The Alpine Corps on the Dolomite-Front, 1915 E-Book

Immanuel Voigt

• Herausgeber: Athesia Tappeiner Verlag
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 245

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

How could a combat-ready “elite” body of troops known as the Alpine Corps (Alpenkorps) evolve from men, who previously had no mountain experience? What role did the mission in South Tyrol play in this development? And how were the German “Alliance Brothers” portrayed in recollections during the world war interim period and the National Socialist (Nazi) era? For the first time, this book brings the perception of the Alpenkorps in literature between 1916 and 1939 into question, and correlates that perception with material available in various archives. The author’s investigation produces a realistic assessment of the circumstances, under which the Alpenkorps operated in South Tyrol during 1915, and thereby sets the record straight about the “myth” that to this day still surrounds the first German mountain troop.

Leseprobe

Dedicated to the memory of the great-great-grandfather I never knew, Paul Voigt (1889-1919), who served in the 78th Royal Saxon Field Artillery Regiment during World War One, but who only survived for a couple of months afterwards.

Table of Contents

A Message from the Translator

Significant Dates and Events in the Alpenkorps’ History

Glossary of Important Alpine Corps Terminology

Introduction

The Situation on the Eve of the Italian “Intervention”

The Negotiations between Austria-Hungary and Italy Up to the Declaration of War

Italy’s Preparations for War and Her Wartime Goals

Austria-Hungary’s Reactions to Negotiations with Italy

Theater of Operations in the High Mountains

Peculiarities and Challenges of the Mountain War

The Route of the Front

The Formation of the Alpine Corps

The German Alpenkorps Comes into Existence

Units of the Alpenkorps

Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen, “Leader of the Alpenkorps”

The First Mission in Tyrol

The Central Powers’ Military Situation after the Intervento

Arrival in South Tyrol, Disagreement about the Use of the Alpine Corps, and the First Combat Operations

The Relationship Between the German Soldiers and the South Tyrolean Civilian Population, with the Italians, and the Personal Perceptions of the Men during the Mission in Tyrol

Excursus: “Edelweiss” (Lion’s Foot Flower)

Difficulties and Problems in the Mountains

Excurus: “The German-Austrian Brothers-In-Arms”

Departure from South Tyrol October, 1915

Relieving the Alpenkorps in South Tyrol

Remembrance in Literature and Film

The Image of the Alpenkorps in Remembrance Literature

The Image of the Alpenkorps in the Film “Standschütze Bruggler”

Final Thoughts: “What If?”

Endnotes

Appendix

Abbreviations

Source Lists, Bibliography, Photographic Documentation, Footnotes

Photographic Documentation

Acknowledgements

A Message from the Translator

When my friend Immanuel Voigt asked if I’d be interested in translating his book about the role that the Alpine Corps played in World War One, I jumped at the opportunity to be involved in making such a quality resource available to the English-speaking world. Performing the translation has been both a proverbial labor of love and a learning experience for me. As the Germans say: “Man lernt nie aus.” One never stops learning. Even though I have been involved in studying WWI since the early 1960’s and collecting its memorabilia since 1975, I learned more than I had expected I would while translating Immanuel’s book into English. And you, the reader, will also learn a great deal from Immanuel’s well-researched and thoroughly documented text, whether you are already an expert in WWI or a layperson. Both will benefit from Immanuel’s scholarly telling of the Alpenkorps’ story. And now, this can be done in the English language!

A couple points need to be made clear before the reader delves into this translated version of Immanuel’s book. Firstly, the translation from German into English is not strictly word for word. Oftentimes, words and phrases that commonly appear in one language don’t translate well into another. I mention this in case the reader is also comparing this English translation with the original book printed in German. Some liberties have been taken in the translation to improve comprehension and clarity for the English-speaking reader.

Secondly, some German words convey more meaning to the modern student of WWI if they are retained in their original form. A prime example of this is the word for light infantry (Jäger), whose literal translation is “hunter”. Jäger is used so frequently in both English and German discussions of WWI, that it seems pointless to use “light infantry” or “hunter” instead. So, in this work, the German spelling of Jäger has been retained. Its plural form, by the way, is spelled exactly the same. Only the verb denotes whether the singular or plural of Jäger is intended.

Thirdly, I have arbitrarily capitalized certain nouns throughout this translation to avoid confusion with their lower case spellings. Examples of this include “War/war”, “Front/front” and “Mission/mission”. Hence, the “War on the Southwest Front” – as an identifiable, distinct entity – will appear in capital letters. Likewise, the Alpenkorps’ first combat assignment in South Tyrol is capitalized as a specific, identifiable event: the “Mission in Tyrol”. This was also done to improve clarity.

And finally, three features have been added to this English version that do not appear in Immanuel’s original book printed in German. A timeline of significant dates and events in the lifespan of the Alpine Corps now precedes the main body of text. Its purpose and placement are designed to help the reader put various occurrences into their proper historical perspective. Knowing what happened and when it happened oftentimes explains why subsequent events took place. Secondly, a glossary of definitions has been added, which explains certain words that may be unfamiliar to the English-speaking reader. And thirdly, additional contemporary WWI-era photographs have been inserted and captioned. They should serve to pictorially document certain points brought out in the book’s text, such as the photo of a soldier demonstrating unauthorized use of the Edelweiss insignia. The inclusion of the timeline, glossary and additional photos in this version of Immanuel’s book should all contribute to bringing the Alpenkorps’ story to life for the reader. Hopefully, Immanuel and I have succeeded in doing just exactly that!

Marshall V. Daut

Davenport, Iowa, USA

Significant Dates and Events in the Alpenkorps’ History

Pre-War Events –

Nov. 20th or 24th, 1862 Future leader of the Alpenkorps Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen is born in Laufen, Upper Bavaria. Exact date is uncertain.

May 20, 1882 Triple Alliance is formed between Germany, Austro-Hungary and Italy. Italy leaves the Triple Alliance in May, 1915, and secretly joins the Triple Entente. Later, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and Bulgaria join the Alliance, known as the Central Powers in WWI.

August 31, 1907 Triple Entente is formed between England, France and Russia. Joined later by many other countries, known as the Allies in WWI.

September, 1911–October, 1912 Italy’s failed campaign against Lybia creates a deterioration in the Italian Army that affects its readiness and combat ability in the 1915 Mountain War in South Tyrol.

1912 Italian Chief of the General Staff Alberto Pollio formulates a plan of attack against Austria-Hungary.

1914 –

June 28 Austria’s Archduke Ferdinand is assassinated in Sarajevo, the Bosnian capital.

July Luigi Cadorna becomes Italy’s Chief of the General Staff.

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia, effectively starting the Great War.

October Italy’s Prime Minister Antonio Salandra speaks of a sacro egoismo (Holy Egoism).

November 21 Bavarian War Ministry creates the first snowshoe unit (Bayerisches Schneeschuhbataillon Nr. 1). Three more snowshoe units are formed shortly thereafter, eventually combining to become the 3rd Jäger Regiment, ultimately a major component in the Alpenkorps.

1915 –

March Germany renews pressure on Austro-Hungary to resume negotiations with Italy over territorial transfers to avert a potential war.

End of March Italy demands that Austria-Hungary hand over South Tyrol and other territory and cities.

April 26 Italy joins the Triple Entente and secretly signs the Treaty of London.

May 4 Italy renounces the Triple Alliance. Italian troops are sent to South Tyrol.

May 10 Austria-Hungary submits its final territorial concessions offer to Italy.

May 11 Austria-Hungary issues an order to improve its southern border fortifications.

May 15 Austria rescinds its fortification order to prevent causing a premature attack by Italy.

May 18 Austria-Hungary’s Kaiser Franz Joseph calls up Tyrolean and Voralberger Standschützen, volunteer marksmen from upper Austria, and troops in the Innsbruck Command.

May 20 Prussian War Ministry informs the Bavarian War Ministry to create the Alpenkorps (Alpine Corps).

May 22 Italy announces its mobilization.

May 23 Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.

May 24 The Bavarian Body Infantry (Bayerisches Infanterie-Leibregiment, B.I.L.R.) is sent to South Tyrol.

May–October The Alpenkorps’ combat period in South Tyrol against Italy, the so-called “Mission in Tyrol”.

June 15 Italy completes its military operational readiness.

June 15 Austrian Home Defense Command presents 20,000 Edelweiss insignias to Alpenkorps Command.

August 14 Kaiser Wilhelm II finally approves the petition for the Alpenkorps to wear the Edelweiss insignia.

October 10–15 The bulk of the Alpenkorps is withdrawn from South Tyrol. Some support units remain behind.

October 15 Transport to the Western Front. Until October 24th, the Corps is kept as a reserve in the Champagne area.

October 22–24 Transport to Serbia.

October 30–Nov. 28 Campaign in Serbia.

December 14–March 17, 1916 Deployment on the border with Greece.

1916 –

March 19–29 Return to the Western Front.

April 12–May 2 Trench warfare in the Champagne region of France.

May 2–28 General Head Quarters (G.H.Q.) Reserve

May 28–September 9 Participation in the Battle of Verdun, where heavy losses are incurred. As mountain troops, the Alpine Corps is misused in this battle.

August 27 Italy declares war on Germany.

August 27 Rumania declares war on Austria-Hungary

August 28 Germany declares war on Rumania

September 7 Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen receives the Pour le mérite medal for his accomplishments as “Leader of the Alpine Corps”.

September 9–15 Troop transport to Rumania.

September 26 Campaign begins in Rumania at the battle of Hermannstadt.

September 30–Nov. 24 Battle of the Red Tower (Roter Turm) Pass.

November 7 Prince Heinrich of Bavaria is killed during the Battle of the Red Tower Pass.

November 21 Austro-Hungarian Kaiser Franz Joseph dies at the age of 86.

November 26 Karl becomes the new Kaiser of Austria-Hungary, as Karl I.

1917 –

January 4–8 Battle on the Punta.

January 8–March 31 Trench warfare on the Punta and Sereth.

March 1 Lieutenant-General Krafft von Dellmensingen is relieved as “Leader of the Alpine Corps by Lieutenant-General Leo Sonntag.

April 1–May 15 General Head Quarters (G.H.Q.) Reserve

May 16–18 Transport to the Western Front.

June 18–July 22 Trench warfare in Upper Alsace.

July 23–August 8 Transport to Rumania.

August 6–September 6 Breakthrough at the Battle on the Punta und Susita.

September 5 Lieutenant-General Leo Sonntag is replaced by Major-General Ludwig Ritter von Tutschek, the last “Leader of the Alpine Corps” (until December 2, 1918).

September 10–12 Transport to South Tyrol.

September 16–30 Deployment in South Tyrol.

October 1–23 Deployment on the Isonzo River.

October 24–November 19 The 12th and final Battle on the Isonzo is fought (Caporetto), resulting in a disaster for Italy. Cadorna is forced to resign.

November 11–December 12 Combat in the Venetian Alps.

1918 –

January 23–29 Transport to Lorraine on the Western Front. Troops begin training for deployment on the Western Front (until April 6).

April 9–September 25 Deployment on the Western Front. Participation in the Battle of Kemmel, Flanders, the Somme, trench warfare on the Siegfried Line, and in the defensive battles between Cambrai and St. Quentin.

September 25–30 Transport to the Balkans.

October 5–29 Retreating battles in Macedonia and Serbia.

November 3 Austria-Hungary surrenders. Triple Alliance co-members Turkey and Bulgaria previously exited the war.

November 3–11 The Donau-Save Line is secured.

November 9 Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates his throne and flees to Holland.

November 9–29 Mackensen Combat Group retreats from the Balkans through Hungary.

November 11 Kaiser Karl I of Austria abdicates his throne and flees to Switzerland.

November 11 Germany signs the Armistice and World War One ends.

December De-mobilization of the individual formations and the end of the Alpenkorps as a unit.

Glossary of Important Alpine Corps Terminology

Alpenkorps = German for “Alpine Corps”, which was formed in early 1915 to help support Austro-Hungarian troops stationed along the Tyrolean border with Italy. The combat period from May through October of that year is referred to as “The Mission in Tyrol”, the subject of this book.

Alpino (pl. Alpini) = The Alpini were soldiers in an elite mountain warfare military corps in the Italian Army during World War One. They still exist to this day. Established in 1872, the Alpini are the oldest active mountain infantry in the world.

AOK/AOK 6 = AOK stands for Armee-Oberkommando (Senior Army Command) in the Austro-Hungarian Army. AOK 6 refers to the Senior Army Command of the 6th Army “Kronprinz Ruprecht” in the German Army.

B.I.L.R. = Abbreviation for “Königlich Bayerisches Infanterie-Leibregiment”, the Royal Bavarian Body Infantry Regiment. Throughout this book, the abbreviation “BILR” and its translation “Bavarian Body Infantry Regiment” will be used interchangeably.

Donau/Dual/Hapsburg Monarchy = Names for the dual Austro-Hungarian dynasty that was broken up after World War One.

Edelweiss = “Tiger Foot” plant (leontopodium alpinum), found in the higher elevations in Central Europe. Its shape was adopted by Austria for its mountain troops’ insignia and later awarded to German soldiers in the Alpenkorps. The plant has been used as a symbol for alpinism, for rugged beauty and purity associated with the Alps, and as a national symbol especially of Austria and of Switzerland. There is a folklore associated with the Edelweiss that says, giving this flower as a gift to a loved one is a promise of dedication. The Edelweiss tradition continues to this day as an insignia worn on the caps of mountain troops in the German Bundeswehr and the Austrian Bundesheer. In the German language, “Edelweiss” is capitalized and will be used this way throughout the book.

Entente = The three signatories of the 1907 treaty were England, France and Russia, otherwise known as the Allies in WWI. It lasted until Russia withdrew from the war in 1917.

Excursus = A detailed discussion of a particular point in a book.

Jäger (pl. Jäger) = Literally “hunter” in the German language. In military terms, Jäger refers to well-armed, highly-trained, light mobile infantry that was used to scout enemy positions, perform skirmishing duties, etc. They were especially renowned for their excellent marksmanship. The plural of Jäger is also Jäger. The verb in the sentence denotes whether the singular or plural is intended. The English spelling is “jager” in lower case and without the Umlaut over the letter “a”. As this looks odd to the seasoned German military researcher/collector, the German spelling “Jäger” will be used exclusively throughout this book.

k.k. = Abbreviation for “kaiserlichköniglich”. Since 1867, this was the designation for the western half of the Dual Monarchy, meaning Austria. Although often used interchangeably with “k.u.k.”, historically and by constitutional law, this is technically not correct. “k.u.k.” refers to both ruling houses within the Dual Monarchy (Austria and Hungary), while “k.k.” relates only to the Austrian half. (See “k.u.k.” immediately below”).

k.u.k = Since the 1867 Compromise between Austria and Hungary, the first “k” in the k. u. k. designation has stood for the “Kaiser of Austria”, meaning the Austrian half of the Dual Monarchy, while the second “k” represented the King of Bohemia (Hungary, the Hapsburg line), the other half. This translates to “Kaiser and King”, or “Imperial and Royal”. Unlike the similar “k.k.”, the k.u.k. designation refers to BOTH ruling houses within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Interestingly, although the “u” is the abbreviation for “und” (“and”), in German it is pronounced as a full word: “kah-oond-kah”, not “kah-oo-kah”.

Kaiserjäger = The Kaiserjäger were formed in 1895 from 16 battalions into four normal infantry regiments within the Common Army of Austria-Hungary. Their official designation was Tiroler Jäger-Regimenter, meaning “Tyrolean Rifle Regiments”. Despite the name “Tirol” in its title, its members were not just recruited from the crown land of Tyrol, but also from other parts of the monarchy. The Kaiserjäger were not mountain troops per se, rather regular infantry. These well-trained peacetime soldiers suffered grievous losses up to 80% against the Russians during the 1915 campaign in Galicia. That autumn, the Kaiserjäger and Landesschützen (see below) were transferred to the Italian Front in order to support the faltering Standschützen (see below) militia and small numbers of regular forces defending Italian attacks.

Kingdom of Savoy = Kingdom of Italy. The House of Savoy ruled unified Italy (united in 1861) with Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, Victor Emmanuel III, and Umberto II as monarchs. The dynasty lasted until the end of the Second World War.

Landesschützen/Kaiserschützen = During WWI, the Austro-Hungarian army fielded two distinct formations to defend the southern border with the Kingdom of Italy. These were the Kaiserjäger regiments and the Landesschützen, renamed Kaiserschützen regiments in January, 1917. Whereas the Kaiserjäger were a part of the common k.u.k. army, the Landesschützen were regiments of the Austrian Landwehr (Home Guard). After suffering terrible casualties against the Russians in 1915, the three Landesschützen regiments were transferred to Tyrol to stiffen the defense of the “Standschützen” militia (see below) against Italian aggression.

Leiber = A nickname used during WWI for a member of Bavaria’s Infanterie-Leibregiment.

OHL = Abbreviation for “Oberste Heeresleitung”, the German Senior Army Command.

Rayon (pl. Rayone) = The 350 to 400 Kilometer-long Tyrolean Front was divided into five defensive areas, each called a Rayon and designated by a Roman numeral. The Alpenkorps primarily occupied Rayone IV and V.

Ski-Litewka = In late 1914, the need was recognized by the Prussian and Bavarian War Ministries to form dedicated ski troops for action in Vosges Mountains against French skiers. These German troops later saw action in various theaters of operation, including the Dolomite Mountains. The tunic specially designed for the German ski troops was a grey Ski-Litewka, the Litewka being a traditional German coat with concealed buttons down the front, a so-called “fly front”. The Ski-Litewka featured pleated breast pockets, the only issue tunic to do so in the entire German army. Collar tabs displayed a stylized green letter “S” on its side. Both Prussian and Bavarian ski troops wore this uniform, including units in the Alpine Corps. With slight modifications, so did Wuerttemberg’s ski troops. In German, the term is spelled with capital letters: “Ski-Litewka”. In English, only the German word “Litewka” is capitalized: “ski-Litewka”. The reader will encounter both spellings among these pages.

Standschützen = A Standschütze was a member of a Schützenstand (“shooting club”), which automatically committed him to the voluntary military protection of the state of Tyrol and Vorarlberg. These soldiers were basically Tyrolean local militia or home guard troops. Each Tyrolean judicial district had an obligation to provide volunteers to form a Landwehr for the defense of the state. These were the troops on duty when the Alpenkrops arrived in South Tyrol. Traditionally the Standschützen elected their own officers, a remarkable democratic feature for this era and one that irritated career officers in the Austrian Army, who had invested years learning the art of war.

Triple Alliance = Three signatories of the 1882 treaty between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Italy renounced the treaty on May 4th, 1915, but had secretly joined the Entente the week before on April 26th by signing the Treaty of Paris.

“Defense in the High Mountains” – As Germany's ally and brothers-in-arms combat comrades with the Alpenkorps on the Tyrolean Front, this image of Austrian soldiers fighting an unseen enemy in the mountains appeared as wishful thinking on a widely-circulated postcard during the war. Did the truth ever match such fanciful renditions of what artists thought warfare was all about? If the real face of war had been shown on postcards with all its blood, gore and mutilated bodies, how long would the people of the combatant nations have allowed the Great War to continue? “The first casualty in any war is the truth.”

Introduction

On Pentacostal Sunday, 1915, the First World War began to also expand to the Alps Mountains. None of the warring nations were sufficiently prepared for this situation because past experience for such a case was completely lacking. Never before had a war been fought in the high mountains over an extended period of time. The military had tried to avoid that kind of terrain, as the reigning opinion held that a war in the mountains would be difficult to direct and promised little chance of success. Until 1915, the German Empire possessed no mountain troops because they were considered unnecessary. However, as the situation reached a critical point in 1915 and an imminent war with Italy seemed to be unavoidable, Germany decided she would also form mountain troops in order to protect her southern borders in case of an attack, as well as to provide support for Austria against Italy. Consequently, the declaration of war by Italy against Austria-Hungary coincided with the hour of birth of the German mountain troops, specifically the Alpenkorps (Alpine Corps).

Among the following pages, the unique nature of the high mountain theater of combat is presented and evaluated in order to accentuate the differences between it and the flatland theaters of operation. Moreover, the Alpenkorps was markedly distinctive from other units in the German Army during the First World War. These differences and peculiarities will likewise be clarified. In order to give the reader a better understanding of the period when the Alpenkorps was created and of its first mission, an historical summary will first be presented.

In this context, the book at hand explores the relationship between Italy and Austria-Hungary on the eve of the Italian declaration of war. It additionally deals with the military situation of the Central Powers in the spring of 1915. And it will analyze particular aspects, which are directly associated with the so-called Mission in Tyrol. One will find, for example, an examination of the Edelweiss insignia on the headgear worn by the Alpenkorps soldiers, which clearly distinguished these men from the rest of the German Army. Or, one will likewise read an analysis in this book of the “German-Austrian Brothers-in-Arms” concept, which had become well-known even during the war. The “Leader of the Alpenkorps”, Lieutenant-General Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen, will be studied in its own section. Above all, his personal wartime diary – in which he wrote about the Mission in Tyrol – is especially information-rich and provides a very interesting contemporary resource.

Men of Mechanical Transport Column Nr. 695 stand in front of the “Gasthaus Ladinien” (Ladinien Restaurant/Inn) in Stern (La Villa). The abundance of automobiles with which the Alpenkorps was richly supplied is evident in this picture. In fact, only cars are present, indicating that this is probably the advance element of a supply column composed of trucks following behind.

The operational history of the Mission in Tyrol will be completely examined, meaning the reader will find individual aspects discussed concerning the types of missions carried out by the Alpenkorps. In so doing, the obstacles and problems it encountered will be especially addressed, the surmounting of which helped turn the Alpenkorps into mountain troops.

To the present day, the 1915–1917 Mountain War in the Alps has played only a minor role in German world war research. Accordingly, very few scholarly works are to be found that deal with the first German mountain troops, i.e., the Alpenkorps. For a long time, it was primarily popular research literature that painted the picture of the war in the Alps and likewise of the Alpenkorps. As opposed to this, the war in the Alps and its perception on the so-called “Home Front” (primarily in Austria, especially in Tyrol) has been pulled into the focus of research in the last few years.

In the second part of this book, an attempt is made to fill a void. By means of selected works, the image of the Alpenkorps will be examined that emerged in the period between the two world wars and which was broadly disseminated. This image primarily contributed to the passing along of the Alpenkorps “myth”, which remained unchallenged for a long time. Therefore, the authors’ themes will be studied in order to prove and evaluate them by means of available individual examples from the text.

The final attempt to provide a picture of the Alpenkorps concerns itself with the 1936 movie “Standschütze Bruggler”, whose scenes depicting the Alpenkorps are analyzed. This film offers a unique cinematic source, in which the Alpenkorps is depicted during its Mission in Tyrol.

The present book originated from the author’s Master’s Degree thesis written in the 2010/11 timeframe. It had been intended for a more general readership, but was re-worked and expanded specifically for this book. In it, the author casts a fresh look at the perception of the first German mountain troops, and more thoroughly investigates and attempts to correct the “myth” of the Alpenkorps. The first mission of the Alpenkorps in South Tyrol in 1915 stands squarely at the center of this effort. At the same time, the author wishes to present a realistic assessment of the conditions to which the Alpenkorps was subjected in South Tyrol between May and October, 1915. This is intended to show the reader that even the Alpenkorps had to undergo a learning and developmental stage, and in no way represented an outstanding and fully matured mountain troop formation from its beginning, as has been maintained up until now.

An Alpine Corps’ mechanical transport column in a rear area in the Dolomites. In the background, the small Dolomite locale of Stern (La Villa) can be discerned.

Finally, please note:

The names used in this book for mountains, valleys, mountain passes, towns and locales were the ones in force at the time of the Mission in Tyrol during the 1915 timeframe when South Tyrol was still part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In the past century, national possession and names have changed for some of these places, including South Tyrol belonging to Italy today. Two examples of name changes would be Bozen/Bolzano and Bruneck/Brunico, the modern Italian name being the second of the two. The reader is advised that he may use an Internet search to find the modern equivalent to the original names cited in this work.

Immanuel Voigt

Jena, Germany

The Situation on the Eve of the Italian “Intervention”

The Negotiations between Austria-Hungary and Italy Up to the Declaration of War

In the following pages, the situation between the Central Powers and Italy up to the time of the declaration of war on May 23, 1915, will be presented to the reader. The negotiations between Austria-Hungary and Italy stand squarely at the center of this situation. In this connection, preparations for war and Italy’s war goals will be made clear. In conclusion, the focus will fall upon Austria-Hungary, in that its reactions and first measures taken will be addressed.

After the First World War had broken out in August, 1914, Italy initially considered herself neutral. The Triple Alliance that had united Italy, Austria-Hungary and the German Empire by treaty since 1882 was for all intents and purposes as good as “virtually dead”1 by 1914. The alliance that had been forged from a marginally friendly relationship markedly intensified the mistrust primarily between Italy and Austria-Hungary. Shortly after the beginning of the war in August, 1914, Austria-Hungary resigned herself to the probability that despite Italy’s announcement of her neutrality, aggression against South Tyrol could occur. This clearly shows that in the years prior to the First World War, Italy was already increasingly distancing herself from the Triple Alliance. Even before 1914, the Italian-speaking territories around Triest and Trient had a special significance for Italy as the point of reference for the Irredenta, an ideology whose goal was to unite as many areas as possible containing a certain ethnicity into a common state. They were to be added to the Italian state in order to complete the national unification called Risorgimento. From the Italian point of view, this goal could be achieved relatively easily by means of a short, limited campaign against Austria-Hungary. Hans-Jürgen Pantenius makes the following observation: “It was a theory of a limited conflict with the goal of crowning the Risorgimento wars with a final easy success, and adding the ‘unliberated’ territories to the previous acquisitions without great bloodshed.”2

The outbreak of war in August, 1914, appeared to deliver a welcome opportunity to attain this goal. Although Italy officially declared herself neutral, she worked behind the scenes on preparing her army for war, as well as on a general armament program. The relations between Italy and the Hapsburg Monarchy began to become ever more strained after Italy demanded compensation from Austria-Hungary for its incursion into Serbia in September, 1914. These demands were based upon Article VII of the Triple Alliance Treaty. By this time, Italy was already convinced that the completion of the Risorgimento could only be realized if she sided with the Entente powers. The fact that the war had not gone well for the Central Powers so far – in that they had been unable to achieve a quick victory – contributed significantly to Italy’s decision to side with the Entente.

In October, 1914, Italian Prime Minister Antonio Salandra spoke of a sacro egoismo