or group of stitches) on the shaft of the needle as it travels to take a new loop in its hook. On industrial machines, moving, selectable sinkers enable fléchage (short-row) knitting and hold stitches without the need for excess ‘take down’ (downward tension similar to the weights on a domestic machine).

Double bed domestic machines do not have a fabric presser, which is why the comb and weights are critical to a successful knock-over of each new row. This is also why inserting the comb central to the working needles and balancing the weights is so important.

What is under the hood?

Other things that knitting machines have in common are cams. Cams lie under the cover of the carriage and control what happens to the needles. For example, the raising cam channels needles to the correct position on the bed to take the yarn to knit, tuck or miss (slip) the yarn. Lowering cams control how far the needles slide back into the bed and therefore how much yarn is in the loop, thus controlling the stitch size. This cam is controlled by the tension dial.

SINGLE BED MACHINES

Single bed machines have one set of hooked needles that lie in a flat, horizontal bed, which usually sits perpendicular to the knitter. The needles slide forwards and backwards in slots in the bed, and each needle has a hinged latch which opens and closes during this knitting action to create the stitches. These machines produce single jersey as a primary fabric.

DOUBLE BED MACHINES

Single bed Japanese machines can be given double bed knitting capabilities by mounting a compatible ribbing attachment. Depending on the model and the table or stand on which they are mounted, the top (main) bed of Japanese machines usually sits at a shallow angle, whilst the ribber hangs below at a more acute angle. Some machines, in particular the European machines, were purpose-built with double beds and the beds of these machines are set so that they form an inverted ‘V’ when seen from the side.

In either case, the two beds are positioned opposite each other, with the hooks facing towards those on the other bed. This configuration is why these flatbed, domestic knitting machines come under the overarching category of ‘V bed’, weft knitting machines. ‘Weft’ refers to how the yarn is delivered in one continuous thread, back and forth across the needles, intermeshing with itself to produce a flexible structure. One easy way of remembering this term is that the yarn goes from ‘weft’ to right.

These machines produce double jersey as a primary fabric. The term ‘double jersey’ is often used to define a fine gauge, all needle, double bed knit made on industrial circular knitting machines, but, apart from the gauge, this is the same fabric as all needle (or full needle) rib made on a domestic machine.

Other types of knitting machine

An alternative configuration to the flat bed is the circular machine, mentioned earlier. As with flat bed machines, some of these will knit ribbing using an opposing set of needles (dial). Popular for rapid industrial production, large cylinder circulars knit continuous fabric for cut-and-sew items such as T-shirts, whilst other models produce individual garment lengths or socks.

Hand-operated, vintage sock machines are popular amongst enthusiasts, but recent equivalents made of mixed materials and by 3D printing are more portable and accessible. Most small-cylinder circular machines will have a reciprocating mechanism so they can knit short rows to shape sock heels or flat pieces of fabric. If you want a circular machine do not be tempted by toys that have plastic needles; metal needles are a must. I do not have personal experience of modern, mixed material circulars, but whichever type you work on be gentle with the mechanism; even cast iron is brittle.

Patterning on single and double bed machines

Whether single or double bed, the level of sophistication of stitch pattern and colour pattern relies on the mechanical capabilities and/or electronic control of the machine’s needle selection, colour changing and cam actions. Simple ‘hobby’ type machines with no needle selection mechanism can also produce stitch patterns, but require considerable manual input. The simplest form of stitch pattern creation, that of stitch size adjustment, is available on all machines. Even when working this simple technique, whilst the yarn type is largely governed by the size of the needle hooks, colour and yarn texture combinations are truly limitless as they originate from the imagination of the designer.

NEEDLE GAUGE – SIZE MATTERS

Apart from make, model and capabilities, machines are also categorised by gauge. This is the distance between two neighbouring needles. Most standard gauge domestic machine needles are spaced 4.5mm apart, making these machines closest in gauge to an industrial machine with five needles to the inch (2.5cm), such as the Dubied NHF 5gge. Probably the next most popular are the 9mm, ‘chunky’ knit machines (the equivalent of a 2.5gge industrial machine). Their robust needles are spaced twice as wide apart as those on a standard gauge machine and have larger hooks to cope with thicker yarns. Less common, mid-gauge machines sit between these and vary from 6–6.5mm spacing, whilst domestic machines that will only knit fine yarns have needles spaced 3.6mm apart; the approximate equivalent of an industrial 7gge machine. A table of machines by gauge, along with most suitable yarn weights, can be found in the section, ‘Buying a knitting machine’ later in this chapter. A rule of thumb for assessing whether a yarn might be suitable for your machine is that the yarn must fit easily into the needle hook without getting squashed.

Just as needle hook size varies by machine gauge, needles also differ in length and shape among models and makes, main beds and ribbers, so always use the correct needles. You may sometimes see needles with a hook at each end. These come from ‘links-links’ machines, which produce garter stitch fabric; something only possible on domestic machines using a garter carriage or manual transfer.

KNOWING YOUR MACHINE CONTROLS

Brother

Brother machines select needles via a series of metal plates underneath the bed of the machine. A metal timing belt interacts with the plates and the carriage to transmit the pattern from the punchcard to the needles. This timing belt can become jammed with disuse. Even if the machine is knitting plain knits with no problems, it can become heavy to use once the belt is engaged via the KC knob. Connecting the belt and running the machine every so often without any knitting will keep it working smoothly. To oil the belt, carefully insert the hook of an old needle into one of the holes and very gently draw it out a tiny distance from the back of the machine – you only need the space to slip a cotton bud with some machine oil on it inside the belt. Slide the belt around with care so that the oil coats the belt. Do not over-oil the machine; excess oil can run through and gum the selector plates together.

Example of the single bed carriage of a Brother Japanese machine. Refer to the Brother carriage controls table for the functions of the labelled controls.

Table of the Brother KRC850 ribber carriage controls and their functions.

Many of the Brother single bed models have a yarn feeder that can be swapped for a plating feeder. This should be in the toolbox and is a simple matter of unscrewing one and fitting the other.

All ribbers have flat brushes on each side underneath the connecting arm. These are there to open the needle latches. If your machine is dropping stitches, check that these are not worn or threadbare.

The KRC850 Brother ribber has a removable feeder so that a plating feeder can be fitted. Plating is a very effective technique and is covered in more depth in Chapter 4. The IiIi buttons make this ribber very versatile, as it will knit a 1x1 selection in combination with slip. It also has the capability to knit slightly tighter, which is a help when casting on.

The carriage and connecting arm of a KRC850 Brother ribber. Refer to the Brother ribber carriage controls table for the functions of the labelled controls.

Table of the example Brother carriage’s main controls and functions.

Refer to the Brother ribber carriage table for the function of the labelled controls.

Brother ribber needle bed, left-hand section including racking handle. Refer to the Brother ribber bed controls table for the functions of the labelled controls.

Brother ribber bed – the functions of the labelled controls.

Silver Reed

Silver Reed punchcard machines select the needles via rotating sub-drums beneath the carriage. The pattern is transmitted from the punchcard by the grey ‘feelers’ in front of the card reader. As the carriage passes the feelers, the needle selection is imprinted into the rotating main drums, which in turn transmit the selection to the sub-drums. Both main and sub-drums have little metal feelers that can easily be blocked by yarn catching around the drums, so always keep the back and bed of these machines clear of any stray lengths and ends of yarn.

As with Brothers, there is a timing mechanism to keep the pattern aligned with the correct needles. In Silver Reeds this is composed of the timing slots that run along the back of the bed and the grey serrated blocks that extend from these at each end. The slots time the main drum and if the drum passes the end slot (for example, when knitting the full bed), the block prevents it spinning out of alignment. Known as side racks or end gears, these blocks are handed and particular to each gauge. They break with age and will need replacing, otherwise your machine may mis-pattern.

Example of a Silver Reed single bed carriage. Refer to the Silver Reed carriage controls table for the functions of the labelled controls.

Silver Reed single bed carriage – the functions of the labelled controls.

On a Silver Reed ribber, the yarn feeder sits in the middle of the connecting arm and, depending on the model, it may be possible to unscrew the normal feeder and swap it with a plating feeder. Inside the connecting arm, close to the yarn feeder there is a little pile feeder that can be slid into position when working pile knitting. More modern Silver Reed ribbers have a lever that activates the YC series of double bed colour changers. This lies flat in normal use. Plating is discussed in Chapter 4.

The carriage and connecting arm of a Silver Reed ribber. Refer to the Silver Reed ribber carriage controls table for the functions of the labelled controls.

Silver Reed ribber carriage – the functions of the labelled controls.

Refer to the Silver Reed ribber carriage table for the function of the labelled controls.

The racking controls on the left-hand side of a Silver Reed ribber. Refer to the Silver Reed ribber bed controls table for functions of the labelled controls.

Silver Reed ribber bed – the functions of the labelled controls.

The advantages of working solely on a single bed machine

The controls for manual machines have been discussed in this section, but it is worth noting that Silver Reed/Knitmaster electronics do not have the same user-controlled side levers as mechanical models. This makes it impossible to slip (or tuck) in both directions on the main bed without electronic patterning input. Automatic tubular knitting for double bed cast-on is enabled by the C setting on the cam lever dial (knits right to left, slips left to right). A hack to get the carriage across empty in either direction is to set the cam lever dial to S/J and gently pull the side lever forward on the side towards which the carriage is to move. Hold the lever there whilst moving the carriage across the bed.

For many years I only had a single bed knitting machine, so I learnt to make the most of its productive capabilities, but also how to push these to produce unusual outcomes. Getting to know what your machine is capable of is a huge step towards widening your creative scope, but this takes time and practice. This is why I recommend anyone starting out with machine knitting who has a ribber to take a deep breath and store it away carefully for later exploration. Play with the main machine and enjoy it without the complication of that second needle bed.

The simplest machines may not even offer automatic stitches such as tuck and slip, but are likely to have a setting such as ‘hold’, which you can use in combination with manual needle selections and manipulations to produce similar effects. Thankfully, as simple modern machines are usually chunky knitters, manual manipulations are not too arduous or fiddly to work. Chapter 5 contains further information about patterning with manual needle selection. Single bed machines with a patterning mechanism of some sort will knit repeating patterns in both texture and colour, the most notable colour patterning being Fair Isle. The needle width of the pattern repeat is defined by that of the patterning mechanism, which varies from single figures on early push-button machines to the whole needle width on some electronic models. The most common is the standard gauge machine with a twenty-four needle punchcard repeat. Familiarising yourself with your machine’s pattern device is only the first step; being able to achieve the planned outcome shows increased control of the machine, and may well indicate the time to think about using a ribber for more than ribs!

Even if you are an experienced knitter, take a moment to consider if you know what all the knobs, buttons and levers do. If not, then I urge you to stay with me and read the rest of this chapter as you will need to be conversant with all of these to take full advantage of the design workshops. Chapter 2 will explore the many knit structures you can create with the stitch cam settings on the carriage and the ways in which you can combine these with unique yarn combinations and manual manipulations in an intoxicating knit-fest, without even touching the ribber.

CARE OF YOUR MACHINE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Simple housekeeping will pay dividends. At the very least, carry out a visual check for damage to gate pegs, needles and brushes, rectifying any problems before starting to knit. Keep your machine oiled, which means every few hundred or so rows, not once a year! Metal that slides on metal should to be kept lubricated and the manual will show the specifics of where to apply oil. Always wipe off dirt and old residue before applying a light brush of oil; excess can run into the workings at the back of the machine and may gum up the sliding selector plates on Brothers. Wipe oil and dust from the point cams and sensors on electronics with a clean cloth. If your machine is kept out, cover it with something that is dustproof such as a laminated table cloth.

Help! My machine has suddenly started mis-knitting

This can happen at any time, not just after moving a machine. Firstly, stop knitting, don’t carry on hoping it will go right, the knitting is already damaged. Move the carriage to one side and look at the needles and stitches to see what has happened. Are the stitches looping rather than knitting? This might mean that the carriage tension is too tight (but if it’s a tuck stitch, it might be too loose). If the carriage is heavy to move, and the stitches are too tight this might also be due to an over-tight carriage tension or top tension, that your yarn is snagging on its route from the cone, or is caught round a brush or wheel. If none of these are the obvious fault, carry out a visual check to make sure all levers and dials are in the correct position and that any patterning device is working smoothly. It is possible for punchcards (and Mylar sheets) to jam if something falls in the slot; if not clipped into a cylinder they can even roll back over themselves into a tight roll that jams the reader. Mylar sheets should be used with the curly metal support to keep them from doing this. I must admit to having lost mine a long time ago, which is how I know that Mylar sheets can wind themselves back inside the reader!

Always check that you are using the correct sized punchcard for the machine, and that it is not misaligned horizontally or vertically. Vertically would mean that you started on the wrong row, so the incorrect row will be showing on the reader line;, and horizontally would mean that the punchhcard was put into the slot crookedly and the grid will look wonky. In both cases the card will mis-read, so an incorrect needle selection might be the problem.

After checking the obvious, everyday mistakes one can make, it is time to consider that it might be the machine at fault. The most common problem is a worn or damaged needle retaining bar. Most Japanese machines have a bar with a sponge insert that runs along under the bed but over the needles, holding the needles down. The sponge becomes worn down with use and deteriorates with age, which means that the needles lift too high during knitting and can misknit, or, in a worst-case scenario, catch on the yarn feeder and jam the whole carriage. Brother garter carriages and lace carriages are particularly sensitive to worn sponge bars, so it’s a good idea to insert a fresh sponge bar before starting to use either of these accessories.

My Silver Reed punchcard machine has become so stiff I can hardly move it

Mechanical Silver Reeds have revolving pattern drums at the rear of the carriage. If yarn gets into the pattern drums it will wrap tighter and tighter, impeding their movement, and may even pop the little metal feelers out of the drum. To reduce the likelihood of this happening, keep the back of your machine free of odd lengths of yarn and fluff. If materials do get in there, remove the carriage and use a thin pair of tweezers to ease the yarn out whilst gently rotating the drum. Sometimes cutting the strands releases them, making this easier, but be very careful and do not wrench the yarn.

Once the drums spin freely, the carriage can be returned to the bed, but any pattern stored in the drum will have been lost. Restoring the pattern requires that you adjust the card to the correct line and lock it, then pass the carriage across the needles using a non-knitting setting to re-register the pattern in the drums. Choose a free move setting that suits your knitting at the time;, this may be a combination of settings, for example, hold and slip, or using the carriage release lever. Return the carriage to the working side while still on this setting. Reset the row counter, unlock the card, insert the correct yarn and continue with the piece, making sure that no yarns stray to the back of the carriage again.

Tucks or loops, brushes or wheels? And what about tensions?

Some machine manufacturers describe a tuck as a ‘loop’, but whichever designator is used it may require a few extra tweaks to the settings to work tuck stitch evenly. Although not immediately obvious, most Japanese machines have tuck brushes or wheels located under the fabric presser plate. Depending on the model, these are activated by levers on the fabric presser, or by manually sliding the brushes towards the needles. These brushes or wheels hold the stitches and tuck loops in place, and it is a good idea to familiarise yourself with your own machine’s mechanism. When yarn gets caught under the fabric presser it is often these tuck brushes or wheels that suffer. If you need to completely unscrew a wheel, take care not to drop any washers or spacers that may be on the screw attaching them to the fabric presser.

One notably unintuitive feature of tuck stitch is stitch tension adjustment. If the tuck loops are uneven and the carriage feels heavy to move, one instinctively feels that it must be too tight and so loosen the tension, but don’t! Instead, make the tension a point or two tighter and see if things improve. Persevere, as it may take a series of small adjustments to balance yarn weight and stitch structure needs.

THE ADVANTAGES OF A DOUBLE BED MACHINE

There are so many possibilities when you have a second needle bed, but this can become quite challenging and may constrain your creativity. All of those ideas buzz around in your head, but you need time to test them out, so find a way of recording all your ideas so that you can come back to them later.

Once you are at ease with your single bed, it might be a good time to get to know the capabilities of the ribber. As soon as you understand and can control that second needle bed, all sorts of interesting things happen. Ribs are the obvious structure that comes first to mind, but a double bed has lots of other potential such as rib variations, textures and overlaid colour geometrics, as well as the aspirational double knit, double bed jacquard patterning. Most double bed machines will knit rib variations, although all domestic machines will involve some manual interventions to arrange the stitches. As when working on a single bed machine, all but the most basic will offer automatic settings for stitches such as tuck and slip.

Not all double bed machines will knit jacquard patterns as this requires a patterning mechanism of some sort, but if your single bed machine has this it should be able to knit double jacquard of some sort. Why do I say, ‘… of some sort’? This is because the way in which the second bed operates is critical to producing well-balanced double bed jacquard knits. Brother ribbers have an automatic setting to balance the rib structure, as do the European machines, but the Silver Reed ribbers produce what is in my opinion a somewhat unbalanced fabric, unless a special carriage is used.

ADDING A RIBBER TO YOUR SINGLE BED MACHINE

Let us assume that you have reached the point of wanting to add a ribbing attachment to your Japanese machine. These are expensive attachments, so unless you are lucky and find a second-hand one, be prepared to invest in this step.

Ribber attachments were not made for some models of machines, so before going any further check whether there is one that will fit your machine. If you go to a dealer, they should supply the latest, correct model, but if looking for a second-hand one do make sure that it is compatible with your make and model. Search on the internet and find out what parts should come with it and always check that the parts are included before buying it. Parts are expensive; for example, a new ribber arm assembly can cost as much as a complete second-hand ribber whilst some parts are not readily available.

It is also important to establish that the ribber is not bowed and that the brackets are not deformed. When teaching, my mantra is ‘don’t lean on the ribber’, because when the knitter leans on the ribber (or flings their coats and bags on it), they are putting additional weight on the right-angle connecting brackets. Over time these will bend, narrowing the angle, which puts the ribber out of alignment.

Ribbers that have bent brackets are often bowed as well. Bowing is a result of age and use, but over-tensioning the ribber whilst it is being installed can aggravate it further. One way of assessing a ribber is to lay the bed on a flat surface and bend down to look along the length of the ribber to check that it is straight, but the best way is to mount it correctly on a machine. If it is bowed, there will be a wider gap between the beds in the middle than at the sides. Needle and feeder alignments may be affected by this uneven gap, with the potential to cause problems when knitting double bed.

Learning to use a ribber that is already out of alignment is a recipe for an unhappy experience. So, whilst neither of these situations is irredeemable, it will be necessary to spend some time repairing and aligning the ribber to get the best from it. See the ‘Resources’ section at the end of the book for further advice on this.

Once you have acquired a ribber, it will need to be installed on the machine. You will require a little more room at the front of the machine to accommodate the attachment, but otherwise it should fit on a standard machine table. A machine with a ribbing attachment weighs more than the single bed alone, so is less manoeuvrable and tends to be a bit front-heavy. Whilst it is safe enough to move the table carefully