Sustainable Aviation Technology and Operations E-Book

Roberto Sabatini

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Aerospace Series (PEP)
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 974

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Sustainable Aviation Technology and Operations

Comprehensively covers research and development initiatives to enhance the environmental sustainability of the aviation sector

Sustainable Aviation Technology and Operations provides a comprehensive and timely outlook of recent research advances in aeronautics and air transport, with emphasis on both long-term sustainable development goals and current achievements.

This book discusses some of the most promising advances in aircraft technologies, air traffic management and systems engineering methodologies for sustainable aviation. The topics covered include: propulsion, aerodynamics, avionics, structures, materials, airspace management, biofuels and sustainable lifecycle management. The physical processes associated with various aircraft emissions — including air pollutants, noise and contrails — are presented to support the development of computational models for aircraft design, flight path optimization and environmental impact assessment. Relevant advances in systems engineering and lifecycle management processes are also covered, bridging some of the existing gaps between academic research and industry best practices. A collection of research case studies complements the book, highlighting opportunities for a timely uptake of the most promising technologies, towards a more efficient and environmentally sustainable aviation future.

Key features:

• Contains important research and industry relevant contributions from world-class experts.
• Addresses recent advances in aviation sustainability including multidisciplinary design approaches and multi-objective operational optimisation methods.
• Includes a number of research case studies, addressing propulsion, aerostructures, alternative aviation fuels, avionics, air traffic management, and sustainable lifecycle management solutions.

Sustainable Aviation Technology and Operations is an excellent book for aerospace engineers, aviation scientists, researchers and graduate students involved in the field.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

About the Editors

About the Companion Website

1 Sustainable Aviation: An Introduction

1.1 Sustainability Fundamentals

1.2 International Policy Framework

1.3 Sustainability Agenda

1.4 Emission Taxes, Trading and Offsetting

1.5 ATM and Avionics Systems

1.6 Lightweight Structures and Materials

1.7 Advanced Aerodynamic Configurations

1.8 Advanced Propulsion Concepts

1.9 Alternative Aviation Fuels

1.10 Systems Engineering Evolutions

1.11 Airport Evolutions

1.12 Safety and Security Provisions

References

Notes

Section I: Aviation Sustainability Fundamentals

2 Climate Impacts of Aviation

2.1 Introduction to Climate Change

2.2 Climate Change Metrics

2.3 CO

2

Emissions and their Impact on the Climate

2.4 Contrails and their Impact on the Climate

2.5 Global Warming Forecasts

References

3 Noise Pollution and Other Environmental and Health Impacts of Aviation

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Atmospheric Pollutants

3.3 Noise Pollution

3.4 Sound Propagation

3.5 Noise Management for Traditional Aircraft

3.6 Noise Management for Drones and Advanced Air Mobility

3.7 Conclusions

References

Section II: Systems for Sustainable Aviation

4 Systems Engineering Evolutions

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Systems‐of‐Systems Engineering: Defining the Civil Aviation Boundaries

4.3 Green Life Cycle Management

4.4 Supply Chain Architectures

4.5 Principles for Greener Design

4.6 Principles for Greener Manufacturing

4.7 More Sustainable Operations

4.8 Sustainment Practices

4.9 Logistics Support Concept

4.10 Effective Sustainment

4.11 Sustainable End‐of‐Life Management

4.12 Life Cycle Models

4.13 Proposed Life Cycle Methodology

References

5 Life Cycle Assessment for Carbon Neutrality

5.1 Introduction

5.2 History

5.3 LCA Standards

5.4 Overview of LCA Applications

5.5 Types of LCA

5.6 Principles of LCA

5.7 Aviation LCA Case Studies

5.8 Trends and Outlook for LCA

References

6 Air Traffic Management and Avionics Systems Evolutions

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Current Progress in the Modernisation Efforts

6.3 Role of ATM and Operational Innovations in Increasing Aviation Sustainability

6.4 ATFM and Demand‐Capacity Balancing Evolutions

6.5 4D Trajectory Optimisation Strategies

6.6 Other Emerging Technologies

6.7 Conclusions

References

7 Optimisation of Flight Trajectories and Airspace

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Emission Models and Environmental Optimality Criteria for Trajectory Optimisation

References

Section III: Aerostructures and Propulsive Technologies

8 Advanced Aerodynamic Configurations

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Wing Tip Design

8.3 Blended Wing‐Body

8.4 Box Wing

8.5 Wing Morphing Technology

8.6 Boundary Layer Control

8.7 Conclusions

References

9 Lightweight Structures and Advanced Materials

9.1 Sustainability in Aerospace Materials and Structures

9.2 Structural Design Methodology

9.3 Damage Tolerant Structural Design

9.4 Traditional Materials for Light Weighting

9.5 New Materials for Light Weighting

9.6 Natural Materials for Aerospace Applications

9.7 Summary and Outlook

References

10 Low-Emission Propulsive Technologies in Transport Aircraft

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Turbofan Emissions in Aviation

10.3 Increasing Engine Bypass Ratio

10.4 Carbon Fibre Composites

10.5 Low Emission Combustion Technologies

10.6 Casing Treatments

10.7 Interstage Combustion and Combined Cycle Technologies

10.8 Thermofluidic Improvements

10.9 Integrated Health Monitoring and Engine Management Systems

10.10 Emissions Trends

10.11 Conclusions

References

11 Approved Drop‐in Biofuels and Prospects for Alternative Aviation Fuels

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Currently Approved ATF Production Routes

11.3 Drop‐in ATF Requirements

11.4 Reasons Behind ASTM D7566 Property Requirements

11.5 Sustainable ATF Production

11.6 Past Use of Non‐drop‐in Alternative Fuels

11.7 Basic System Considerations for Alternative Fuels

11.8 Future Prospects for Alternative, Non‐drop‐in Fuels

11.9 Conclusions

References

Section IV: Research Case Studies

12 Overall Contribution of Wingtip Devices to Improving Aircraft Performance

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Winglet Design

12.3 Numerical Setup

12.4 Commercial Aircraft Performance Improvement

12.5 Winglet Design Optimization

12.6 Biologically‐Inspired Winglets for UAVs

12.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

13 Integration of Naturally Occurring Materials in Lightweight Aerostructures

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Composites with Natural Fibres

13.3 Cork: Nature's Foam

13.4 Conclusions

References

14 Distributed and Hybrid Propulsion: A Tailored Design Methodology

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Advanced Distributed Propulsion Configurations

14.3 Aircraft Design Considerations

14.4 Aeroelasticity Considerations

14.5 Digital Control of Distributed Propulsion Systems

14.6 Benefits and Challenges

14.7 Research Opportunities

14.8 Conclusions

References

15 Integration of Hybrid-Electric Propulsion Systems in Small Unmanned Aircraft

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Hybrid‐Electric Aircraft Configurations

15.3 Reference Platform and Integration Case Study

15.4 Results and Discussion

15.5 Conclusions and Future Work

References

16 Benefits and Challenges of Liquid Hydrogen Fuels for Commercial Transport Aircraft

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Aircraft Design

16.3 Hydrogen Aircraft Operations

16.4 Airport Design and Operations

16.5 Safety

16.6 Environmental Gains Estimation

16.7 Results and Discussion

16.8 Conclusions

References

17 Multi-Objective Trajectory Optimisation Algorithms for Avionics and ATM Systems

17.1 Introduction

17.2 4‐PNV Concept and Processes

17.3 4D Trajectory Planning

17.4 Multi‐Objective 4DT Optimisation Algorithm

17.5 Numerical Verification

17.6 Conclusion

References

18 Energy‐Optimal 4D Guidance and Control for Terminal Descent Operations

18.1 Introduction

18.2 4D Trajectory Management

18.3 Guidance Strategy

18.4 Control Strategy

18.5 Case Study

18.6 Human‐Machine Interface Considerations

18.7 Conclusions

References

19 Contrail Modelling for 4D Trajectory Optimisation

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Physics of Contrail Formation

19.3 Model Verification

19.4 Conclusions

References

20 Trajectory Optimisation to Minimise the Combined Radiative Forcing Impacts of Contrails and CO

2

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Contrail Radiative Forcing (RF) Model

20.3 CO

2

Radiative Forcing (RF) Model

20.4 Multi‐Objective Trajectory Optimisation

20.5 Case Study

20.6 Conclusion

References

21 The W Life Cycle Model – San Francisco Airport Case Study

21.1 Introduction

21.2 San Francisco International Airport Redevelopment

21.3 Conclusion

References

22 Conclusions and Future Research

References

Notes

Index

Supplemental Images

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Classification of global warning metrics based on the time horizo...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Ranging parameters. Adapted from [37].

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Normalised characterisation factors for key fossil fuel flows for...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 MET information classified according to decision service [115].

Table 7.2 Recommended quality of MET information [116].

Table 7.3 Reference global forecast MET data for WPDS [114].

Table 7.4 Advanced METLINK products for flight planning in the USA and Euro...

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Compositions, mechanical properties, and typical applications of ...

Table 9.2 Properties of typical matrix materials used in polymer composites...

Table 9.3 Properties of typical natural fibres used as reinforcements in co...

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Typical mechanical properties of a flat carbon‐fibre sheet [24]....

Table 10.2 Representative densities of some commonly considered materials f...

Table 10.3 Reference Landing and Takeoff (LTO) cycle [58].

Table 10.4 Fitting functions and the associated coefficients of determinati...

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Some Jet A‐1 requirements specified by ASTM D7566 20c.

Table 11.2 Additional requirements as per ASTM D7566.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Prism mesh parameters and control settings.

Table 12.2 Commercial aircraft representative.

Table 12.3 UAV representative.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Properties of some natural fibres vs. E‐glass.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Summary of classification factors for distributed aircraft propu...

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Current battery technology.

Table 15.2 Specific energy of Li‐ion and Li‐ion polymer batteries applied i...

Table 15.3 Zephyr 7, equipped with Li‐S battery.

Table 15.4 Emerging energy storage technologies.

Table 15.5 Solar‐powered aircraft equipped with regenerative fuel cell stor...

Table 15.6 Plettenberg HP320/30 electric motor specifications.

Table 15.7 Battery characteristics as provided by manufacturer [33].

Table 15.8 Range and endurance for the ICE case.

Table 15.9 Range and endurance for the electrical‐only case.

Table 15.10 Range and endurance for the hybrid case.

Table 15.11 Range and endurance for the hybrid case.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Assumed aircraft characteristics and calculated emissions for Je...

Table 16.2 Results of the analysis.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Numerical solution parameters.

Table 17.2 Overview of the weightings adopted and performance achieved in t...

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Time and energy control strategy.

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Timed results of refinement test.

Table 19.2 Details of the simulated flight.

Table 19.3 Aircraft parameters used for the simulation.

Chapter 20

Table 20.1 Optimisation weights.

Chapter 21

Table 21.1 San Francisco electrical consumption and GHG emissions [6, 7, 9]...

Table 21.2 San Francisco international category 1 emissions in 1990 and 201...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 The three spheres of sustainability. Inspired by [14].

Figure 1.2 The three pillars of sustainable aviation research and innovation...

Figure 1.3 CAEP organisation chart.

Figure 1.4 Fuel, gaseous emissions and noise goals.

Figure 1.5 Carbon emission reduction goals and research drivers.

Figure 1.6 Evolutionary roadmap for ATM Operations.

Figure 1.7 Passenger traffic in the world's busiest airports.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Synthesis of radiative forcing potential for common aviation emis...

Figure 2.2 Radiative forcing related to various environmental impacts of avi...

Figure 2.3 Radiative forcing from high and low clouds.

Figure 2.4 Mixing diagram.

Figure 2.5 Main forecast scenarios for global warming. Adapted from IPCC Fou...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Noise modelling flow chart. From [7].

Figure 3.2 Noise model development. Source: adapted from [82].

Figure 3.3 Attenuation of sound in air as a function of frequency (log‐log p...

Figure 3.4 Sound absorption coefficient variation with frequency. From [7]....

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Civil aviation systems‐of‐systems architecture.

Figure 4.2 Stages of a system life cycle.

Figure 4.3 Civil aviation reverse logistics architecture.

Figure 4.4 Closed‐loop production system.

Figure 4.5 Asset management scope.

Figure 4.6 Iceberg model.

Figure 4.7 The bathtub curve.

Figure 4.8 General architecture of an end‐of‐life system.

Figure 4.9 Waterfall life cycle model.

Figure 4.10 The spiral life cycle model.

Figure 4.11 The V‐model.

Figure 4.12 Life cycle assessment process.

Figure 4.13 Proposed W‐methodology.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Cumulative percentage of LCA publications focussing on aviation a...

Figure 5.2 Four‐step procedure for life cycle assessment.

Figure 5.3 System processes for material production and energy conversion in...

Figure 5.4 Schematic of flows associated with the life cycle of a product sy...

Figure 5.5 Relationship between the progress of a design and the degrees of ...

Figure 5.6 Different recycling approaches: (a) cut‐off, (b) open‐loop, and (...

Figure 5.7 Impact modelling in LCA is underpinned by an environmental mechan...

Figure 5.8 LCIA framework. The characterisation of flow to impact categories...

Figure 5.9 The relationship between the life cycle inventory of environmenta...

Figure 5.10 Impact of including adjustments to global warming potential on g...

Figure 5.11 Contributors to greenhouse‐gas emission profile of mallee eucaly...

Figure 5.12 Contributors to greenhouse gas emission profile of different air...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 CNS/ATM concept of operation.

Figure 6.2 Method for determining the coefficients of inflation matrix A1 [2...

Figure 6.3 Sector morphing algorithm [21].

Figure 6.4 Results of the proposed morphing algorithm (negative volume varia...

Figure 6.5 Proposed redistribution of ATM services and duties among the vari...

Figure 6.6 High‐level overview of the performance‐based airspace model [36]....

Figure 6.7 Overall urban airspace concept [36].

Figure 6.8 Dual approach of performance‐based airspace model [36].

Figure 6.9 UAS protection volume (

left

) and relative occupancy grid (

right

) ...

Figure 6.10 UAS protection volume with occupancy grid in a below‐skyline sce...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Outline of the techniques proposed for the solution of trajectory...

Figure 7.2 Fourth order Lagrange interpolation polynomials for equally space...

Figure 7.3 Fourth order Lagrange polynomials for Chebyshev nodes.

Figure 7.4 Schematic representation of the a priori articulation of preferen...

Figure 7.5 Schematic representation of the a posteriori articulation of pref...

Figure 7.6 Layout of the typical model interdependencies in multi‐objective ...

Figure 7.7 Empirical fit of CO emissions as a function of the throttle for a...

Figure 7.8 Empirical fit of HC emissions as a function of the throttle for a...

Figure 7.9 Empirical fit of NO

X

emissions as a function of the throttle for ...

Figure 7.10 Wind and temperature 3D fields at typical jetliner cruise altitu...

Figure 7.11 Relative humidity 3D field at typical jetliner cruise altitudes ...

Figure 7.12 Noise footprint of a typical flight departure from London Heathr...

Figure 7.13 Noise footprint of an optimised departure trajectory, reducing t...

Figure 7.14 2D+T MOTO with respect to contrail lifetime and fuel consumpti...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Key aspects of the tip vortex phenomenon.

Figure 8.2 Relative enhancement of the Oswald coefficient due to the frontal...

Figure 8.3 Tip vortex mitigation by advanced wing tip designs: Hoemer (left)...

Figure 8.4 Tip vortex mitigation by advanced wing tip designs: Hoemer (left)...

Figure 8.5 Lift production comparison between conventional aircraft and blen...

Figure 8.6 The Boeing X48C BWB prototype [6].

Figure 8.7 An example of the internal structure of the BWB.

Figure 8.8 An example of the internal seating arrangement of the BWB.

Figure 8.9 Loads on a structure with circular and square cross sections.

Figure 8.10 Pressure induced load on the BWB structure.

Figure 8.11 Pressure shell and integrated skin conceptual designs for BWB ma...

Figure 8.12 The general internal structure of the BWB [5, 9].

Figure 8.13 Propulsive configurations of the BWB.

Figure 8.14 Possible arrangement of emergency exits in a BWB [11].

Figure 8.15 Military cargo BWB design [12].

Figure 8.16 Example of morphing wing smart actuation system [25].

Figure 8.17 Morphing wing technologies.

Figure 8.18 Mechanical and shape adaptive control surface deflection.

Figure 8.19 Telescopic spar in extended/retracted configuration [17].

Figure 8.20 Bio‐Inspired actuation system using memory alloys and cellular c...

Figure 8.21 Outline of the most commonly investigated techniques for boundar...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Aloha Airlines flight 243 failure.

Figure 9.2 Examples of lightweight structures include (a) stiffened panels, ...

Figure 9.3 Examples of improvements to the flexural rigidity and bending str...

Figure 9.4 (a) Variation of crack length with service life (number of cycles...

Figure 9.5 Examples of aluminium alloy structural components in the Boeing 7...

Figure 9.6 Polymer composites can be classified by the architecture of their...

Figure 9.7 Schematic of a composite laminate formed from stacked plies (lami...

Figure 9.8 Percentage of structural mass of composite materials in selected ...

Figure 9.9 A typical fibre metal laminate (FML).

Figure 9.10 Typical classes of FMLs where ‘Al xxxx’ defines the major alumin...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Repartition by flight phases of the environmental impacts associ...

Figure 10.2 Historical trends of BPR and OPR in aircraft engines [14].

Figure 10.3 Optimization of fan diameter for the CFM LEAP‐1B [15].

Figure 10.4 Formation of nitrogen oxides and working principle of RQL.

Figure 10.5 Engine cross‐section schematic illustrating RQL combustion.

Figure 10.6 NOX emissions vs. power for conventional and axially staged comb...

Figure 10.7 Comparison of rig test results of the TALON X and ACS at NASA an...

Figure 10.8 Comparison of the two combustion modes.

Figure 10.9 SPS casing treatment.

Figure 10.10 Mechanism of RCT.

Figure 10.11 Ideal Brayton‐Joule cycle for a gas turbine engine.

Figure 10.12 Thermodynamic cycle of IRA.

Figure 10.13 Process diagram of simple engine control system.

Figure 10.14 Block diagram of modified engine control loop.

Figure 10.15 Variation of thrust specific HC emissions for a reference LTO c...

Figure 10.16 Variation of thrust specific CO emissions for a reference LTO c...

Figure 10.17 Variation of thrust specific NOX emissions for a reference LTO ...

Figure 10.18 Variation of total fuel burn per unit thrust for a reference LT...

Figure 10.19 Empirical fits of fuel‐specific HC emissions as a function of t...

Figure 10.20 Empirical fits of fuel‐specific CO emissions as a function of t...

Figure 10.21 Empirical fits of fuel‐specific NOX emissions as a function of ...

Figure 10.22 Empirical fits of thrust‐specific CO

2

emissions as a function o...

Figure 10.23 Empirical fits of TSFC as a function of the throttle of aircraf...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Approved production routes for ATF from fossil and bio‐carbon so...

Figure 11.2 Mi‐8TG with external ACKT pods [35–37].

Figure 11.3 Example of preliminary performance evaluation of LNG fuelled air...

Figure 11.4 Conceptual representation of possible future liquid bio‐methane ...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Wingtip vortex for wind with and without winglet.

Figure 12.2 Wingtip devices considered: (a) blended winglet, (b) wingtip fen...

Figure 12.3 Raked wingtip on a Boeing 787 (left) and foldable winglet on the...

Figure 12.4 Summary of the boundary conditions.

Figure 12.5 Prism mesh at wing's cross‐section and the refined wake refineme...

Figure 12.6 Convergence history of fluent simulation.

Figure 12.7 Clean commercial aircraft configuration.

Figure 12.8 Lift curve.

Figure 12.9 Polar curve.

Figure 12.10 Lift‐to‐drag ratio curve.

Figure 12.11 Factor of range curve.

Figure 12.12 Range improvements over clean wing.

Figure 12.13 Fuel consumption curve.

Figure 12.14 Number of passengers carried using equal amount of fuel.

Figure 12.15 Optimization result for lift and drag at fixed angle of attack....

Figure 12.16 The most efficient shape obtained from optimization (a), A330 w...

Figure 12.17 Blended winglet (a) and eagle's wingtip feathers winglet (b).

Figure 12.18 UAV total drag reduction with winglets.

Figure 12.19 Vortex intensity in function of distance from trailing edge.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Ashby plots of the mechanical stiffness and strength properties ...

Figure 13.2 Types of natural fibres, depending on their source of extraction...

Figure 13.3 Extent of damage caused by a low energy (10J) impact event on a...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 A velocity profile of an ideal distributed propulsion body/engin...

Figure 14.2 The ducted exhaust configuration as applied to a BWB aircraft....

Figure 14.3 Hunting H.126 jet flap aircraft [12].

Figure 14.4 FanWing cross‐flow fan aircraft concept.

Figure 14.5 NASA N3‐X with turboelectric distributed propulsion system [26]....

Figure 14.6 NASA LEAPTech Distributed Electric Propulsion concept [31].

Figure 14.7 Cruise efficient short take‐off and landing (CESTOL) BWB aircraf...

Figure 14.8 STOL transport aircraft concept with compressor bleed air tip‐dr...

Figure 14.9 Electrical power transmission arrangement of N3‐X aircraft.

Figure 14.10 Isometric view of the propulsive fuselage concept.

Figure 14.11 Aurora flight sciences canard/tandem wing aircraft utilising di...

Figure 14.12 A BWB aircraft employing BLI.

Figure 14.13 Generic model for assessing distributed propulsion configuratio...

Figure 14.14 Geometry definition convention used by Leifsson et al.

Figure 14.15 Virginia Tech engine weight model.

Figure 14.16 SFC at cruise power.

Figure 14.17 Range versus specific energy for different battery mass fractio...

Figure 14.18 Representative examples of highly flexible, high aspect ratio w...

Figure 14.19 Static aeroelastic position coloured by vertical displacement i...

Figure 14.20 An integrated aero‐propulsive‐elastic analysis framework [70]....

Figure 14.21 Intelligent digital engine control architecture.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Adopted lift coefficient model.

Figure 15.2 Drag polar as retrieved from the available aircraft dynamics mod...

Figure 15.3 Aerodynamic efficiency as a function of the angle of attack.

Figure 15.4 Power required and power available as a function of true airspee...

Figure 15.5 Range of the ICE only model.

Figure 15.6 Endurance of the ICE only model.

Figure 15.7 Range of the electric only model.

Figure 15.8 Endurance of the electric only model.

Figure 15.9 Range of the hybrid model.

Figure 15.10 Endurance of the hybrid model.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Reference values for energy density and specific energy of vario...

Figure 16.2 Payload vs. range curve of LH

2

and kerosene‐fuelled aircraft....

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Air‐ground integrated 4‐PNV concept of operations.

Figure 17.2 4‐PNV information exchange and decision flow.

Figure 17.3 Block diagram of the multi‐objective optimal 4DT planning algori...

Figure 17.4 Box‐and‐whisker plot of the typical optimal 4DT computation time...

Figure 17.5 Optimal 4DT intent number 4 plotted for all four aircraft.

Figure 17.6 Optimal 4DT number 4 for aircraft number 2: details of the opera...

Figure 17.7 Time histories of the control inputs and state variables associa...

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Altitude, velocity and specific energy of the descending aircraf...

Figure 18.2 Along‐track distance as a function of time, used to determine th...

Figure 18.3 Guidance and control architecture for an energy‐based 4DT descen...

Figure 18.4 Lateral guidance algorithm computes the intermediate trajectory ...

Figure 18.5 Optimal 4D trajectory, generated by MOTO algorithm.

Figure 18.6 Aircraft starting 2NM behind (top‐left) and 20 kts slower (top‐...

Figure 18.7 Aircraft starting 2NM ahead (top‐left) and 20 kts faster (top‐r...

Figure 18.8 Aircraft starting 2NM behind (top‐left) and 20 kts faster (top‐...

Figure 18.9 Aircraft starting 2NM ahead (top‐left) and 20 kts slower (top‐r...

Figure 18.10 VAPS prototype interface supporting energy awareness in 4D desc...

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Block diagram of the contrail model software algorithm.

Figure 19.2 Operational concept of the contrail model. The timeline on the l...

Figure 19.3 Mixing diagram.

Figure 19.4 Contrail properties versus age, for comparison against Schumann'...

Figure 19.5 Contrail lifetime for the same trajectory and ambient conditions...

Figure 19.6 Flight from Stockholm to Venice (top left); iso‐persistence regi...

Figure 19.7 A zoomed‐in plot of the iso‐persistence region with lifetimes of...

Figure 19.8 Contour maps interpolated from different trajectories for valida...

Figure 19.9 Contours of temperature (left) and RH

i

(right) data at FL320 (to...

Figure 19.10 Plots of dT in Kelvins (top left), ambient RH

i

in % (top right)...

Figure 19.11 Optimal 2D+T trajectory at constant flight level for a given ...

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Illustrated comparison of the change in RF due to CO

2

and contra...

Figure 20.2 Contrail mapping algorithm, with 3D fields of (a) Relative humid...

Figure 20.3 Case study – westerly flight from Paris to Beijing. Weather plot...

Figure 20.4 Results of trajectory optimisation with differing weights for CO

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Implementation of the W model to San Francisco international air...

Figure 21.2 A holistic assessment of San Francisco airport development using...

Supplemental Images

Figure 1.5 Carbon emission reduction goals and research drivers.

Figure 1.7 Passenger traffic in the world's busiest airports. Source: variou...

Figure 2.5 Main forecast scenarios for global warming. Adapted from IPCC Fou...

Figure 5.11 Contributors to greenhouse‐gas emission profile of mallee eucaly...

Figure 5.12 Contributors to greenhouse gas emission profile of different air...

Figure 7.10 Wind and temperature 3D fields at typical jetliner cruise altitu...

Figure 7.11 Relative humidity 3D field at typical jetliner cruise altitudes ...

Figure 12.6 Convergence history of fluent simulation.

Figure 13.1 Ashby plots of the mechanical stiffness and strength properties ...

Figure 15.4 Power required and power available as a function of true airspee...

Figure 16.2 Payload vs. range curve of LH

2

and kerosene‐fuelled aircraft. So...

Figure 17.1 Air‐ground integrated 4‐PNV concept of operations.

Figure 18.1 Altitude, velocity and specific energy of the descending aircraf...

Figure 18.2 Along‐track distance as a function of time, used to determine th...

Figure 18.5 Optimal 4D trajectory, generated by MOTO algorithm.

Figure 18.6 Aircraft starting 2NM behind (top‐left) and 20 kts slower (top‐...

Figure 19.4 Contrail properties versus age, for comparison against Schumann'...

Figure 19.5 Contrail lifetime for the sametrajectory and ambient conditions,...

Figure 19.10 Plots of dT in Kelvins (top left), ambient RH

i

in % (top right)...

Figure 20.2 Contrail mapping algorithm, with 3D fields of (a) Relative humid...

Figure 20.4 Results of trajectory optimisation with differing weights for CO

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

About the Editors

About the Companion Website

Begin Reading

Index

Supplemental Images

End User License Agreement

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Aerospace Series

David Allerton · Principles of Flight Simulation

Allan Seabridge, Mohammad Radaei · Aircraft Systems Classifications: A Handbook of Characteristics and Design Guidelines

Douglas M. Marshall · UAS Integration into Civil Airspace: Policy, Regulations and Strategy

Paul G. Fahlstrom, Thomas J. Gleason, Mohammad H. Sadraey · Introduction to UAV Systems, 5th Edition

James W. Gregory, Tianshu Liu · Introduction to Flight Testing

Ashish Tewari · Foundations of Space Dynamics

Egbert Torenbeek · Essentials of Supersonic Commercial Aircraft Conceptual Design

Mohammad H. Sadraey · Design of Unmanned Aerial Systems

Saeed Farokhi · Future Propulsion Systems and Energy Sources in Sustainable Aviation

Rama K. Yedavalli · Flight Dynamics and Control of Aero and Space Vehicles

Allan Seabridge, Ian Moir · Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, 3rd Edition

Gareth D. Padfield · Helicopter Flight Dynamics: Including a Treatment of Tiltrotor Aircraft, 3rd Edition

Craig A. Kluever · Space Flight Dynamics, 2nd Edition

Trevor M. Young · Performance of the Jet Transport Airplane: Analysis Methods, Flight Operations, and Regulations

Andrew J. Keane, Andros Sobester, James P. Scanlan · Small Unmanned Fixed‐wing Aircraft Design: A Practical Approach

Pascual Marques, Andrea Da Ronch · Advanced UAV Aerodynamics, Flight Stability and Control: Novel Concepts, Theory and Applications

Farhan A. Faruqi · Differential Game Theory with Applications to Missiles and Autonomous Systems Guidance

Grigorios Dimitriadis · Introduction to Nonlinear Aeroelasticity

Nancy J. Cooke, Leah J. Rowe, Winston Bennett Jr., DeForest Q. Joralmon · Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems: A Human Systems Integration Perspective

Stephen Corda · Introduction to Aerospace Engineering with a Flight Test Perspective

Wayne Durham, Kenneth A. Bordignon, Roger Beck · Aircraft Control Allocation

Ashish Tewari · Adaptive Aeroservoelastic Control

Ajoy Kumar Kundu, Mark A. Price, David Riordan · Theory and Practice of Aircraft Performance

Peter Belobaba, Amedeo Odoni, Cynthia Barnhart, Christos Kassapoglou · The Global Airline Industry, 2nd Edition

Jan R. Wright, Jonathan Edward Cooper · Introduction to Aircraft Aeroelasticity and Loads, 2nd Edition

Tapan K. Sengupta · Theoretical and Computational Aerodynamics

Andros Sobester, Alexander I.J. Forrester · Aircraft Aerodynamic Design: Geometry and Optimization

Roy Langton · Stability and Control of Aircraft Systems: Introduction to Classical Feedback Control

T. W. Lee · Aerospace Propulsion

Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge, Malcolm Jukes · Civil Avionics Systems, 2nd Edition

Wayne Durham · Aircraft Flight Dynamics and Control

Konstantinos Zografos, Giovanni Andreatta, Amedeo Odoni · Modelling and Managing Airport Performance

Egbert Torenbeek · Advanced Aircraft Design: Conceptual Design, Analysis and Optimization of Subsonic Civil Airplanes

Christos Kassapoglou · Design and Analysis of Composite Structures: With Applications to Aerospace Structures, 2nd Edition

Keith A. Rigby · Aircraft Systems Integration of Air‐Launched Weapons

Doug McLean · Understanding Aerodynamics: Arguing from the Real Physics

Mohammad H. Sadraey · Aircraft Design: A Systems Engineering Approach

G.D. McBain · Theory of Lift: Introductory Computational Aerodynamics in MATLAB/Octave

Plamen Angelov · Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications

John Valasek · Morphing Aerospace Vehicles and Structures

Peter Fortescue, Graham Swinerd, John Stark · Spacecraft Systems Engineering, 4th Edition

Reg Austin · Unmanned Aircraft Systems: UAVS Design, Development and Deployment

Roberto Sabatini, Alessandro Gardi · Sustainable Aviation Technology and Operations: Research and Innovation Perspectives

Visit www.wiley.com to view more titles in the Aerospace Series.

Sustainable Aviation Technology and Operations

Research and Innovation Perspectives

Edited by

Roberto SabatiniProfessor, Department of Aerospace EngineeringCollege of EngineeringKhalifa University of Science and TechnologyAbu Dhabi, UAEHonorary Professor, Aerospace Engineering and AviationSchool of Engineering, STEM CollegeRMIT University, MelbourneVictoria, Australia

Alessandro GardiAssistant Professor, Department of Aerospace EngineeringCollege of EngineeringKhalifa University of Science and TechnologyAbu Dhabi, UAEAssociate of RMIT UniversityAerospace Engineering and Aviation, School of EngineeringSTEM College, MelbourneVictoria, Australia

This edition first published 2024© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Sabatini, Roberto, editor. | Gardi, Alessandro, editor.Title: Sustainable aviation technology and operations : research and  innovation perspectives / Roberto Sabatini, Professor, Department of Aerospace  Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi,  UAE; Alessandro Gardi, Assistant Professor, Department of Aerospace  Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAEDescription: Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2024. | Series: Aerospace seriesIdentifiers: LCCN 2020025457 (print) | LCCN 2020025458 (ebook) | ISBN  9781118932582 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118932612 (adobe pdf) | ISBN  9781118932605 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Aeronautics--Technological innovations. | Aerospace  engineering. | Sustainable development.Classification: LCC TL553 .S23 2024 (print) | LCC TL553 (ebook) | DDC  629.13028/6--dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020025457LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020025458

Cover image: © ICHIRO/Getty ImagesCover design by Wiley

List of Contributors

Rafic Ajaj

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Martin Burston

School of Engineering, RMIT University

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Enda Crossin

University of Canterbury

Christchurch, New Zealand

Raj Das

School of Engineering

RMIT University

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Graham Dorrington

School of Engineering

RMIT University

Bundoora, Victoria, Australia

George Dulikravich

Florida International University

Miami, Florida, USA

Joel Galos

Department of Materials Engineering California Polytechnic State University

San Luis Obispo, CA, USA

Alessandro Gardi

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Nikola Gavrilović

ISAE‐SUPAERO

University of Toulouse

Toulouse, France

Kai Guan

RMIT University

Bundoora, Victoria, Australia

Rohan Kapoor

School of Engineering

RMIT University

Bundoora, Victoria, Australia

Trevor Kistan

Thales Australia

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Arun Kumar

School of Engineering

RMIT University

Bundoora, Victoria, Australia

Yixiang Lim

Agency for Science, Technology and Research (ASTAR)

Singapore

Matthew Marino

School of Engineering

RMIT University

Bundoora, Victoria, Australia

Jean‐Marc Moschetta

Jean-Marc Moschetta Aerodynamics

Energetics and Propulsion Department

ISAE-SUPAERO Toulouse, France

Vladimir Parezanović

Department of Aerospace Engineering Khalifa University of Science and

Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Nichakorn Pongsakornsathien

School of Engineering

RMIT University

Bundoora, Victoria, Australia

Kavindu Ranasinghe

Insitec Pty Ltd

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Boško Rašuo

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

University of Belgrade

Belgrade, Serbia

Stephen Rondinelli

RMIT University

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Roberto Sabatini

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Jose Silva

School of Engineering

RMIT University

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Jacob Sliwinski

RMIT University

Bundoora, Victoria, Australia

Anthony Zanetti

RMIT University

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

About the Editors

Roberto Sabatini is a Professor of Aerospace Engineering at Khalifa University of Science and Technology (UAE) and an Honorary Professor of Aerospace Engineering and Aviation at RMIT University (Australia). Previously, Prof. Sabatini was also affiliated with Cranfield University (UK), where he led the research team contributing to the European Union Clean Sky Joint Technology Initiative for Aeronautics and Air Transport – Systems for Green Operations Integrated Technology Demonstrator. Prof. Sabatini holds various academic qualifications in aerospace and geospatial engineering, including a PhD from Cranfield University and a PhD from the University of Nottingham. Additionally, he holds the licenses of private pilot, flight test engineer and remote pilot. Throughout his career, Prof. Sabatini led numerous research projects funded by national governments, international organizations and aerospace/defence industry partners. He has authored, co‐authored, or edited several books, and has had more than 300 articles published in refereed international journals and conference proceedings. Since 2019, he has been listed by the Stanford University's ranking among the top 2% most cited scientists globally in the field of aerospace and aeronautics. Prof. Sabatini is a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS), the Royal Institute of Navigation (RIN), the Institution of Engineers Australia (IEAust), and the International Engineering and Technology Institute (IETI), as well as a Senior Member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). He was conferred prestigious national and international awards, including: Best‐in‐field National Scientist in Aviation and Aerospace Engineering – The Australian Annual Research Report (2021); Distinguished Leadership Award – Aviation/Aerospace Australia (2021); Scientist of the Year – Australian Defence Industry Awards (2019); Science Award – Sustainable Aviation Research Society (2016); and Arch T. Colwell Merit Award – Society of Automotive Engineering (2015). Since 2017, Prof. Sabatini has represented the Australian Government in several occasions at the ICAO Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) Impact and Science Group (ISG). More recently, he has also contributed to the activities of the Joint Authorities for Rulemaking in Unmanned Systems (JARUS), the ICAO Drone Enable initiative, the FAA NextGen Tech Talk program, and the NASA UAS Traffic Management (UTM) and Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) working groups. Currently, he serves as Distinguished Lecturer of the IEEE Aerospace & Electronic Systems Society (AESS), Chair of the AESS Avionics Systems Panel (ASP) and member‐at‐large of the AESS Board of Governors. Additionally, he is a founding Editor of the IEEE Press Series on Aeronautics and Astronautics Systems, Editor for Progress in Aerospace Sciences, and Associate Editor for Aerospace Science and Technology, Robotica, the Journal of Navigation, and the IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems.

Alessandro Gardi is an Assistant Professor in Aerospace Engineering at Khalifa University of Science and Technology (UAE), with more than ten years of experience in aerospace systems research and education. He received his BSc and MSc degrees in Aerospace Engineering from Politecnico di Milano (Italy) and a PhD in the same field from RMIT University (Australia). His work focusses on avionics, air traffic management, and sustainable aviation technology for conventional and autonomous aerospace vehicles. In this domain, he specializes in multidisciplinary and multi‐objective optimization with emphasis on optimal control methods and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques for air and space vehicle design and operations. Before joining Khalifa University, Dr Gardi was affiliated with Cranfield University (UK) as a member of the Systems for Green Operations Integrated Technology Demonstrator (SGO‐ITD) of the European Union Clean Sky Joint Technology Initiative for Aeronautics and Air Transport, one of the largest programs addressing aviation sustainability globally. Successively, he was awarded a multi‐year Thales research fellowship in Australia, during which he continued and extended his research work on sustainable and digital aviation technologies. More recently, Dr Gardi has worked on advancing systems and software engineering methodologies for the design of aerospace and defence human‐machine systems, utilizing neurophysiological and system integrity monitoring, Internet of Things (IoT) technology and cyber‐resilience functionalities to operate autonomously for extended periods of time even in degraded conditions. These contributions also resulted in him being conferred the 2020 Early Career Award by the IEEE Aerospace Electronics Systems Society (AESS), as well as in his appointment as member of the Joint Authorities for Rulemaking in Unmanned Systems (JARUS) Automation Working Group and of the AESS Avionics Systems Panel (ASP). To date, Dr. Gardi has been a senior investigator in more than ten research projects funded by industry and government partners, and has produced more than 150 refereed publications. In addition to his primary affiliation at Khalifa University, Dr. Gardi is an Associate of RMIT University and serves as editor and reviewer for several high‐impact journals.

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by the following website:

www.wiley.com/go/sustainableaviation

This website includes color version of selected figures.

1Sustainable Aviation: An Introduction

Roberto Sabatini and Alessandro Gardi

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE

School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

The aviation industry plays an important role in the global economy. Before the recent crisis caused by the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic, air transport alone contributed US$2.7 trillion to the world GDP (3.6%) and supported 65.5 million jobs globally [1]. For several decades, the sector has been on an almost uninterrupted exponential growth trajectory, which demonstrated a remarkable resilience to economic and geo‐political crises. According to forecasts predating the COVID‐19 pandemic, air traffic was expected to double approximately every 25 years [2]. It was also expected that without intervention, aviation would contribute about 6‐10% of all human‐induced climate change by 2050 [3], while half of all air traffic would take off, land, or transit through the Asia‐Pacific region. In the period 2019–2020, the COVID‐19 pandemic has led to a reduction in global passenger traffic in the order of 60% (2,703 million passengers) and the airlines experienced a loss of approximately US$372 billion of gross passenger operating revenues [4, 5]. The situation gradually improved in 2021 and 2022, with a recovery of about 11% and 31% in the number of passengers, reflected by revenue losses of about US$324 billion in 2021 and US$175 in 2022 (compared to 2019).

While sending this book to the press, COVID‐19 travel restrictions have been removed in most regions and the latest reports of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) show that both domestic and international air travel are resuming pre-pandemic levels [5–7]. Factors that could contribute to accelerate further the aviation market recovery and growth include: (1) an increasing demand for commercial Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) and Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) services; (2) technological advances in eco‐friendly design solutions (i.e., aerospace vehicles, propulsion, digital flight systems and ground-based infrastructure); (3) uptake of sustainable aviation technologies and associated evolutions of legal frameworks, design/certification standards and operational procedures. In the longer term, the expansion of commercial aviation operations above Flight Level 6‐0‐0 (FL 600) and the introduction of point‐to‐point space transport could also contribute to a further evolution and expansion of the aviation sector [8, 9]. Factors that could hinder the growth of the aviation sector include airlines' bankruptcy, order cancellations, increased cyber threats, insufficient investment in aviation infrastructure, increasing geopolitical tensions, escalation of conflicts, and global recession, many of which are being observed in the post pandemic era.

Over the years, the concomitance of several economic, technological and environmental factors has put the sector under intense and growing pressure. Key factors include the rising costs of operations and fuels; a spiking global competition in relation to the rapid liberalisation of the market and the proliferation of alternative forms of high‐speed transport; increased air traffic; capacity bottlenecks at major airports; the need to reduce the environmental impact and achieve greater sustainability in airport and aircraft operations; as well as new regulations and processes to cater for new generation aircraft that are technologically more complex and have new maintenance requirements.

To ensure the aviation sector continues to play a vital role in supporting economic development and employment worldwide, the future air transportation system needs to become even more customer‐orientated, time and cost‐efficient, secure, and environmentally sustainable than it is today. One of the main priorities for the sector is the rapid uptake of digital technology and, in particular, Cyber‐Physical Systems (CPS) that can support the introduction of higher levels of automation, increased airspace capacity, and significant advances in environmental sustainability of both passenger and cargo air transport operations. From the environmental sustainability perspective, over the past two decades, various countries have set unprecedented performance targets for future air transport, such as greenhouse gas emissions having to halve by 2020 (relative to 2000) and be completely offset by 2050 [10]. Adding to these demands are the rising fuel costs, which have increased fourfold in the past 20 years, impeding the profitability of both large airlines and smaller aviation companies.

1.1 Sustainability Fundamentals

Integrating Environmental Susitainability (ES) into business models and associated business functions is an open challenge faced by many industry sectors, including aviation. There is no universally accepted definition for ES while a thematic search of the existing literature1 shows a prevailing emphasis on the responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long‐term environmental quality both locally and globally. Until recently, businesses have not been held accountable for the cost of damages made to the environment and society. One possible approach is to quantify the environmental degradation caused by a sector and the required measures for restoring the pre‐existing conditions. The damages and restoration costs include various sector‐specific contributing factors. However, in most cases, such costs are associated air/land/sea pollution and noise. As proposed by [11], the following equation could be used to quantify the cost of environmental degradations caused by economic development activities:

(1.1)

where EDT is the total environmental degradation (in dollars), N is the population (total number of people), GN is the Gross National Product (GNP) per capita (in dollars) and EDG is the environmental degradation per unit of GNP.

So, according to Eq. (1.1), an increase in population would require a proportional reduction of the environmental degradation per unit of GNP in order to maintain the overall environmental degradation at the same level. Similarly, a growth of the GNP per capita would require a commensurate reduction of the environmental degradation per unit of GNP. However, in practice, this equation finds a limited applicability as it does not capture the need for a balance between environmental impacts and the social benefits to be obtained by economic development [12]. Efforts to address these limitations of early quantitative approaches have placed emphasis on the concept of Sustainable Development (SD). The United Nation (UN) 1987 Bruntland Report2[13] describes SD as: “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

The concepts of sustainability and SD have been subjects for extensive research and political debate form many years. What is sustainable can be illustrated using the so‐called Triple Bottom Line (TBL) or the “Three Spheres of Sustainability” concept originally introduced by [14]. A modern reinterpretation of this concept is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 The three spheres of sustainability. Inspired by [14].

One of the advantages of the TBL approach is that it recognises the importance of delivering sustainable economic value to shareholders by focusing on the bottom line profit that is generated. It also considers that if an enterprise is to be sustainable, it also needs to evaluate its performance in terms of the corresponding environmental and social bottom lines [15]. Several variants of the TBL model have been proposed but essentially this remains a valid high‐level reference still utilised in current research work addressing the development of SBM in the corporate environment. The concepts of corporate social responsibility and environmental accountability have been widely discussed in the literature [16, 17]. The main function of the TBL approach is to make corporations aware of the environmental and social values they add or destroy in the world, in addition to the economic value they add [18–20].

Over the years, TBL has become a dominant approach in terms of corporate reporting [21, 22] and companies adopting TBL reporting have introduced significant changes to the way they do, or at least think about, business [23]. The three major criticisms of the TBL approach are in its measurement approach, its lack of integration across the three dimensions and its main function as a compliance mechanism rather than a basis for the development of SBM [24]. To tackle these limitations and the growing need for more specific approaches applicable to different industry sectors, researchers have proposed various approaches to SBM (or business models for sustainability). However, early attempts to develop and introduce SBM design methodologies where hindered by a strong focus on compliance (with existing laws and regulations) and responsible management (i.e., achieving some kind of perceived or measurable optimal balance in the socio‐economical dimension). Almost invariably these early researchers concluded that more detailed investigations were needed to assess whether SBM could help developing integrative and competitive solutions by reducing negative and/or creating positive external effects for the natural environment and society [25–28].

These approaches limited the impact of this body of research and largely overlooked the huge transformative potential of SBM that introduce new mechanisms for commercial value creation and value capture both internally and externally to a particular enterprise. Recent research has addressed these limitations and developed more holistic approaches to SBM development. Geissdoerfer et al. (2016) defines a SBM as: “A simplified representation of the elements, the interrelationship between these elements, and the interactions with its stakeholders that an organisational unit uses to create, deliver, capture, and exchange sustainable value.” The main idea pursued here is to radically modify the conventional approach to business modelling by embedding sustainability into the value chains of an organisation [29]. It is now a common view that the transition towards SBM requires the practitioners to look beyond the specific boundaries of an organisation, and it requires innovation activities to create sustainable values for the stakeholders [30].

Sustainable Development (SD) in aviation is typically mapped to the following fundamental concepts [31, 32]:

The consumption of natural resources is managed at a rate which allows future generations to meet their needs as well as we do – i.e., usage rates of renewable (e.g., biofuels) should not exceed the rates of their regeneration, and the usage rates of non‐renewable resources (e.g., petroleum fuel) should not exceed the development rate of their substitutes (e.g., biofuels).

The growth of aviation supports a liveable environment for future generations – i.e., the rates of polluting emissions should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment and the aircraft noise exposure (perceived noise levels by the population and frequency of noise disturbance or awakening events) should not lead to a degraded health and quality of life.

As illustrated in Figure 1.2, the three fundamental components in sustainable aviation are the aircraft, the airport and the Air Traffic Management (ATM) systems.

Figure 1.2 The three pillars of sustainable aviation research and innovation.

Designing/upgrading the aircraft to be more aerodynamically and operationally efficient entails advances in the following areas:

Propulsion and power:

targeting improvements in fuel efficiency, a transition to more sustainable energy management technologies, with associated reductions in gaseous and noise emissions.

Aerodynamics:

targeting drag reduction and consequential improvement of aerodynamic efficiency in various flight conditions, as well as reductions in airframe noise and wake turbulence.

Navigation and guidance:

leading to optimised flight paths for reductions in gaseous and noise emissions.

Computing, information and communication:

leading to more efficient management of on‐board systems as well as more collaborative and higher levels of decision making, supporting more effective flight planning and operations.

Structural mechanics and materials:

targeting weight reduction across the aircraft, as well as lower impacts from the disposal processes.

ATM plays an important role is developing systems and procedures to support efficient use of airspace and networking between the various stakeholders. These solutions enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of flight operations by increasing the level of automation, improving the decision‐making process and targeting the introduction of safety/security measures. The most promising technologies include [33]:

Communication, Navigation and Surveillance

(CNS) systems enabling 4‐Dimensional Trajectory (4DT) based operations.

ATM systems supporting 4DT Planning, Negotiation and Validation

(4‐PNV) with the Next Generation of Flight Management Systems (NG‐FMS) on‐board aircraft.

Airports also play a fundamental role in the SD of aviation. Designing/upgrading the airport infrastructure and operations to be more environmentally friendly, entails the adoption of various measures, such as: digital technology and multimodal transformation; operational procedures and restrictions [34]; land planning and management; financial measures (e.g., noise and atmospheric pollution charges); measuring and collecting data (on noise and pollutants); preventing/containing fuel and de‐icing spillages; and managing the impact on wildlife [35].

Despite the existence of multiple interrelated socio‐technical factors, the air transport literature discusses the topic of sustainability adopting a relatively narrow perspective and heavily focussing on reducing compliance costs or better utilising the existing airline/airport infrastructure to increase efficiency/quality of service and revenues. Other important sustainability factors (a tailored uptake of key aircraft/ATM technologies, airport “greening” and multimodal transformation, proper disposal/recycling of aircraft parts and consumables, etc.) have typically received less attention in the aviation political debate, despite the significant body of research published in the scientific and technical literature [12, 31, 33, 34, 36]. As a result of this, the regulatory initiatives led by ICAO and other national/international aviation authorities have been relatively limited in these sectors. Different models are used to describe the processes occurring in the atmosphere. Uncertainties in predictions can be attributed to [37]:

The processes being modelled (missing or incorrect processes). Since our understanding of the atmospheric physics improves over time, these uncertainties can also reduce.

Different factors influencing climate change. Uncertainties in aviation developments also make it difficult to predict the impact of aviation on climate beyond 5 to 10 years.

Factors considered in previous research include:

Cost of air travel (and hence number of aircraft in operations);

Economic activity and new market opportunities;

Air transport liberalization and subsides;

Improvements in aircraft fuel efficiency;

Improvements in engine efficiency.

To reduce the impact of aviation on the environment, it is clearly necessary, first and foremost, to reduce the aircraft emissions. Newer aircraft have improved fuel efficiency, leading to reduced emissions. However, due to the growth of air traffic volume (expected to double every 20 years), these improvements are not sufficient to balance the environmental impact of aviation.

1.2 International Policy Framework

The establishment of an international policy framework within the UN allows technological improvements and operational changes to be implemented through policy documents, technical/operational standards, recommendations and economic measures, which are typically translated into legislation/regulations by national governments. This provides an opportunity for policy makers, scientists and industry to communicate and better assess the costs and benefits of implementing different measures. Additionally, the existence of an international framework provid