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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Serie: Uncovering the Past: Documentary Readers in American History
- Sprache: Englisch
A new civil rights reader that integrates the primary source approach with the latest historiographical trends
Designed for use in a wide range of curricula, The Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader presents an in-depth exploration of the multiple facets and layers of the movement, providing a wide range of primary sources, commentary, and perspectives. Focusing on documents, this volume offers students concise yet comprehensive analysis of the civil rights movement by covering both well-known and relatively unfamiliar texts. Through these, students will develop a sophisticated, nuanced understanding of the origins of the movement, its pivotal years during the 1950s and 1960s, and its legacy that extends to the present day.
Part of the Uncovering the Past series on American history, this documentary reader enables students to critically engage with primary sources that highlight the important themes, issues, and figures of the movement. The text offers a unique dual approach to the subject, addressing the opinions and actions of the federal government and national civil rights organizations, as well as the views and struggles of civil rights activists at the local level. An engaging and thought-provoking introduction to the subject, this volume:
- Explores the civil rights movement and the African American experience within their wider political, economic, legal, social, and cultural contexts
- Renews and expands the primary source approach to the civil rights movement
- Incorporates the latest historiographical trends including the "long" civil rights movement and intersectional issues
- Offers authoritative commentary which places the material in appropriate context
- Presents clear, accessible writing and a coherent chronological framework
Written by one of the leading experts in the field, The Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader is an ideal resource for courses on the subject, as well as classes on race and ethnicity, the 1960s, African American history, the Black Power and economic justice movements, and many other related areas of study.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Editors’ Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Further Reading
Chapter 1: Origins of the Civil Rights Movement
1.1
New York Amsterdam Star‐News
, “Bus Boycott Ends in Victory,” 1941
1.2 A. Philip Randolph, “Call to Negro America to March on Washington for Jobs and Equal Participation in National Defense,” 1941
1.3 James Farmer Recalls the Congress of Racial Equality’s Chicago Sit‐In in 1942
1.4 US Supreme Court,
Smith v. Allwright
, 1944
1.5 Annie L. McPheeters Interview on Grassroots Voter Registration in Atlanta in the 1930s and 1940s
1.6 Fifth Pan‐African Congress, Declaration to the Colonial Workers, Farmers and Intellectuals, 1945
1.7 Journey of Reconciliation, 1947
1.8 President’s Committee on Civil Rights,
To Secure These Rights
, 1947
1.9 President Harry S. Truman, Executive Order 9981, 1948
1.10 Henry Lee Moon,
Balance of Power: The Negro Vote
, 1948
1.11 States’ Rights Democratic Party, Platform of the States’ Rights Democratic Party, 1948
1.12 Congressman Jacob K. Javits, Press Release on Segregation and Discrimination in the Armed Forces, 1950
1.13
The Crusader
, “Boycott of City Bus Company in Baton Rouge Forces End of Absolute Jimcrow,” 1953
1.14 Dorothy Height Recalls Her Work with the National Council of Negro Women from the 1930s to the 1950s
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 2:
Brown v. Board of Education
and Massive Resistance, 1954–6
2.1 US Supreme Court,
McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
, 1950
2.2 United States, Brief as Amicus Curiae,
Brown v. Board of Education
, 1952
2.3 US Supreme Court,
Brown v. Board of Education
, 1954
2.4
Arkansas State Press
, “After the Court’s Decision – Now What?” 1954
2.5 US Supreme Court,
Brown v. Board of Education
, 1955
2.6
Chicago Defender
, “Blood on Their Hands … An Editorial,” [Emmett Till] 1955
2.7 R.B. Patterson, “Organization of a Local Citizens’ Council,” 1955
2.8 Southern US Congressmen, “Declaration of Constitutional Principles,” 1956
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 3: The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1955–7
3.1 Rosa Parks Recalls Her Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955
3.2 Fred D. Gray Recalls His Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955
3.3 E.D. Nixon Recalls His Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955
3.4 Jo Ann Robinson Recalls Her Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955
3.5 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Holt Street Baptist Church Speech,” 1955
3.6 US Supreme Court,
Browder v. Gayle
, 1956
3.7
Chicago Defender,
“Bus Boycotts in 3 Cities,” 1956
3.8 Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Constitution and By‐Laws, 1957
3.9 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Give Us the Ballot,” 1957
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 4: The Little Rock Crisis and Desegregation in Education, 1957–62
4.1 Gov. Orval E. Faubus, Televised Speech, 1957
4.2 Ira Wilmer “Will” Counts, Jr, Elizabeth Eckford and Hazel Bryan, 1957
4.3 Daisy Bates Recalls Events at Central High School in 1957
4.4 President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Executive Order 10730, 1957
4.5 Larry Lubenow Recalls Interviewing Louis Armstrong about Events in Little Rock in 1957
4.6 US Supreme Court,
Cooper v. Aaron
, 1958
4.7 Ruby Bridges Recalls School Desegregation in New Orleans in 1960
4.8 James Meredith Recalls Entering the University of Mississippi in 1962
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 5: The Sit‐Ins and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, 1960
5.1
Greensboro News and Record
, The Greensboro Four, 1960
5.2 Kenneth T. Andrews and Michael Biggs, Map Showing Sit‐Ins in the American South, February through April 1960
5.3
St. Paul Dispatch‐Pioneer Press
, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Members Picketing outside Woolworth’s for Integrated Lunch Counters, 1960
5.4 Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Statement of Purpose, 1960
5.5 Ella J. Baker, “Bigger than a Hamburger,” 1960
5.6 Robert P. Moses, “Letter from a Mississippi Jail Cell,” 1961
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 6: The Freedom Rides and the Congress of Racial Equality, 1961
6.1 US Supreme Court,
Boynton v. Virginia
, 1960
6.2 Associated Press, Freedom Riders by Burned‐Out Bus, 1961
6.3 James Peck Recalls Freedom Riders Being Beaten in Birmingham, Alabama in 1961
6.4 Diane Nash Recalls the Nashville Students’ Involvement in the Freedom Rides in 1961
6.5 John Seigenthaler Recalls Events in Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama in 1961
6.6 John Lewis Recalls the Bus Journey from Montgomery to Jackson, Mississippi in 1961
6.7 The Code of Federal Regulations of the United States of America, Title 49, 1963
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 7: Albany, Birmingham, and the March on Washington, 1961–3
7.1 Laurie Pritchett Recalls Civil Rights Demonstrations in Albany, Georgia in 1961 and 1962
7.2 Freedom Singers, “Ain’t Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me Around,” 1962
7.3 Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights, “Birmingham: People in Motion” on Civil Rights Demonstrations in 1962 and 1963
7.4 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Letter from Birmingham City Jail,” 1963
7.5 Afro Newspaper/Gado, African‐American Protesters Being Attacked by Police Dog in a Street during Segregation Demonstrations, Birmingham, Alabama, 1963
7.6 Michael Ochs, Black Children are Attacked by Firefighters with High‐Powered Water Hoses during a Protest Against Segregation in Birmingham, Alabama, 1963
7.7 President John F. Kennedy, “Report to the American People on Civil Rights,” 1963
7.8 John Lewis’s Original Text of His March on Washington Speech, 1963
7.9 Lillian Foscue, “Dead and Injured Taken to Hospital,” 1963
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 8: The Civil Rights Act of 1964, Freedom Summer, and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964
8.1 US Congress, Civil Rights Act of 1964
8.2 Nina Simone, “Mississippi Goddam,” 1964
8.3 Charles McLaurin, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Field Report, 1964
8.4 Liz Fusco, “The Mississippi Freedom Schools: Deeper than Politics,” 1964
8.5 Medical Committee for Human Rights, Press Release, 1964
8.6 FBI Flyer on Disappearance of Civil Rights Workers Andrew Goodman, James Earl Chaney, and Michael Henry Schwerner, 1964
8.7 Fannie Lou Hamer Testimony before Credentials Committee of the Democratic National Convention, 1964
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 9: The Selma Campaign and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
9.1 William C. Sullivan (Anonymous), Letter to Martin Luther King, Jr, 1964
9.2 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Letter from a Selma, Alabama, Jail,” 1965
9.3 John Lewis Recalls the Events of “Bloody Sunday” in 1965
9.4 Sheyann Webb Recalls the Events of “Bloody Sunday” in 1965
9.5 Associated Press, An Officer Accosts an Unconscious Woman as Mounted Police Officers Attack Civil Rights Marchers in Selma, Alabama, 1965
9.6 President Lyndon B. Johnson Addresses Congress on Voting Rights, 1965
9.7 US Congress, Voting Rights Act of 1965
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 10: The Civil Rights Movement outside the South, 1965–75
10.1 Bayard Rustin, “From Protest to Politics,” 1965
10.2
Chicago Defender
, “Long, Hot Summer Hits Los Angeles,” 1965
10.3 Whitney M. Young, Jr, “The High Cost of Discrimination,” 1965
10.4 Southern Christian Leadership Conference, A Proposal for the Development of a Nonviolent Action Movement for the Greater Chicago Area, 1966
10.5 Douglas Robinson, “2 Rights Rallies Set Near Chicago,” 1966
10.6 Associated Press, A Policeman Searches Black Suspects as Buildings are Burned during Unrest Following a Police Operation in Detroit, Michigan, 1967
10.7 National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders,
Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1968
10.8 Ruth Batson Interview on Busing in Boston in the Mid‐1970s
10.9 Louise Day Hicks, Letter to Congressman John Joseph Moakley, 1975
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 11: Black Power, 1966
11.1 Robert F. Williams,
Negroes with Guns
, 1962
11.2 Malcolm X, “Message to the Grassroots,” 1963
11.3 John Hulett Interview on the Founding of the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (Black Panther Party) in Alabama in 1965
11.4 Stokely Carmichael, “What We Want,” 1966
11.5 Black Panther Party, Platform and Program, 1966
11.6 Larry Neal, “The Black Arts Movement,” 1968
11.7 Frances Beale, “Double Jeopardy: To be Black and Female,” 1969
11.8 Angela Davis,
An Autobiography
, 1974
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 12: Vietnam, Economic Justice, and the Poor People’s Campaign, 1967–8
12.1 Robert E. Holcomb Interview on Vietnam War Experiences in the 1960s
12.2 Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Statement on Vietnam, 1966
12.3 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence,” 1967
12.4 US Congress, Economic Opportunity Act of 1964
12.5 George Wiley, “Proposal for the Establishment of an Anti‐Poverty Action Center,” 1966
12.6 Richard L. Copley, I
Am
a Man, 1968
12.7 Dr. Sybil C. Mitchell, “The Invaders: The Real Story” on Memphis Demonstrations in 1968
12.8 Ralph David Abernathy Recalls the Poor People’s Campaign in 1968
12.9 Associated Press, Aerial View of Resurrection City, 1968
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 13: Affirmative Action, 1960s–1980s
13.1 President John F. Kennedy, Executive Order 10925, 1961
13.2 US Congress, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, 1964
13.3 President Lyndon B. Johnson, “To Fulfill These Rights,” 1965
13.4 Arthur A. Fletcher, “Revised Philadelphia Plan,” 1969
13.5 Diane Nilsen Walcott, “Blacks in the 1970’s: Did They Scale the Job Ladder?”
13.6 US Supreme Court,
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
, 1978
13.7 US Supreme Court,
Firefighters Local Union No. 1784 v. Stotts,
1984
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Chapter 14: Legacies of the Civil Rights Movement
14.1 The Young Lords Organization, 13 Point Program and Platform, 1969
14.2 Lacey Fosburgh, “Thousands of Homosexuals hold a Protest Rally in Central Park,” 1970
14.3 The Combahee River Collective, The Combahee River Collective Statement, 1977
14.4 President Ronald Reagan, “Remarks on Signing the Bill Making the Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr, a National Holiday,” 1983
14.5 Nelson Mandela, “Atlanta Address on Civil Rights,” 1990
14.6 Benjamin Chavis, Jr, “Foreword”
Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots
, 1999
14.7 Congressman John Lewis Supports Renewal of the 1965 Voting Rights Act, 2006
14.8 Justice Stephen Breyer Dissenting Opinion in
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 et al.
, 2007
14.9 Joe Raedle, Barack Obama Declares Victory in Presidential Election, 2008
14.10 Children’s Defense Fund, Cradle to Prison Pipeline® Campaign, 2009
14.11 US Supreme Court,
Shelby County v. Holder
, 2013
14.12 US Supreme Court,
Fisher v. University of Texas
, 2016
14.13 Janelle Jones, “The Racial Wealth Gap,” 2017
14.14 Black Lives Matter, What We Believe, n.d.
Discussion Questions
Further Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
Employment change by occupation and race, 1972 and 1980, annual avera...
Table 13.2
Percent distribution of employed persons by occupation, race, and sex...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Uncovering the Past: Documentary Readers in American HistorySeries Editors: Steven F. Lawson and Nancy A. Hewitt
The books in this series introduce students in American history courses to two important dimensions of historical analysis. They enable students to engage actively in historical interpretation, and they further students’ understanding of the interplay between social and political forces in historical developments.
Consisting of primary sources and an introductory essay, these readers are aimed at the major courses in the American history curriculum, as outlined further below. Each book in the series will be approximately 225–50 pages, including a 25–30 page introduction addressing key issues and questions about the subject under consideration, a discussion of sources and methodology, and a bibliography of suggested secondary readings.
Published
Paul G. E. ClemensThe Colonial Era: A Documentary Reader
Sean Patrick AdamsThe Early American Republic: A Documentary Reader
Stanley HarroldThe Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Reader
Steven MintzAfrican American Voices: A Documentary Reader, 1619–1877
Robert P. Ingalls and David K. JohnsonThe United States Since 1945: A Documentary Reader
Camilla TownsendAmerican Indian History: A Documentary Reader
Steven MintzMexican American Voices: A Documentary Reader
Brian WardThe 1960s: A Documentary Reader
Nancy RosenbloomWomen in American History Since 1880: A Documentary Reader
Jeremi SuriAmerican Foreign Relations Since 1898: A Documentary Reader
Carol FaulknerWomen in American History to 1880: A Documentary Reader
David WelkyAmerica Between the Wars, 1919–1941: A Documentary Reader
William A. Link and Susannah J. LinkThe Gilded Age and Progressive Era: A Documentary Reader
G. Kurt PiehlerThe United States in World War II: A Documentary Reader
Leslie BrownAfrican American Voices: A Documentary Reader, 1863–Present
David FreundThe Modern American Metropolis: A Documentary Reader
Edward MillerThe Vietnam War: A Documentary Reader
James Giesen and Bryant SimonFood and Eating in America: A Documentary Reader
John A. KirkThe Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader
The Civil Rights Movement
A Documentary Reader
Edited by John A. Kirk
This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of John A. Kirk to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
Editorial Office111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Kirk, John A., 1970– editor.Title: The civil rights movement: a documentary reader / edited by John A. Kirk.Description: Hoboken: Wiley, 2020. | Series: Uncovering the past: documentary readers in American history | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2019052197 (print) | LCCN 2019052198 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118737163 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119583646 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119583622 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: African Americans–Civil rights–History–20th century–Sources. | Civil rights movements–United States–History–20th century–Sources. | African Americans–Civil rights–History–20th century–Sources–Textbooks. | Civil rights movements–United States–History–20th century–Sources–Textbooks.Classification: LCC E185.61 .C6146 2020 (print) | LCC E185.61 (ebook) | DDC 323.1196/073–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019052197LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019052198
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Yevhenii Dubinko/Getty Images
Series Editors’ Preface
Primary sources have become an essential component in the teaching of history to undergraduates. They engage students in the process of historical interpretation and analysis and help them understand that facts do not speak for themselves. Rather, students see how historians construct narratives that recreate the past. Most students assume that the pursuit of knowledge is a solitary endeavor; yet historians constantly interact with their peers, building upon previous research and arguing among themselves over the interpretation of sources and their larger meaning. The documentary readers in this series highlight the value of this collaborative creative process and encourage students to participate in it.
Each book in the series introduces students in American history courses to two important dimensions of historical analysis. They enable students to engage actively in historical interpretation, and they further students’ understanding of the interplay among social, cultural, economic, and political forces in historical developments. In pursuit of these goals, the sources in each text embrace a broad range, including such items as illustrations of material artifacts, letters and diaries, sermons, maps, photographs, song lyrics, selections from fiction and memoirs, legal statutes, court decisions, presidential orders, speeches, and political cartoons.
Each volume in the series is edited by a specialist in the field who is concerned with undergraduate teaching. The goal is not to offer a comprehensive selection of material but to provide items that reflect major themes and debates; that illustrate significant social, cultural, political, and economic dimensions of an era or subject; and that inform, intrigue and inspire undergraduate students. The editor of each volume has written an introduction that discusses the central questions that have occupied historians in this field and the ways historians have used primary sources to answer them. In addition, each introductory essay contains an explanation of the kinds of materials available to investigate a particular subject, the methods by which scholars analyze them, and the considerations that go into interpreting them. Each source selection is introduced by a short head note that gives students the necessary information and a context for understanding the document. Also, each section of the volume includes questions to guide student reading and stimulate classroom discussion.
John A. Kirk’s The Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader offers an interactive synthesis of the most important social and political movement of the twentieth century. Within the framework of a “long civil rights movement” he concentrates on the two most pivotal decades – the 1950s and 1960s – that distinguish the modern civil rights movement from its predecessors. Rather than a “long” approach, he embraces a “wide” view of the civil rights movement. Alongside the “top‐down” narrative focusing on Dr. Martin Luther King and national leaders, which only tells part of the story, Kirk examines the black freedom rights struggle from the wider, “bottom‐up” frame of reference of local movement participants.
Balancing multiple perspectives, this wide‐ranging primary‐source reader includes presidential executive orders and speeches; federal, district and local court decisions; congressional legislation; government commission reports; campaign materials and party platforms; newspaper and magazine editorials, articles and reports; and books, memoirs, essays, and pamphlets. Illuminating “bottom‐up” perceptions of marginalized people, Kirk provides a rich array of oral histories and interviews; songs and music; sermons and speeches; field reports of grassroots organizers; and visual sources such as movement photographs.
Steven F. Lawson and Nancy A. HewittSeries Editors
Acknowledgments
The challenge of compiling, editing and writing about the primary sources in this book has provided me with yet another new way of thinking about and approaching the study of the civil rights movement. I am grateful to series editors Nancy Hewitt and Steven Lawson for inviting me to contribute this volume, and for their always gentle and instructive comments, guidance, and wisdom. Given that Steven Lawson is one of the leading scholars in civil rights studies, his expertise has been a particularly welcome benefit, and it has kept me even more attentive to the subject matter.
I thank Peter Coveney at Wiley for signing up this project, even though it has outlasted his retirement from the publisher by several years. A number of people at the press have had a hand in seeing the project through from the beginning to the end, and I am thankful for the professionalism and patience of acquisitions editor Jennifer Manias, editorial assistant Elizabeth Saucier, and project editors Denisha Sahadevan, Janani Govindankutty, and Niranjana Vallavan. The anonymous reviewers’ reports on the proposal and draft manuscript were extremely useful in determining the scope and content of the book, and in pointing toward primary sources that may otherwise have escaped my attention. Of course, I take full responsibility for the final material and commentaries in the book that were ultimately shaped by my editorial choices and decisions.
The book was written and compiled at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock. I appreciate the university supporting my research leave that allowed the project to achieve its final completion. Part of the time spent working on the book overlapped with my five years as chair of the History Department. Most of it was concurrent with the past three years serving as director of the university’s Anderson Institute on Race and Ethnicity. UA Little Rock Chancellor Joel E. Anderson’s interest in issues of race and ethnicity, and his recognition of their crucial role in shaping the city and state, played a significant part in my recruitment to the university. Now that he is Chancellor Emeritus, I am delighted to serve as director of the Institute that is his legacy project. The role has provided me with welcome opportunities for engagement and insight beyond traditional scholarship and classroom teaching. I thank the Institute’s long‐serving program coordinator Tamisha Cheatham for her support, and particularly for sustaining the Institute while I was away on research leave. Two graduate assistants, Sarah Riva and Paola Cavallari, helped tremendously in tracking down the copyright holders of the primary sources.
Completing a book always makes one reflect on one’s formative influences. Professionally, mentorship from some of the very best in the field of civil rights studies, including Richard King, Tony Badger, Adam Fairclough, and Brian Ward, has been invaluable. Personally, my mother and father, Anne and William; my brother and his wife, Alan and Louise; and my niece and nephew, Annabelle and Marcus, form the core of my family back in England. My wife Charlene and her extended family, and my daughter Sadie, form my expatriate family in the United States.
This book is dedicated to my family, with thanks and love.
John A. KirkLittle Rock, ArkansasOctober 2018
Introduction
What is the civil rights movement? To those historians who first asked that question, the answer was relatively straightforward: Martin Luther King, Jr was the civil rights movement and the civil rights movement was Martin Luther King, Jr. Early histories of the civil rights movement were therefore biographies of its talismanic figurehead that focused on his activism during the 1950s and 1960s. Starting in the year of his death in 1968, for two decades King cast a long shadow over the civil rights movement’s history. This King‐centered period of attention crested in the mid‐1980s. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed into law a Martin Luther King, Jr national holiday, celebrated on the third Monday in January each year. The first observance of the holiday was in 1986. King was the first black American to be honored in this way and the recognition, which followed a concerted grassroots campaign to exert political pressure to achieve it, cemented his position in American historical folklore. Around the same time, the publication of three landmark books provided an exhaustive chronicling of King’s life and the organization he led, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC): David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (William Morrow, 1986), Adam Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Martin Luther King, Jr (University of Georgia Press, 1987), and Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights Movement, 1954–63 (Simon and Schuster, 1988). Branch subsequently wrote another two hefty volumes: Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–65 (Simon and Schuster, 1998) and At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–1968 (Simon and Schuster, 2006). The books written by Garrow, Fairclough, and Branch remain among the defining works written about King and his movement leadership. Garrow’s book and Branch’s first book both won Pulitzer Prizes. The television series Eyes on the Prize: America’s Civil Rights Years 1954–1965, created and executive produced by Henry Hampton at the film company Blackside, Inc., first aired in 1987. The series is still considered one of the best multipart documentaries about the civil rights movement. Although not quite as intently focused on King’s leadership, and incorporating a wider array of movement voices, nevertheless the chronology of the series identified the years in which King was prominent as being the movement’s halcyon days.
The initial King‐centered focus in telling the story of the civil rights movement established narrative conventions that still profoundly shape popular conceptions of civil rights history today. The concentration on one individual leader has created the impression of a “top‐down” movement in which a few, namely King and other national civil rights leaders, influenced and led the many rank and file participants. King’s interaction with presidents and other prominent national political leaders reinforced the notion that the civil rights movement’s focus was exclusively about winning national legislation and changing laws. In this rendition, King’s life and death frame the chronology of the movement. King rose to prominence through his local leadership in the Montgomery, Alabama bus boycott from 1955 to 1956 and died from an assassin’s bullet in Memphis, Tennessee in 1968. Indeed, many early accounts created an even shorter “Montgomery to Selma” movement narrative, beginning with King’s bus boycott leadership and ending with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the latter in part a result of King’s and the SCLC’s campaign for the vote in Selma, Alabama. It was this timeframe that the first series of Eyes on the Prize adopted. The books by Garrow, Fairclough, and Branch did extend the “Montgomery to Selma” narrative to a “Montgomery to Memphis” narrative covering the entire length of King’s life. In doing so, they began to draw attention to the more complex challenges in addressing structural and institutional racism that King and the movement faced after 1965, which did not fit quite as comfortably with the more triumphalist “Montgomery to Selma” narrative that ended with the successful passage of civil rights legislation.
Beginning in earnest in the 1980s, a second wave of civil rights studies emerged that challenged many of the basic assumptions found in King‐centered studies. These new studies were rooted in community‐based approaches to the civil rights movement from a “bottom‐up” perspective that viewed events mainly through the lens of local and state level activists. Initially, many of these studies focused on communities that were national flashpoints in the “Montgomery to Memphis” narrative and relocated those nationally known events within the context of local and state struggles. As the number of community studies proliferated, they gradually moved beyond the familiar locales of civil rights activism and explored an extensive and expansive story of black struggles for freedom and equality nationwide. Collectively, these community studies have reshaped our understanding of the civil rights movement, and the locus of civil rights studies has increasingly moved away from national legislation, and national figures and organizations, to local concerns, local leadership, and community organizations and institutions. Community studies revealed that although sometimes there were overlapping agendas between national and local activists, at other times they were quite different from one another, and sometimes even directly at odds with each other. The move to examine communities beyond those that King and the SCLC engaged with in the 1950s and 1960s signaled the vibrancy and extent of local civil rights organizing that stretched well beyond King, the SCLC, and their immediate orbit of influence. They chimed with the claim of movement activist Ella Baker that “The movement made Martin rather than Martin making the movement.” Community studies also suggested that civil rights activism had a much longer history than an exclusive focus on the national picture in the 1950s and 1960s revealed. Viewed from the “bottom‐up,” civil rights struggles appeared to both predate and outlast the established King‐centered movement chronology by decades.
The questions about when the civil rights movement began and when it ended have been a major source of debate. In the mid‐1980s, at the height of King‐centered studies, historian Clayborne Carson insisted that the civil rights movement should be reimagined as part of a longer and continuing “black freedom struggle” driven by activists at a local level. Almost 20 years later, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall argued that the black freedom struggle was part of a “long” civil rights movement, with its roots in the “liberal and radical milieu of the late 1930s.” At the same time, Hall rejected the well‐worn “declension narrative” about the movement’s demise in the late 1960s and early 1970s, instead claiming that the movement’s legacies continue down to the present day, as do those of the successive white “backlash” resistance movements that opposed it. In a provocative rejoinder, on the face of it Peniel Joseph essentially agreed with many of the points that Hall made: he too called for a longer movement chronology, an engagement with the uses and abuses of black freedom struggle history, and a more involved and nuanced discussion about movement legacies. However, Joseph, at the forefront of the emergent field of “Black Power Studies,” more fundamentally maintained that these issues should be explored not within the framework of a “long” civil rights movement, but rather within the framework of a “long” black power movement, giving primacy to the black power movement rather than to the civil rights movement as the most authentic expression of a longer black freedom struggle. Very much in line with these developments, in 1990 Henry Hampton and Blackside, Inc. produced Eyes on the Prize II: America at the Racial Crossroads 1965–1985 that extended the narrative arc of the first series.
Meanwhile, despite the ascendency of the longue durée approach in civil rights studies, there have been plenty of observers sounding notes of caution about dispensing quite so quickly with what movement activist Bayard Rustin called the “classical” phase of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s (for this usage, see Rustin’s essay “From Protest to Politics” in Chapter 10). Civil rights activist Hugh Murray has been among the bluntest of these voices complaining, “The people who were involved in the movement in the 1950s and 1960s called it the civil rights movement. Historians in pipe‐smoked rooms ought not to try to rename it.” A number of historians have articulated their own particular reservations. Richard H. King, whose work has explored the distinct meanings of freedom that emerged during the classical civil rights movement, warns that, “the freshness, even inexplicability, of the movement should not be underplayed for the sake of historical pedigree.” Adam Fairclough, whose work embodies the shifts that have taken place in civil rights studies, with his first major study one of King and the SCLC, and his second a state study of Louisiana, asserts that, “Too much stress on continuity smooths out history’s peaks and valleys, producing a bland, featureless landscape,” which can lead to an ungainly “homogenized mush.” Sundiata Keita Cha‐Jua and Clarence Lang have argued forcefully and at length about the need to understand the specificity and uniqueness of the classical civil rights movement as a product of its own historical moment.
How, then, do we navigate this increasingly fractious and fragmented terrain when studying the civil rights movement? Some historians have attempted to point the way, each in a similar vein looking to incorporate the insights of a long black freedom struggle while not losing the distinctiveness of the classical civil rights movement. As Steven Lawson puts it, the movement of the “1950s and 1960s […] needs to be identified for the characteristics that made it distinct from earlier efforts without forgetting the links that connected them.” Eric Arnesen echoes these sentiments deeming it, “possible – and necessary – to appreciate the distinctiveness of the modern phase of the movement while simultaneously recognizing its deeper roots.” In a useful collection of essays edited by Emilye Crosby, Civil Rights History From the Ground Up: Local Struggles, A National Movement (University of Georgia Press, 2011), Crobsy’s essay “The Politics of Writing and Teaching Movement History,” calls for an “interactive synthesis” between the long/classical and local/national historical perspectives, “one that seriously engages the collective insights of local studies, while simultaneously considering the full‐range of movement scholarship – from top‐down studies of leaders, organizations, and federal (in)action to those works addressing previously neglected or distorted topics, including analyses of women/gender, religion, segregationists, the role and impact of class, northern bases of structural inequality, community based Black Power, civil rights unionists, and much more.” It is precisely this approach that I pursue in this edited collection of primary sources.
Informed by my own past three decades of working within the rapidly shifting sands of civil rights historiography, this primary source reader draws on my experiences in writing and publishing movement histories that have included both King‐centered studies focusing on the 1950s and 1960s, along with community‐focused studies written within the framework of the long civil rights movement. Equally, the collection reflects my experiences in teaching civil rights history in three different universities in three different countries. Throughout, a course on “Martin Luther King, Jr and the Civil Rights Movement” (which at some point, revealingly, became shortened to just “The Civil Rights Movement”) has been at the core of my intellectual journey as a teacher and scholar. Yet the course I teach today is almost entirely different from the one I first constructed in the early 1990s, an important lesson itself in understanding that the past is never a fixed point but that it is always changing as it is reconsidered in the light of new research, new approaches, and new understandings. What has not changed about my course is the chronological timeframe it employs, which is still unapologetically rooted in the 1950s and 1960s. I have always wanted to focus intently on those decades to convey a sense of what was distinctive about the black freedom struggle during that specific time period, and to understand why collectively many movement participants saw themselves as belonging to something that they self‐consciously referred to as the civil rights movement (and later, the black power movement). Based on the same convictions, the main focus of this collection is on those two pivotal decades. This does not mean that I reject or that I am not mindful of the importance of the insights offered by a longer chronological perspective. Rather, I think that framing the longer story belongs to a different, if equally valid project. In teaching survey courses on African‐American history and the history of race and ethnicity in the United States, I have gained the opportunity to explore and apply the insights from the longer reach of black (and other peoples’) struggles for freedom and equality in those classes.
Having said that, the influences of long and local civil rights movement studies still profoundly shape my research, my teaching, and this book. Given the descriptors of long and local, it is tempting to define these developments as being purely chronological and geographical in their scope. Though these factors are important in their own right, the two approaches have changed the landscape of civil rights studies far beyond those immediately apparent terms. Importantly, they have concurrently created what we might term a “wide” civil rights movement. That is, as Crosby indicates above, they have opened up civil rights scholarship to a much broader array of themes, issues, and concerns than ever before. Even if we preserve the focus on the 1950s and 1960s, we can no longer credibly view them in the same way that King‐centered studies once did. To be sure, King still has a role to play, as do many of the topics that emerged during that first wave of works on the movement. But we now understand that King and the “top‐down” narrative tells us only part of the story of the civil rights movement, which also needs to be understood within the context of wider perspectives that include the multiple and intersecting stories of other movement participants from the “bottom‐up.” It is this reframing of the narrative to incorporate a more expansive body of views and perspectives that has most radically transformed my own approach to the subject and the one that I want to primarily showcase in this book.
In what follows, I demonstrate how an interactive synthesis of insights from civil rights studies can reshape our collective understanding of the civil rights movement. Collating a multi‐perspective history necessarily means drawing on a large and diverse selection of primary sources. Some of the sources used in this book reflect “top‐down” perspectives, including presidential executive orders and speeches; federal, district, and local court decisions; legal opinions and briefs; congressional legislation; government commission reports; campaign materials; and party platforms. Some sources traverse “top‐down” and “bottom‐up” perspectives, including newspaper and magazine editorials, articles, and reports; books, essays, and pamphlets; press releases; field reports; media interviews; speeches and addresses; letters; memoirs and autobiographies; political tracts and manifestos; and constitutions and by‐laws. In capturing “bottom‐up” perspectives, oral histories and interviews have often proved essential in gaining access to hitherto marginalized voices not represented in the existing written record. Songs and music, represented here as transcribed lyrics, also because of the limitations of the written word, give at least a reminder of the aural cadences that were a vital aspect of movement culture, as do sermons and speeches delivered from pulpit and podium – although in all of these instances they can never fully capture the range of meanings conveyed by their live performance. Fortunately, through the Internet, more people have more access to more of these sources beyond the written word than ever before, and I encourage readers to pursue them in both their aural and visual forms to gain a stronger sense of their full performative power. Visual sources are essential in gaining a sense of the high drama and street theater contained in direct action protests. The movement worked hard to thoughtfully and consciously frame the issues involved, and in the case of photographs and television coverage, quite literally so. Again, the limitations of the paper and print format of this volume prohibit the incorporation of moving images, which, again, can be remedied by recourse to the Internet and various other visual mediums. Though televised coverage was important, movement photography should not be overlooked as an art form and as a potent propaganda tool in its own right. The civil rights movement produced some of the most iconic photographs of the twentieth century. The use of maps, tables, and graphs in this collection provide further visual sources, and quantitative as well as qualitative movement measures.
In the rest of this introduction, I provide an overview of and orientation to each of the book’s chapters. The purpose is to give a sense of the material that is covered in each chapter, to show how each chapter relates to the others in forming an overarching narrative, and to highlight the themes that thread throughout the entire book. At the end of each individual book chapter there are several “Discussion Questions” that relate to the material covered. Many of these questions tackle issues that stretch beyond individual chapters. While in this introduction and throughout the collection I draw attention to the main themes and ideas contained within the primary sources, the myriad potential connections between them are something that readers are encouraged to think about and pursue further. How can the dots between the primary sources within and between chapters be connected? Which sources speak to and echo the others? What other themes can possibly be identified for future study and discussion? Considering these questions can lead to a more dynamic and interactive interrogation of the material. The primary sources and the context I provide are the beginning, not the end point for their investigation. A “Further Reading” section at the end of each chapter serves as a useful guide in this respect. Of course, any selection of sources chosen to represent the ever‐expanding universe of civil rights studies is open to scrutiny and criticism. From “How could document/chapter x possibly be omitted?” to “Why on earth was document/chapter y included?” there is plenty of scope for debate. Readers may like to engage with those questions alongside movement scholars, since they are also helpful in sharpening the senses, and yet another way to critically approach this collection. All the while, it is worth remembering that there are no right and wrong answers in these circumstances, just different perspectives and approaches, limitations of time and space, and therefore ultimately the need for editorial decisions to determine priorities, for which I take full responsibility. Thoughtful critiques are the main way that intellectual growth happens and that new insights occur. I dare say I may even agree with some of them.
Chapter 1 contains a nod to the origins of the civil rights movement and highlights just some of the developments that laid the groundwork for what came later. A number of the sources show how tactics that became synonymous with the movement were already being adopted and trialed in earlier decades, from bus boycotts in Harlem in 1941 and Baton Rouge in 1953, to a 1942 sit‐in in Chicago, to a 1947 Journey of Reconciliation that was a prototype of the Freedom Rides, to Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Union (BSCPU) president A. Philip Randolph’s 1941 call for a March on Washington. US Supreme Court decisions such as Smith v. Allwright (1944) were beginning to remove some of the obstacles to the vote for blacks in the South, such as all‐white party primaries, while as Henry Lee Moon’s 1948 book Balance of Power points out, burgeoning urban black communities in the North were beginning to exert their collective voting strength to draw attention to racial issues at both local and national levels. This newfound voting strength, in turn, elicited a response from national politicians like President Harry S. Truman, who depended on black votes for his successful election to office in 1948. Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights drafted a platform for change in To Secure These Rights before the election, and the president tried to implement some of its recommendations with executive orders to desegregate the federal workforce and the armed forces afterwards. Standing in the way of further reforms were powerful southern politicians blocking legislation in Congress. A cohort of these politicians rebelled against Truman and the national Democratic Party in 1948 by creating their own States’ Rights Democratic Party, better known as the Dixiecrats. By contrast to To Secure These Rights, the Dixiecrat Party platform outlines an anti‐civil rights agenda. At a local level, black women activists such as Annie L. McPheeters in Atlanta were preparing and equipping people in communities to take full advantage of the changes that were taking place at the time and for those that lay ahead, while black women leaders such as Dorothy Height were influential in organizing national women’s networks for change. Finally, the inclusion of the Fifth Pan‐African Congress’ Declaration to the Colonial Workers, Farmers and Intellectuals and congressman Jacob K. Javits’s press release on segregation and discrimination in the armed forces in this chapter, serve as a reminder that there were ever‐present global dimensions to national civil rights struggles in the United States. These included an increasing number of decolonization and independence movements worldwide and a rapidly shifting international relations context with the end of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War.
Chapter 2 examines one of the defining events in the birth of a new era of civil rights activism in the 1950s, the US Supreme Court ruling in the case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and responses to it. The Brown decision was a culmination of attacks on the legal basis of segregation led by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Formed in 1909, the NAACP is one of the oldest and longest‐serving civil rights organizations still in operation in the United States today. In the 1930s, NAACP lawyer Charles Hamilton Houston drew up the blueprints for a legal attack on segregation. Hamilton’s protégé Thurgood Marshall, later appointed as the first black US Supreme Court justice in 1967, led the way in the 1940s as director‐counsel of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund (NAACP LDF). Marshall began the legal assault on segregation with numerous victories in teachers’ salary equalization suits in public schools before switching focus to black graduate education. In 1950, two US Supreme Court rulings in McLaurin v. Oklahoma and Sweatt v. Painter rolled back segregation in higher education as far as it could go without actually abolishing it. These rulings encouraged Marshall to “go for the jugular” and try to get the courts to overrule altogether the legal doctrine of “separate but equal” established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that provided the legal justification for all segregated facilities. In 1954, the US Supreme Court did just that in the Brown decision by specifically outlawing segregation in public schools. The decision and its impact have been much debated. On the one hand, some have noted that Brown further galvanized black communities by providing them with legal impetus and a mandate for change. On the other hand, some have pointed toward the galvanizing effect Brown had on white communities, particularly in the South, in mobilizing resistance to change. There were those in the federal government who viewed the Brown decision as an important propaganda coup in the Cold War’s battle for hearts and minds worldwide. The murder of 14‐year‐old Chicagoan Emmett Till in 1955 while visiting family in Mississippi dramatically demonstrated to the nation the extent to which southern whites were willing to go to preserve white supremacy. From the local and state level organizing of White Citizens’ Councils to prevent school desegregation, to a national level “Southern Manifesto” that was signed by the vast majority of southern congressmen condemning the Brown decision as unconstitutional, the white South girded for a campaign of massive resistance to the Court’s decision.
It was against this backdrop that the Montgomery bus boycott took place. Chapter 3 charts the boycott and its aftermath. Early “top‐down” accounts revolved around the story of the tired seamstress Rosa Parks who refused to give up her seat on a city bus. A “bottom‐up” analysis reveals a different and more complex story. Rosa Parks was not an unwitting agent of history; rather, she was a seasoned activist who had been involved in women’s issues for decades, who had served as local branch secretary for the NAACP, and who had attended out‐of‐state training sessions in social change. Although Parks’s refusal to give up her seat was not a premeditated act of defiance, she was fully conscious of what her actions meant and their potential consequences. Parks’s arrest mobilized key community actors and institutions. Civil rights attorney Fred D. Gray, one of the few black attorneys in the state, and one of the fewer still willing to take the risk of provoking white wrath by defending a civil rights case, agreed to represent her in court. Edgar Daniel (E.D.) Nixon, president of the local BSCPU, suggested the idea of a bus boycott. Nixon connected with Jo Ann Robinson, a teacher at Montgomery’s Alabama State College and head of the local organization the Women’s Political Council that had raised concerns about the treatment of black bus passengers in the past. Robinson took charge of publicizing the bus boycott. Only then, with the boycott already gaining momentum, did Martin Luther King, Jr enter the picture. When community leaders decided to form the Montgomery Improvement Association to coordinate the bus boycott, they chose King as its head because they thought the young and pliable newcomer would be an acceptable, non‐threatening compromise candidate. Importantly, King was also one of the few black ministers in the city willing to accept the position. As the bus boycott grew beyond its initially planned protest of a few days, and into weeks and months, capturing national news headlines in the process, King became the prime focus of media attention. That notwithstanding, it is often forgotten that it was the NAACP’s successful legal battle in the courts alongside the bus boycott that ultimately led to the desegregation of Montgomery buses in the case of Browder v. Gayle (1956). King and other movement leaders sought to capitalize on King’s growing national standing by creating the SCLC and instating him as its president. However, the SCLC’s attempts to extend bus boycotts to other communities proved largely unsuccessful.
As King and others pondered how to translate the mass activism of the Montgomery bus boycott into a regionwide movement, the battle over school desegregation reached its climax in Little Rock, Arkansas, which is the focus of Chapter 4. Little Rock was an unlikely place for such a confrontation. The capital of Arkansas was regarded as a relatively moderate city in a relatively moderate upper South state, as opposed to the lower or deep South states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina that were recognized hotbeds of resistance. Little Rock Superintendent of Schools Virgil T. Blossom was among the first in the South to draw up a desegregation plan. Yet when Blossom subsequently built and opened two new segregated schools, the NAACP challenged his plan in the courts. Daisy Bates, president of the Arkansas NAACP State Conference of branches, and who along with her husband L.C. Bates was the co‐owner of the Little Rock‐based Arkansas State Press newspaper, fronted local efforts to desegregate schools. The federal courts upheld the Blossom Plan and continued to maintain oversight of its implementation. The day before Central High School was due to admit its first black students, Gov. Orval E. Faubus called out the Arkansas National Guard to prevent their entry. When one of the black students, Elizabeth Eckford, turned up to school the following day, she was turned away at bayonet point by state troops and hounded by a white mob. The photograph of white student Hazel Bryan screaming vitriol at Elizabeth became the enduring image of events across the world. Faubus was eventually ordered by the courts to remove the National Guard, but mob rule continued. Finally, President Dwight D. Eisenhower federalized the National Guard and sent in federal troops to accompany the Little Rock Nine students into Central High with 2,000 white students. The following year, Faubus closed all of the public high schools to prevent their desegregation. In the landmark ruling of Cooper v. Aaron (1958), the US Supreme Court gave its strongest backing to Brown since it had handed down its original decision four years earlier. The Court said that violence and disruption could not be used as excuses for delaying school desegregation plans. Little Rock’s public high schools reopened in 1959 on a token desegregated basis. District by district, black students and their families across the South bore the burden of school desegregation in the face of white hostility, which was even targeted at elementary students, as six year‐old Ruby Bridges discovered in 1960 when she became the first black student to desegregate an elementary school in New Orleans. Meanwhile, the struggle to desegregate higher education continued. When James Meredith attempted to enroll at the University of Mississippi in 1962 he met with armed mob resistance. The federal government sent in reinforcements to ensure that he was finally admitted.
Chapters 5 and 6 analyse two developments, the sit‐ins and the Freedom Rides, which crystalized and dramatically expanded the use of nonviolent direct action in the civil rights movement. The sit‐in movement began in Greensboro, North Carolina, on 1 February 1960, when four students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College requested service at the Woolworth’s department store lunch counter. When they were refused service, they sat at the lunch counter until the store closed for business at the end of the day. The students cited Indian independence leader Mohandas K. Gandhi and the Little Rock Nine as much as they did Martin Luther King, Jr as their source of inspiration for the nonviolent protest. The next day, the students came back again, with other students accompanying them. The demonstrations spread to other lunch counters in the city, and then to other cities in North Carolina, and eventually right across the South. Black colleges and universities provided a valuable information hub and support network to sustain the protests. As the sit‐in movement expanded, other networks in the black community mobilized to support the students’ actions. Nationwide, the NAACP assisted in coordinating economic boycotts against stores that had branches in the South. The sit‐ins met with mixed results. In the upper South, many businesses decided to desegregate their lunch counters rather than endure continuing disruption. Others decided to do away with their lunch counters altogether rather than desegregate them. As was true in other efforts to end segregation, the lower South states formed the bedrock of resistance to change. One of the most important developments that grew out of the sit‐ins was the formation of a new civil rights organization, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC – pronounced “snick”). SNCC was a vital incubator of student activism in the 1960s that ensured the youthful idealism that drove the sit‐ins would continue to be nurtured. Ella Baker, one of the key people who had helped in the formation and early running of the SCLC, encouraged students to retain an independent voice rather than be subsumed into an adult‐led organization. Baker was also influential in cultivating a different way of operating within SNCC than in other civil rights organizations. SNCC typically followed a participatory democracy model of organizing by working intently at the grassroots level to equip and empower local people to articulate and act on their community needs and concerns.
The 1961 Freedom Rides followed the sit‐ins after a US Supreme Court ruling ordered an end to segregation in bus terminal facilities. The Boynton v. Virginia (1960) ruling was a result of Howard University student Bruce Boynton’s impromptu sit‐in at a lunch counter terminal in Richmond, Virginia. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) decided to follow its earlier Journey of Reconciliation, which had tested the desegregation of interstate buses following the Morgan v. Virginia
