Small-Scale Silversmithing E-Book

F J Whitelaw

• Herausgeber: Crowood
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 246

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019

Beschreibung

Silversmithing is an exciting and developing craft, which combines traditional techniques with contemporary design and technology. This practical book introduces the craft with a guide to the workshop and its tools, then emphasises the importance of drawing and design before explaining key techniques and showing how they can be used in clearly illustrated projects. By keeping the individual pieces small, it explains a range of skills that can be developed and combined to make more adventurous items. It discusses transforming silver sheets or rods into three-dimensional shapes using sinking, raising and forging techniques. It teaches how to silver solder and attach handles to the rounded body of a bowl and create well-fitting seams. Nine projects illustrate the techniques in use and include making spoons, round boxes, hinged lids, drinker beakers and candlesticks.

Leseprobe

Small-ScaleSilversmithing

Small-Scale Silversmithing

FJ Whitelaw

First published in 2019 byThe Crowood Press LtdRamsbury, MarlboroughWiltshire SN8 2HR

This e-book first published in 2019

www.crowood.com

© F.J. Whitelaw 2019

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 78500 618 0

Contents

IntroductionCHAPTER 1Getting StartedCHAPTER 2Working With SilverCHAPTER 3Design and DecorationCHAPTER 4Hammering Techniques – Sinking and PlanishingCHAPTER 5Doming, Drilling and SolderingCHAPTER 6ForgingCHAPTER 7Ladles and SpoonsCHAPTER 8Soldering SeamsCHAPTER 9Making a HingeCHAPTER 10Other Hammering TechniquesCHAPTER 11Constructing a Seamed Vessel or ContainerCHAPTER 12Scaling Up ConstructionCHAPTER 13Finishing and PolishingFinding SuppliesGlossary of Techniques,Terms and ToolsIndex

Introduction

Silversmithing is the practice of creating objects in silver other than jewellery. Traditional silversmithing has evolved over a long period of time but at its core, it is the manipulation of metal to create objects of use, importance and beauty.

The history of precious metal artefacts includes many types of objects from the most grandiose trophies and ecclesiastical treasures to the smallest snuffbox or salt spoon. Many surviving examples of historical pieces are not just large statements of wealth and status but are more personal, portable treasures. These small items do not hold a place of lesser significance in the history of silverwares but are objects intended for the domestic setting, both for use and to announce the excellent taste of the fortunate owner. There is also a particular category of small silversmithing referred to as ‘objects of virtue’ which are small but perfectly formed examples of exquisite craftsmanship, made using the combined skills of the silversmith, engraver, enameller and many others. The focus of this book is on learning about the techniques employed by the silversmith to make a selection of smaller items that may not demand so much specialist equipment or machinery.

Metalworking in all its forms has evolved from early experiments which are now lost to time. Little is known about the mysterious origins of finding and using metal, in part because one of the unique properties of this family of elements is that metal can be melted down and reused again and again.

The discovery of metal in its basic state of ore from rock, or in a seam deep in a mountain, is in itself remarkable. That this unpromising raw material was then transformed into a usable plastic material remains one of the great discoveries of humankind. Producing metal from mere rock signalled huge changes to the cultural and technical development of human society, taking us from the Neolithic period into a new era of finding, mining and refining. Metal quickly became a sought-after commodity across many different cultures, creating the need for trade across seas and continents.

Metal can be reused and recycled as many times as needed, provided that there is a reliable heat source. It is likely that gold was the first metal to be discovered and worked, probably around 8,000 years ago although this is impossible to prove with any certainty. It has the advantage of being present in rivers and alluvial deposits so can be found in its pure state without being mined or refined. Gold has the advantage of a distinctive colour making it easily visible in the landscape, unlike many other metals that hide within parent rock, or are deep below the surface. Early experiments will have revealed the transformative power of both heat and stone hammers on this exotic new material, which can be formed and reformed as desired.

Copper was probably the next metal to be isolated. It is a little harder than gold and being found in greater abundance made it perfect for the creation of tools, implements, catches and adornments. This diversity of application is where the journey of metalworking makes its first strides. The discovery and use of silver followed not long afterwards, probably around 4,000 BC, followed by the development of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze overshadowed silver because it is suitable for more durable tools, mechanisms and of course valuable weapons. Metalworking became widespread across the world as societies were able to support the time, ingenuity and skill needed to produce these objects. Those skills learned by trial and error over generations would have been applied to the newly discovered silver. It was not universally available and its softness in its pure state meant that its value developed as the skill of working and alloying it grew. The evidence of silver’s increasing popularity over time is the emergence of its use as currency, as well as being a medium for fashioning treasured items.

Artefacts made from silver signify a civilization that supports and values knowledge and artistry. Archaeology has revealed that silver objects were highly valued in many ways and used as grave goods to bestow their owners with status in the afterlife. The flexible, forgiving nature of silver means that as a medium to craft, it is soft enough to work from flat sheet into complex three-dimensional forms and it will retain that shape indefinitely. Silversmithing has evolved due to its most appealing feature of being particularly malleable and reasonably easy to alloy with small amounts of copper to subtly adjust its plasticity. Silver can be fairly thin and yet is strong enough to retain its form and withstand use day after day. In addition to its working properties, its colour – or rather lack of it – has contributed to its allure. Subtler than its more sumptuous partner gold, silver reminds us of the moon, water and the ethereal, leading silver to become associated with notions of purity, magic and religious potency. The clarity of silver’s whiteness renders it almost without colour when polished as the world around it is reflected back untainted by any hue. In recent times, some of this belief has been scientifically corroborated and silver is used for its purifying and antibacterial properties in medicine and technology.

Over centuries, silversmiths have developed the skills that are still relevant today. The arrival of the Industrial Revolution could have diminished the value and role of the smith as a skilled craftsperson but even in the age of mass-produced goods, the power and beauty of handmade objects still holds true. Indeed a renewed interest in contemporary design and respect for uniquely crafted objects has helped to bring silversmithing to a new and wider audience. Many contemporary silversmiths still use these same techniques in their practice whilst augmenting them with the latest technology. This has opened the door into a twenty-first century renaissance of design and technology working harmoniously together.

Working with metal to create objects totally from scratch is deeply satisfying for the beginner and expert alike. In this book, the emphasis is on starting small to allow time to build up understanding and skill without the pressure of the material costs or expensive equipment. Each chapter introduces a technique and explains how it can be used and what can be realistically achieved through a series of simply laid out projects.

Throughout the book the words ‘silver’ and ‘metal’ are used pretty much interchangeably. In the majority of cases, either silver, copper or gilding metal can be used for projects with equally good results. Silver costs far more than copper or gilding metal but these metals all share very similar properties and are all suitable for silversmithing projects. Before starting, it is worth taking time to consider what will be needed to create small-scale silversmithing in your own workshop.

CHAPTER 1

Getting Started

This book contains numerous illustrations, many of which are very simplified diagrams. There are photographs of tools in this introductory chapter and thereafter are mostly shown in either a sketch or diagram. Not all of the diagrams are exactly to scale where this is not necessary. The main function of the illustrations is to show the silver and how it is positioned in relation to the tools or equipment being used to form it. None of the illustrations show hands, as the focus tends to be on the process or object. Hammers are held at the end of the handle, not near the hammer head, therefore no fingers need to be visible. Of course, metal being worked is frequently held in place by hand and this will be explained in the accompanying text where relevant. The diagrams for setting pieces up to solder have been shown as possible examples of how to position work on the hearth but the magical moment that solder melts is hard to capture in a static image, so again this is described rather than illustrated. The projects introduce techniques starting at the beginning with first experiments in creating three-dimensional forms from flat sheet and building towards objects constructed from several forming methods.

SETTING UP A WORKSHOP

Working with silver or copper will require a dedicated place to work. This room or space need not be large but should be dry, well ventilated and ideally with natural light. Sometimes it will be noisy. This is not really a problem for the practitioner, because one’s own noise is less noticeable and there are ear defenders to protect against the sound of hammering. It is how near the workshop will be to those who may not share an enthusiasm for hours of sustained hammering, which might mean some form of sound insulation is needed. Once a suitable place for the workshop has been found, try to arrange the space with four or more distinct workshop areas that will be for the following activities:

•A workbench for standing work such as hammering, filing and working at a vice.

•A seated work place with a bench peg for precision work such as measuring, cutting, filing and fitting.

•The hearth for hot work such as heating hardened metal to soften it and soldering to join parts together. The hearth should have water adjacent; either a sink or large bowl will do.

•There should be space that can be used for cleaning and polishing; this is the dirtiest work and must not be next to any soldering or hot work.

In addition to these areas there will need to be a clean area for design, drawing or model making – this could be a simple board that can be stowed away when not in use.

The workbench and seated work place

The workbench must be a solid bench fitted with an engineer’s vice. This is used to hold either tools or the piece of work, so that objects can be gripped securely. This is where some of the making and hammering will take place. A woodworking bench is probably too low so is generally regarded as not suitable, but could be adapted or raised up for metalworking. The bench will need space for specific tools such as a flat plate for flattening, sanding or any measuring that has to be done on an absolutely flat surface. The workbench can also incorporate a ‘cutout’ in the style of a jeweller’s workbench for sawing, filing and small precision hand working. A typical jeweller’s bench has a semi-circular cutout with a bench peg to support sawing and filing, a bench ‘apron’ or ‘leather’ to collect offcuts and a low seat for a comfortable working posture.

The ‘cutout’ is an area for working when seated whereas working at the vice is usually done standing up, although if that is a problem it can be arranged so that the equipment is organized to be at the correct height for seated working. If space is limited, many smaller hand tools can be kept safely off the workbench on shelves, racks, wall magnets or suspended at the bench cutout. Heavier items should be kept handy enough to be within reach to avoid too much lifting and carrying, but not in the way of any activity. For sensible health and safety practice it is a good idea to keep weighty items near to the point of use to avoid unnecessary heavy lifting. Hammers, mallets, stakes and steel-forming tools must be kept dry and accessible so that surfaces and hammer faces cannot get damaged. It is fairly easy to make a rack for hammers and mallets so that they are ready to use yet out of the way, keeping the bench top free of clutter. An under-bench trolley is ideal for storing less frequently used tools or bulky items. Adding stout casters to an old recycled cupboard or low table is another storage solution when space is at a premium. Generally speaking, many activities may be done standing at the workbench using the engineer’s vice or using a steel flat plate, so opt for a bench height that is comfortable for working without stooping. The main workbench and the jeweller’s cutout are the two areas where much of the making will be done.

The workbench.

The hearth

This is an area for heating metal and must be covered with a fireproof surface such as firebricks or non-asbestos boards. There are commercially produced hearths that include a gas torch, and may also have an extractor fan and turntable. The cost of a new readymade hearth at a couple of thousand pounds may not be appropriate for the first-time smith, especially if the budget is restricted. If a second-hand one is not readily available then it is fairly straightforward to make a sturdy hearth area from a single unit of a heavy-duty shelving system. The uprights consist of a steel frame that is held in place with horizontal steel shelf supports. The shelving is usually woodchip, which can be painted with a fire-retardant layer before completely covering with sheets of a non-asbestos fireproof material. Fire bricks and sheets of fireproof material for chimneys or garden ovens can be bought from DIY stores and builders’ yards. Build up an insulated wall at the back of the hearth and half of each side to create a lined alcove for doing all the heating. The hollow area can then be adapted for each project by having a selection of soldering blocks to build up a platform to support the work, regardless of shape or size.

The hearth should always have a sink, bowl or tank of water immediately next to it for cooling hot metal and there should also be an easily reachable place for tongs, tweezers and any other equipment relating to hot work. Ideally the hearth should not be too bright, so do not site this part of your workshop right under a bright light unless it can be switched off. If it is convenient to be next to a window that provides ventilation, fit a blind so that the area can be dimmed when necessary. Working in poor light is generally a bad idea, but in this instance it is a great help because when heating a metal object it is vital to judge the correct temperature and this is easier to do if the surrounding area is fairly dark. The hearth does not need to be permanently gloomy – just when it is in use – so the area can have good light for setting work up that can be switched on and off as needed.

The heating area must have some form of ventilation, at the most basic a window to open, but a better solution is to install a domestic cooker hood if the hearth does not have inbuilt extraction.

As mentioned earlier a ready-made braising hearth will likely be supplied with a torch to attach to the fuel, usually gas and oxygen. It is still possible to achieve high enough temperatures with propane on its own as long as the torch nozzle is large enough. This is probably the easiest option to begin with if building a hearth from scratch and means only investing in a bottle of propane and a torch kit with a selection of nozzles to suit different scales of project. Gas bottles can be put away after use if they are to be stored elsewhere overnight. A wheeled trolley is ideal for moving the gas bottle if it is too heavy to lift comfortably.

1.The heat source should be easy to turn on and off.

2.Keep water nearby to ‘quench’ hot work and in case of fire.

3Make sure there is some ventilation.

3.Check that the area is childproof if necessary.

4.Keep a first-aid box nearby.

A hearth lined with fire bricks with a turntable.

Polishing and finishing

Some silversmiths will send their finished pieces to a professional polisher because it is a highly skilled area of work. Of course, not all smiths will do this but prefer to complete pieces in house. A polishing motor is an incredibly useful tool for creating very shiny surfaces, but it can also be a dangerous piece of equipment that should not be used without proper training. A polishing machine has a central motor that turns two projecting spindles at either side. There are a range of ‘mops’ which can be fitted onto the spindles when the motor is switched off. Some mops are slightly abrasive or ‘cutting’ and will remove more metal from the surface of an object or act like a fine emery paper. These mops can speed up the finishing process immensely because firestain is removed quickly and efficiently. Other mops are for general buffing and used with a product such as ‘Tripoli’ which is for harder felt mops to provide a first polish. The final step in polishing is done with a soft mop, sometimes called ‘swansdown’ and used with a very fine polish such as rouge to leave the finished piece with a very high shine.

A polishing motor needs space around it to work safely, with an electric socket nearby so there are no trailing cables. It must be bolted onto a bench or mounted on a solid stand so that it remains steady at all times while in use. Polishing is a process that can be dirty and create a large amount of dust, so it is important to wear a dust mask and safety goggles when in use and be able to clean the area thoroughly afterwards. Most polishers large enough for silversmithing will have a built-in extraction unit but second-hand ones may not. An extractor fan or cheap vacuum cleaner can be set up to remove dust while it is in operation or it may be possible to mount the polishing motor on a movable bench which can be taken outside for working. Health and safety practice is paramount with all motor-driven equipment so as well as protective goggles and dust mask, keep hair, scarves and garments well away from the rotating wheel. It is also worth repeating that a dedicated training course on how to use a polishing motor safely and effectively is highly recommended. A lovingly wrought piece of work can be quickly ruined by a high-speed buff in the hands of an inexperienced polisher.

The alternative to motorized polishing is to do it by hand. For smaller items this is not so difficult and although it is of course slower, the results will be just as pleasing. In many cases a highly buffed surface may not be the desired end result so those hammered finishes will need little further attention. The final chapter deals with hand polishing in more detail.

The tree trunk

Traditionally, smiths’ workshops will have a tree trunk to use as a support for an anvil or various stakes or tools. The top surface of the tree trunk can be customized with hollow forms or grooves carved out for different forming activities to help shape sheet metal. Sometimes a stake is permanently fixed into the tree trunk and if there is space, it is a good place to work on a steel flat plate. The reason why the tree trunk has been a part of the smith’s workshop since ancient times is that the solid wood will absorb noise and vibration from hammering. Any tree trunk will do as long as it is high enough to sit at, and has a reasonable surface area of at least the size of a large dinner plate. A newly felled chunk of tree must have both ends cut flat so that it will stand upright and be stable. Remove all the bark before setting it aside to fully dry out over several months or seasons. If it is resting outside make sure it is raised above the ground to allow the air to get around it and keep it protected from rain, so that it does not start to rot.

If a tree trunk is not a viable option due to space or availability, then working at the main workbench is perfectly acceptable. To limit the noise from hammering the workbench can stand on rubber matting or an old carpet. This is not quite as effective as having a tree trunk but a good alternative, especially if there is more than one vice on the bench.

A tree trunk absorbs sound and vibration.

The rolling mill

A rolling mill may not be absolutely essential, but it is a desirable piece of equipment for any workshop. It is used to reduce the gauge of sheet, wire or rod and will last a lifetime. The rolling mill can be used for decorative work by embossing textures onto sheet as well as thinning it. Since it is a heavy piece of machinery it must either be mounted on a solid-metal stand or on a very sturdy bench. Rust and dust can damage the rollers which are engineered to give a flawless finish so protect it when not in use, keep it oiled, covered and in a dry environment. Mills are expensive when new but it is possible to find second-hand ones for sale. There is also the resale value and any purchase that has been well maintained can be sold on when no longer required.

The rolling mill is for reducing silver sheet or wire.

The anvil

This is the very symbol of metalworking and the heaviest single piece of solid metal equipment. It can be sat on a tree trunk of its own or mounted on a bench. An anvil is not always a realistic option for every workshop and there are alternatives for providing a good support for hammering different forms. Having a selection of stakes that can be used in the vice or fitted into a tree trunk can take the place of an anvil and provide more or less the same function. A new anvil will have a reasonably sized flat area and a conical projection at the other end. Old anvils can have damaged or rough surfaces so will only be suitable for preliminary working but if a second-hand anvil is available, make sure there is a way it can be transported safely as sellers usually do not want to include delivery for obvious reasons. As with all steel tools it is a good idea to look after the surface and keep it free from moisture, which will cause rust and pitting. Wipe over the surface with an oily rag when it is not in regular use.

Electric drill

An electric drill or pedestal drill is mounted onto its own solid stand or a solid bench so it is permanently fixed in a stable situation for safety. A good bench drill will provide accurate vibration-free drilling for all sizes of work and with a changeable chuck can accommodate most sizes of drill bit. Bench drills are used for light engineering, model making and wood working, so this item does not need to come from a specialist silversmithing supplier although the drill bits should always be specifically for metal.

A small bench drill is ideal if space is limited.

Hand tools

Hand tools will make up the majority of equipment for the smith, as this covers almost everything apart from the bigger fixtures and fittings mentioned above.

Before making anything in the workshop it will be necessary to measure, mark and cut the material. Many of these basic items can come from the local hardware store, such as the following toolbox essentials:

Steel ruler. 12in or 30cm long steel ruler will help with precision; a plastic one will not be as durable and can get damaged easily.

Compass and dividers. These are used for drawing circles and arcs. Dividers are adjustable with two sharp points for scribing circles rather than a compass, which has one point and a pencil holder. The dividers are also useful for taking exact measurements.

Engineer’s scribe. The scribe or scriber is a sharppointed steel tool for marking fine lines on metal. One end goes to a straight point and the other point is set at 90 degrees.

Engineer’s square. This is another tool for accurate measuring and in this case it helps to ascertain right angles. Some may incorporate a spirit level, which is also very useful. The base edge of a ‘square’ is usually thicker so that it can be balanced on the edge of a bench while the metal being marked can be held in place securely. It can be used standing on the heavy base.

All of the above tools are widely available and as the names suggest, are used in engineering and precision work.

After measuring and marking, metal must be cut to size.

Measuring and marking equipment.

Shears and tinsnips

Shears are for cutting pieces of sheet metal, with tinsnips being for smaller work. These are only for cutting out roughly and are not routinely used to cut intricate shapes or exact straight edges because of the distortion that can occur. Some workshops have a guillotine mounted on the bench, which is very useful for cutting longer straight edges, but this is not essential because bullion dealers will sell silver cut to the dimensions requested.

Piercing saws with a chenier vice and tinsnips.

Piercing saw

This is probably one of the handiest tools for cutting out sheet. With practice it can be used for straight edges and intricate decorative work too. Large silversmithing workshops will probably have a free-standing electric saw for cutting large pieces of sheet but the humble hand-held piercing saw can do almost all jobs including finely detailed shapes and patterns. There are extradeep saw frames for tackling larger pieces of metal. For the beginner, this is one tool that it is worth practicing with. Once mastered it can be used with speed and efficiency, opening up all sort of possibilities for design and construction. There are different sizes of blade for the piercing saw but the medium grade of 0/3 is a good size to start with.

Hand files

Once a piece of copper or silver has been cut out, the edges will need to be refined and smoothed with a file. Every tool kit should contain a selection of good-quality files of different sizes and degrees of coarseness. It is also important to have files of different shapes such as a flat or pillar file, half round and safety back which only has cutting teeth on one surface.

There are plenty of cheap files on the market but buying a few good-quality files is worth it, as they will be made from hardened steel and if cared for properly will last for years. There are longer files of 250mm/10in, 200mm/8in and 150mm/6in, which between them are suitable for most jobs. The length includes the ‘tang’ or end, which is inserted into a wooden handle. A coarse file is known as a ‘bastard’ or ‘0’ cut and a second cut is of medium coarseness. The smooth or ‘4’ cut file is the least rough and will remove less metal and leave fewer marks on the surface. Always hold the file in one hand with the other hand supporting the tip when filing work held in the vice. This will keep the file level and avoid any uncontrolled action, which can damage an edge or remove too much material. All filing is done by pushing the file away in a sweeping motion. This is because the tiny teeth have a direction for cutting, so pushing away will remove particles of metal and the return action will do nothing. Metal being filed may be held in a vice or held steady by hand at the bench while it is being worked. To care for a file and remove the tiny fragments of metal captured in the teeth, it can be cleaned with a file brush. This is a flat brush with short wire bristles that cleans away filings and stops the file teeth from becoming clogged up with debris.

A selection of files of different shapes and sizes.

Needle files

Needle files are small jewellers’ files that come in a wider variety of cross sections and can be used for small spaces that need to be precision worked. Needle files are often sold in packs of six or twelve different shapes for detailed and precise work where something larger would not be suitable. Swiss files are usually the best quality and most expensive but there are cheaper versions from specialist suppliers or general tool shops. The cheaper versions are likely to be fairly coarse whereas the dearer ones will be available in different cuts for fine work. A ‘riffler’ file is a specialist curved file and can be useful for smaller work, but is not absolutely essential. Good quality riffler files are quite expensive and may not be used much. They come with different curved ends to reach almost any imaginable nook or cranny.

Abrasives