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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
Authoritative reference on the rearing, breeding, feeding, and keeping of multiple species of poultry
The Complete Handbook of Poultry is an authoritative reference on poultry for the practitioner. Responding to the need for a multidisciplinary text, this book will appeal to all fields aligned with rearing, breeding, feeding, and keeping poultry. Example species covered include chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, quail, turkey, and pigeons, with entries on a full range of breeds. Readers will also find entries for relevant farming, medical, descriptive, and industry terms encountered when keeping and treating poultry. Every entry in this Handbook covers the topic in depth and the text is accompanied by up-to-date photographs, and historical images to show the development of poultry breeds.
Written by two highly qualified authors with significant experience in the field of poultry, The Complete Handbook of Poultry includes information on:
- Aspects of the farming of poultry which have developed dramatically in recent years
- Production methods, maintenance practices, and poultry stocks
- The aims of the commercial poultry industry, exhibition poultry fanciers, and garden poultry keepers
- Genetics and diversity in global poultry production and sustainable poultry production
With its scope and depth of coverage, The Complete Handbook of Poultry is an essential reference text for a wide range of audiences, including smallholders, feed producers, farmers, agriculturists, veterinarians, and industrial scientists. The text is also highly applicable for courses on animal science, husbandry, food science, and agriculture.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Biographies
Foreword
Acknowledgements
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Mr Arthur Rice and His Photography
Arthur Rice Historical Collection of Images
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Biographies
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Begin Reading
Mr Arthur Rice and His Photography
Arthur Rice Historical Collection of Images
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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The Complete Handbook of Poultry
Philippe B. Wilson
York St John University
York, UK
and
Stuart Kay
Rolleston
Nottinghamshire, UK
This edition first published 2025© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Philippe B. Wilson and Stuart Kay to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, New Era House, 8 Oldlands Way, Bognor Regis, West Sussex, PO22 9NQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyThe contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting scientific method, diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:
Hardback ISBN: 9781119765189
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: Courtesy of Rupert Stephenson
Biographies
Professor Philippe B. Wilson
Farming cattle, sheep and poultry from an early age in Somerset, Philippe quickly developed an interest in native livestock, particularly poultry. He obtained a Masters in Chemistry with First Class Honours from the University of Bath in 2014, and went on to carry out a PhD in Bath under the supervision of Professor Ian H. Williams, completing this in 2016. He is a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy and completed a Postgraduate Certificate in Learning and Teaching in Higher Education in 2018.
He is currently the Associate Pro Vice Chancellor for Innovation and Knowledge Exchange and a Professor of One Health at York St John University, as well as being appointed as Chief Scientific Officer at Willows Health under NHS Leicestershire. He has already received numerous international awards in recognition of his multidisciplinary approaches to animal and human medical science: he was named by the prestigious Forbes Magazine in their 30under30 listing for Science and Healthcare in 2018, awarded the Royal Society of Chemistry Joseph Black Medal for his research and pedagogy in analytical chemistry in 2019, and was named as one of the top 118 young chemists in the world by IUPAC in their 2019 Periodic Table of Younger Chemists, being named as the element Krypton.
Philippe is appointed to the UK Genetics of Livestock and Equines Committee within the Department for Food, Environment and Rural Affairs in UK Government, and the Committee on the Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment at Public Health England and the Food Standards Agency. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology, Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, and a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London. He has delivered invited lectures internationally.
He is Editor of the Cambridge University Press journal ‘Research Directions: One Health’ and Associate Editor of ‘Frontiers in Molecular Biology’.
Philippe served as a Trustee of the Poultry Club of Great Britain from 2017–2023, Chairman of the Rare Poultry Society from 2019–2020 and is an accredited Panel B Judge by the Poultry Club of Great Britain.
Stuart Kay
Stuart is the third generation of the Kay family who have been involved with poultry since 1911, when his grandfather won his first, 1st prize rosette at the age of 9 showing a plate of eggs at his local show. Stuart’s father was born in 1932 and, before he died in 2007, he was acknowledged as one of the better poultry judges in the United Kingdom.
Stuart was the editor of the UK’s largest monthly subscribed poultry magazine ‘Fancy Fowl’ for 3 years, which he and his father owned.
Stuart, his brother and his youngest daughter still judge and show when they can, and between the family they have achieved many, many prizes and awards with their poultry. His favourite breeds are Silkies, Brahmas and Call ducks.
Ian Kay
Ian Kay was born in Lancashire in 1932, as the only son of John and Lucy Kay. He was educated at Bury Grammar School from where he moved to work for David Protheroe at the Lancashire Agricultural College, supervising experiments in poultry husbandry, including the first held on food conversion ratios.
Well recognised for his knowledge of poultry early on, his first judging engagement was at the age of 16, at the Rossendale Valley Poultry Show. However, more incredibly he became a Poultry Club Panel A judge, passed for all sections, at the age of 18, a record that will probably remain unbeaten.
Having served on the Council of The Poultry Club of Great Britain for nearly 20 years, he held the office of President and been Chairman of Council twice. He was also a founder member of the Rare Poultry Society, which started in 1969. He was also a member of the committee that organised the first Poultry Club show, held at Nottingham baths in 1972.
A council member of the East of England Agricultural Society and member of the Rare Breed Survival Trust and Sale Committee, his qualifications and experience were endless.
Rupert Stevenson
Rupert has been a poultry photographer for over 25 years, photographing at all the major shows, including the National and the Federation. His photos have appeared nationally and worldwide in various publications. Now semi‐retired, Rupert still attends a few shows to capture those special moments and birds for future fanciers to enjoy and to see how a breed has progressed.
Jed Dwight
Jed has been editor of UK‐based poultry magazine Fancy Fowl since 2019, is a former Board Member and Trustee of The Poultry Club and is currently the UK’s youngest fully qualified poultry judge. Together with his friend Oliver Woodall, Jed also hosts BirdBoys ‐ A Poultry Podcast.
Foreword
The pursuit of agriculture has long been a cornerstone of human civilization; a timeless endeavour that has sustained and nurtured societies for millennia. Among the many branches of agriculture, poultry farming holds a particularly significant place. As we navigate the complexities of the modern world, it is imperative to reflect on the fundamental practices that have not only fed us but have also shaped our cultures and economies. It is with great pride that I present to you ‘The Complete Handbook of Poultry.’
In this comprehensive volume, we delve into the intricate world of poultry farming, an art and science that has evolved dramatically over the centuries. From the humble beginnings of domesticating jungle fowl in Southeast Asia to the sophisticated, technology-driven industry we know today, poultry farming stands as a testament to human ingenuity and resilience.
My own journey with agriculture has been deeply personal and profoundly enriching. Growing up in the English countryside, I witnessed firsthand the delicate balance between man and nature. Our estate, steeped in history and tradition, has been a living laboratory where time-honoured practices meet modern innovation. The cultivation of crops, the raising of livestock and the stewardship of the land are not merely tasks but vocations that demand respect, knowledge and a continual willingness to learn and adapt.
Poultry, in particular, has always fascinated me. These versatile birds provide not only a source of nutrition through their meat and eggs but also play a crucial role in sustainable farming practices. Their ability to convert feed into protein efficiently makes them a vital component in addressing global food security challenges. Moreover, the integration of poultry into diverse farming systems can enhance soil fertility and control pests, exemplifying the principles of regenerative agriculture.
This handbook is more than just a guide; it is a tribute to the countless individuals who have dedicated their lives to poultry farming. It covers a broad spectrum of topics, from breeding and genetics to health and nutrition, housing and environmental management. Each part of the book is crafted to provide practical insights and scientific knowledge, ensuring that both novice farmers and seasoned professionals can benefit from its contents.
In these pages, you will find the latest advancements in poultry science, sustainable practices that minimize environmental impact and strategies to enhance animal welfare. The goal is to equip you with the tools and understanding necessary to thrive in an ever-changing agricultural landscape.
As we face the challenges of climate change, population growth and the need for sustainable food production, the principles outlined in this handbook become ever more critical. The future of agriculture lies in our ability to innovate while honouring the wisdom of the past. It is my sincere hope that ‘The Complete Handbook of Poultry’ will inspire and empower you to contribute to a more sustainable and prosperous world.
I extend my deepest gratitude to the authors who have contributed their expertise to this work. Their dedication and passion are the bedrock upon which this handbook is built. May their insights guide you and may your endeavours in poultry farming be fruitful and fulfilling.
With warm regards,The Earl De La Warr D.L.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank our families for their never ending love and support assisting us to write this book. Also, to the team at the publishers who have shown patience and understanding while we completed the final drafts.
To our main photographer, Rupert Stevenson, who provided us with the majority of the images from his vast collection for us to select from, and Jed Dwight, who found us the remainder of the photographs, we appreciate your time and consent to use your images in the book.
Stuart’s father, Ian, who spent his whole life with poultry and provided the backbone of the breed information, spending years tracing back the history and characteristics of many of them included in this book.
A
Abacot Ranger duck The Abacot Ranger was one of many breeds developed from (or crossed with) Indian Runners. Starting with ‘sports’ from khaki Campbells, themselves originally the product of Runner crosses, Mr Oscar Gray of Abacot Duck Ranch, near Colchester, mated their offspring to a white Indian Runner drake. The eventual results were ‘light drakes of khaki carriage and type with dark hoods, and white ducks with blue flight bars and fawn or grey hoods’. This development was begun in 1917 and the Wye College Duck Laying Test of 1922 and 1923 indicates a very successful outcome: the breed came top, with 935 eggs in the four‐bird section. Originally called the ‘Hooded Ranger’, this breed almost died out in the United Kingdom. Imported into Germany via Denmark in 1926, it was ‘stabilised’ as a colour form by H. Lieker, whence it acquired the name Liekers Streifere (Lieker’s Ranger or Scout). In 1934, it was eventually standardised under the name of Streicher‐Ente (Ranger Duck). Later standardised by the British Waterfowl Association in 1987, the modern Abacot Ranger owes both its survival and written Standard to the work done in Germany.
Image: Abacot Ranger drake
Image: Abacot Ranger duck
Abdomen The part of the body of a bird located between the thorax and pelvis, containing organs such as the intestines, kidneys and reproductive system.
Abscess A localised collection of pus caused by bacterial infection.
Acute A sudden onset and rapid progression of a disease or condition.
Addled Term used for an egg that, during the incubation period, germinates but fails to develop properly.
African goose The African goose is among the largest and heaviest of the domestic breeds of geese. Both the African and Chinese goose have evolved from the wild swan goose (Anser cygnoides), an Asiatic species, and are distinguished from the western breeds of geese in having a prominent ‘knob’ rising up from the base of the beak and having smooth, velvet (pile)‐like feathering on their necks. The African goose also has a soft dewlap that hangs below its beak. This breed has been present in the United Kingdom since the late seventeenth century and, although standardised in the United States in 1874, it did not appear in the British Poultry Standards until 1982. The name African is misleading as the swan goose is an Asiatic species.
Image: African gander
Image: African goose
AGM Annual general meeting. The breed clubs usually hold them at one of the major poultry shows.
Airsacculitis Inflammation of the air sacs of birds caused by bacterial or viral infection.
Albumen The clear, protein‐rich substance found in an egg white.
Altsteirer This breed is credited with originating in Germany; however, in the breed of Styrian, which was developed in Austria, it is mentioned that the birds fell into two categories. One of them was as an egg‐laying utility bird, the second version was heavier built and more inclined towards meat production, while still retaining the ability to lay a reasonable number of eggs. It is thought that the Styrian was the version for laying, while the meat bird eventually became the Altsteirer.
At the World Poultry Congress, where the birds were first officially introduced to the public, the meat version of the breed was described by the Feathered World correspondent as being similar in markings to Brown Sussex females.
The shape and balance of the birds is similar to the British Dorking, especially with their well‐rounded and prominent chest.
It is also similar to the Sussex Fowl in their original type, which was at one period considered to be almost identical to the Dorking.
This point, coupled with the writer’s comment on their colouring being similar to the Brown Sussex, would suggest that one of the breeds was included in their original creation.
Both sexes have a single upright comb that is red in colour. The ear lobes are white and, as with the Styrian, the headgear is completed with a backward‐facing crest of feathers that are adequate for decoration without being cumbersome.
It has been suggested that the name of Styrian and Altsteirer are so similar that only a slight change in dialect separates them, which again suggests that the two breeds were at one point actually the same.
Image: Altsteirer large female
American Buff goose The American Buff was developed in North America from common farm geese and is descended from the wild Greylag goose, which inhabits Europe and North Asia. Its history is obscure and there are several theories on how it may have developed. It was standardised in the United States in 1947 and in the United Kingdom in 1982. It differs from the other solid buff‐coloured geese, i.e. the British Brecon Buff and the German Celler goose, in being larger and having an orange beak and feet.
Image: American Buff gander
Image: American Buff goose head study
Image: American Buff goose
Anaemia A deficiency of red blood cells or haemoglobin in the blood.
Ancona Named after the province of Ancona in Italy, specimens of this Mediterranean breed were imported into England in 1851. Around the 1880s, more importations of Ancona‐type fowls arrived. These were a little more uniform in type and markings, but nowhere approaching the ones seen today. The breakthrough came at about the turn of the century when fresh stock came to the United Kingdom, both from Italy and America, which had by now started to become interested in the ‘Spangled Italian Fowl’, which was at one stage referred to as the Marchigiana fowl. Harrison Weir in his writings in the early part of the twentieth century was most scathing and critical when referring to Anconas, as Lewis Wright had also been some 30 years previously. In fact, later editions of his ‘Book of Poultry’ had to retract his statement that they were little more than a cross between black and white Minorcas. It was quickly pointed out to him that such a cross would at best produce cuckoo‐type markings, not spangled, and would certainly not have the pigmentation to provide the yellow legs that most of even the earliest imports of birds possessed.
The general opinion was gradually formed that the Ancona was basically the common fowl of Italy, crossed with a breed that enabled it to retain its yellow pigmentation, and at the same time supply the necessary white mottling for it to develop into the Ancona. The common fowl of Italy is accepted as the white Leghorn. This breed had been transported around the world by the Roman sailors who, in their trading, returned home with a different species of fowl. It had to be a breed that could transmit spots or spangling, not simply a mixture of black and white, as in the Exchequer Leghorn (this colour was only developed in 1904 anyhow).
It would seem that for several centuries, the European Continent had a nucleus of farmyard fowls that carried the mottled plumage. These birds were breeding in many types and colours, before being eventually separated and created into breeds.
The Schlotterkamm is a prime example of spangle colouring. These birds also have single combs and white ear lobes. The Bergische Crower is another variation of the bird. The Thuringian has beautifully spotted plumage and a single comb, but has developed a beard and muff. In France there was the Du Monte, which is now believed to be extinct. It was a single‐combed and bearded, or whiskered as it was once described. In France, there was also a bird called the Elderfeld, which has great similarity to the Schlotterkamm.
The Houdan also has a spangled type of black and white colouring, but has accumulated not only a beard, but also a full crest, presumably from the Padoue or Poland‐type of fowls.
There is a breed that was centuries old and originated from Schlotterkamm, the western part of Germany, adjacent to the Dutch border, and also in The Netherlands, called the Drenthe or Dretenche fowl. These birds had been there for centuries. They had been referred to as resembling Gallus bankiva, which Darwin insisted was the progenitor of the Domestic Fowl.
The Drenthe had been in existence for a very long period, as can be proven by a piece of needlework made in 1805 by a young Dutch girl that clearly shows the birds as they are today. The Drenthe existed in a range of colours, including pencilled, laced cuckoo and the black spangled or speckled, depending on which term the writers used.
In The Netherlands there is also a very long‐established breed, which we know as the Friesian, and usually associated with being pencilled in a similar pattern to that of the Hamburghs. However, a beautiful painting by Cornelis Van Gink, shows the Friesians in a mottled colouring, which suggests a relationship with the Drenthe at some point back in history. In Germany the birds that people in the United Kingdom call Anconas were at one time listed under the heading ‘Spotted Leghorn’, which illustrates their early history. The original ancestors to the Ancona will probably never be traced, but whatever they were, the birds have now been developed into a highly attractive breed, which has been bred to a very high standard of perfection.
Image: Ancona bantam female
Image: Ancona bantam male
Image: Ancona large pullet
Andalusian Leonard Barber is believed to have been the first importer of chickens from the Andalucía region of Spain in 1846 and 1847, but these had an assortment of plumage colours. The Standard blue Andalusian, with its characteristic sharp lacing, was developed in England. The two leading breeders in the 1850s who started this process were John Taylor, of Shepherd’s Bush, London and Mr Coles of Fareham, Hampshire. It took several decades of selective breeding by a succession of fanciers before birds with the perfect colour and lacing depicted by Victorian artists became a reality. In Spain the laced, as we know them, are recognised as English Andalusians, with all other colours known as Spanish Andalusians, and their blues are not laced. Andalusian bantams first appeared in the 1880s.
They carry the typical shape of breeds from the Mediterranean, being long bodied with flowing tails carried at an angle of 45°. The body has a basic colour of delicate blue, with each feather having a black lacing round the edge, giving the birds a very distinctive and attractive appearance.
The comb and face are bright red coloured, with a single upright comb in the male bird folded to one side in the female. They both have medium sized white lobes, brownish to red eyes, slate grey‐coloured legs and feet and have a friendly nature.
One reason that holds back the breed’s popularity is the fact that to produce the true‐blue colour you will also breed some blacks and splashes, which are only useful as future breeders or laying birds. Also, there will probably be some cockerels bred with red neck hackles.
Image: Andalusian large female
Angel winged A term usually associated with geese and ducks, where the external joint of a goslings wing is damaged and eventually twists, either outwards or upwards, giving it a very untidy appearance.
Antibiotic A medicine used to treat bacterial infections in birds.
Antimicrobial A substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms.
Antwerp Brahmas This name is in some ways misleading, and yet in other ways it’s absolutely correct. Belgium was one of the first countries to attempt pure breeding and standardisation of stock, and many of their native breeds have been distributed to adjoining countries and used to develop new breeds and variations of existing ones.
The actual year when the Antwerp Brahmas were imported is unknown, but the birds were sent directly to the Antwerp Zoological Gardens, where they were bred from and distributed around the country.
The foundation stock was single‐combed and had the traditional Light Brahma markings and feathered legs, but at this time many of the birds were being described as Shanghai.
Since then, the birds have had a big influence in the development of many breeds, especially the ones where great size and laying qualities were essential.
The main and unique feature of the breed lies in the white pigmentation of their legs, beak and skin, as opposed to the yellow of British Brahmas. Obviously, these had been selected from the original Shanghai type, with this point being essential.
It is believed that the first so‐called breed of Shanghais was a collection of cross breeds from which you could develop many variations, and also the Langshan blood was very strongly included in the Shanghai. This would immediately account for the white pigmentation. The ones that arrived in England were selected for yellow pigment, now associated with Cochins and Brahmas. The Belgians record that both the Malines and the Flemish cuckoo contain Shanghai blood, which in later years were developed into the North Holland blue and the Marans.
AOC Any other colour.
AOV Any other variety.
Appenzeller The Appenzell Canton is in the northeastern part of Switzerland. It is not known how long Spitzhaubens have been bred there, but the very similar Brabanter from The Netherlands was depicted in seventeenth century paintings, so Appenzeller Spitzhaubens may date from the same period. The Appenzeller Barthuhner was developed in the 1860s from crosses between Brown Leghorns, Russian Beardeds and Polveranas (now extinct, related to Bearded Polands). Kurt Fischer, of Stuttgart‐Zuffenhausen, Germany, was a leading breeder involved in the revival of both breeds in the 1950s, as they had almost died out during the Second World War. Their introduction into the United Kingdom is slightly ambiguous. The earliest record of classes for them under the name of Appenzeller was in the 1982 National Federation Show at Stafford, by which time a club had been formed. The Judge was Fred Hams and there were 20 entries. The Spitz, as it is often called, exists in several colour variations, with silver being the most popular.
One outstanding feature with the Spitz is the crest of feathers on the bird’s head, which is forward facing. These feathers are quite strong and initially point upwards before gracefully curving over, but well clear of, the beak.
The general appearance of the birds is that of a typical egg‐laying light breed; a well‐rounded front that enables the crop to expand comfortably when full of tasty morsels that the birds have collected on their scavenging, a longish body to hold the egg factory and a well‐boned pair of legs that are medium in length but active looking. The male birds have fully furnished tails carried well out and close‐fitting wings tucked up under the tail. They have strong beaks to collect their food. Their small comb is of the twin‐horned type, the eyes are prominent and alert looking, as is the whole character of the breed – stylish and active looking without being flighty.
In colouring, the silver is actually a spangled bird, and the type of spangling is that which appeals to the general public and many exhibitors. It has a small black tip and is entirely different from the UK spangled Hamburghs.
The tipping to the Appenzeller’s feathering should extend evenly all over the bird, in both the male and female, and even includes their crest feathers. The under‐colour is dark grey. The gold is identical in markings with the golden ground colour being described as golden yellow, which shades to golden red on the male bird’s lustrous feathers in the hackles etc.
The black is self‐coloured, with the top colour carrying a green sheen to the plumage. The comb and face are rich red with the ear lobes a bluish white. The shanks and beak are also blue while the eyes are only required to be dark brown.
Image: Appenzeller Spitzenhaben bantam silver female
Image: Appenzeller Spitzhauben bantam silver male
Image: Appenzeller Spitzhauben black female
Image: Appenzeller Spitzhauben black male
Image: Appenzeller Spitzhauben gold female
Image: Appenzeller Spitzhauben gold spangled male
Image: Appenzeller Spitzhauben large silver female
Araucana When the Spaniards arrived in South America, bringing with them the light Mediterranean breeds, they found that the indigenous population had Domestic Fowl, which soon cross‐bred with the incomers. Notable for their fierce resistance to the Spaniards, however, were the native people of the Arauca province of northern Chile, who were never conquered. The name Araucana for the breed is derived therefore from that part of the world where the South American and European fowl had the least opportunity to interbreed. The Araucana breed Standard in the British Isles is generally as envisaged by George Malcolm, who created the true‐breeding lavender Araucana, among other colours, in Scotland during the 1930s. Araucanas are prolific layers of strong‐shelled, blue or green eggs and were reported from South America from the mid‐sixteenth century onwards. The eggs are unique in that their colour permeates throughout the shell. The general appearance of the Araucana is of a gamey type bird, not the Old English Game, more the Asiatic version’s build, being rather deep in the body and wide at the shoulder with a horizontal and fairly long back. The tail is carried at 45°, with the bird standing on well‐developed legs and thighs that are set wide apart.
The bird should feel firm fleshed when handled and be alert and active in the show pen. A major feature is the head, with its strong beak and alert eyes. The birds should have a full beard that includes a rather different type of earmuff that stand out very noticeably. These do not appear as pronounced in the miniature versions. The head is then completed with its very distinctive crest, which, it is stressed, must not be allowed to become over developed. This crest is carried well to the back of the head and is compact in its feathering.
The breed exists in many colour variations, mainly taking their colour Standard from the Modern Game pattern, the exception being the lavender. This should be a delicate blue/grey shading and is the type of blue often referred to as pigeon blue, which is capable of breeding the correct colour in both sexes when mated together over many generations, as opposed to the laced blue required in Orpingtons or Andalusians for example.
The comb, and what little face and wattles the birds have showing, should be bright red and is described as an irregular pea type. The combs displayed on the male birds, both in the large and miniature version, can vary in shape and conformation. This feature is not confined to the Araucana breed and there are several more breeds with this issue, especially where there has been some recently imported continental blood. Brahmas are a perfect example, especially in the Darks.
The description of pea type is often used for the comb. Sometimes it is more clearly defined as a triple pea, meaning that there are three lines of small spikes running from front to rear, with the central one being higher that the outer two.
Image: Araucana bantam Crele male
Image: Araucana bantam female
Image: Araucana bantam lavender female
Image: Araucana large black female
Araucana rumpless The rumpless Araucana also has its origins in South America. It was introduced to Europe by Professor S. Castello in the early 1920s. The ear tufts of feathers are unique to the breed in that they grow from a fleshy pad adjacent to the ear lobe. Rumpless Araucanas lay large eggs in relation to their body size and are as productive as the tailed Araucanas.
Image: Araucana rumpless bantam female
Image: Araucana rumpless large black female
Image: Araucana rumpless pair
Image: Araucana rumpless silver duckwing bantam male
Image: Araucana rumpless tufted female
Image: Araucana rumpless tufted head study
Ardennes and Sans Queue The Ardennes breed looks like it might have had a lot of influence in the formation of many of the more recently developed breeds.
Harrison Weir in his book ‘Our Poultry’ gives them a short coverage, stating that they were a very old breed that he believed had a relationship with the Jungle Fowl, Gallus bankiva, but he was of the belief that they had become almost extinct.
Edward Brown in the section of his books devoted to the history and Standards for the breeds is a lot more explicit with his findings. First, he praises the Belgians for their livestock husbandry and their ability to cultivate every available piece of land no matter how small. He considers their ability in the art of breeding livestock to be the best in Europe. Their breeds are very much self‐contained, with the native breeds of livestock closely associated with food production and practical uses rather than any form of decorative appeal.
The Campine was obviously a great breed for egg production, while the Braekel especially has a reputation for being a quick‐maturing, small table fowl.
Most of the other breeds in Belgium are best known for their table bird qualities. There are several types of heavy boned cuckoo‐coloured birds, which are probably all related to the Malines. The Huttegem is another very long‐established breed. It contains a lot of the Shanghai or Cochin characteristics and is noted for its excellent brooding qualities, which, when combined with the very large‐framed body, renders it capable of covering a good sitting of eggs. Some of the hens are reported as weighing up to nine pounds when in full bloom. Another variation on this Shanghai blood is the Antwerp Brahma. These birds were originally imported from China as single‐combed Brahmas, which must have been a different strain from the ones imported to Britain. The birds also had white flesh and pigmentation, which again was different from the ones that were used to develop many of the breeds in the United Kingdom. I would suggest that this type of Brahma contained Langshan blood probably crossed with the Chittatong type of game fowl.
The Ardennes is quite definitely indigenous to the Ardennes, which is a part of Belgium known for having large areas of woodland, where the birds and their ancestors survived for centuries.
The main colouring is the black–red family, thought to be obtained from the Bankiva Jungle Fowl, but these birds were developed to weigh up to seven pounds in the males.
The breed provides excellent tasting meat, especially if well hung. They have a fine‐textured skin and are white fleshed. Another feature of the breed is that they have five toes. They have a compact body and single combs with long wattles. Their necks are short and thick and their wings are rather large, as is the tail, which has a large pair of sickles. When you read these characteristics, they are almost the same as those of the Dorking.
In Belgium, there is also a variation of the Ardennes that can be rumpless and exists in a full range of colours. These birds are from the Liege district and are called ‘Sans Queue’. Another name for them is the ‘Poules des haies’, which translates into Hedge Fowls. These birds are very hardy and capable of living semi‐wild.
The San Queue breeds in a whole range of colours, as opposed to the Ardennes, where only the original Bankiva colouring of black–red is known.
The Ardennes is rather longer established than a localised cross breed and much closer to an original Jungle Fowl‐type of bird.
Ascites A condition in which there is an accumulation of fluid in the abdomen of a bird.
Asil This Standard refers to the small Asil (often called ‘Reza’ Asil, a term that applies only to birds of 3.5–4 pounds, or ‘Rajah’ Asil, which is a term not used in India). The Asil is probably the oldest known breed of gamefowl, having been bred in India for its fighting qualities for over 2000 years. The name Asil is derived from Arabic and means ‘of long pedigree’. In different dialects it can be spelled ‘Asil’, ‘Aseel’ or ‘Asli’. In its native land the Asil was bred to fight, not with false spurs, but rather with its natural spurs covered with tape, the fight being a trial of strength and endurance. Such was the fitness, durability and gameness of the contestants that individual battles could last for days. This style of fighting produced a powerful and muscular bird with a strong beak, thick muscular neck and powerful legs, together with a pugnacious temperament and stubborn refusal to accept defeat. Never very numerous in Britain, the Asil has nevertheless always attracted a few dedicated admirers prepared to cope with its inborn desire to fight, a characteristic shared by the females, who are poor layers but extremely good mothers.
Image: Asil game male
Image: Asil Raza white male
Image: Asil spangled female
Aspergillosis A fungal disease that affects the respiratory system of birds.
Augsberger This breed is reported to have originated in Bavaria. Little is known of it in the United Kingdom, and there is conflicting information about it from Europe, especially regarding its comb formation. Even its name is quoted using different spellings.
It was originally a dual‐purpose breed combining the laying qualities of a Leghorn‐type bird with the plentiful and tasty meat of the La‐Fleche.
It was considered a hardy bird capable of ranging large areas in search of food. Its shape is of a medium‐length back, full fronted and with a powerful build. Yet its weight is only quoted for males as being 4.5–5.5 Ib, which does not endorse the description. The tail is well spread, carried high and fully furnished. The legs and feet should be as dark as possible. The only colour quoted is black, which should carry an excellent green sheen to it. The shape of its comb seems to vary from twin‐horned to a double line of spikes.
Australorp The claim that the Australorp – an abbreviation of Australian Black Orpington – is the prototype of the Black Orpington, as originally bred by Mr W. Cook, has never been questioned. Its breeders emphasised that its true utility type gives poultrymen the Orpington at its best, as an excellent layer and a good table fowl with white skin. The Orpingtons originally taken to Australia were the type originated by William Cook from Orpington in Kent and, once there, they were transformed into a highly efficient laying fowl, while still retaining a similar outline to the birds’ original concept. The new version had a much tighter feathering than the ones being further developed in the British Isles. Basically, there were two main points of alteration; first, the shape was developed to be slightly longer than square shaped, while, for an Orpington to be any good at all, it must be deeper than it is long; second the feathering became flat and single quilled rather than ‘cup shaped’ as in the Orpingtons. This is noticeable in the thigh feathering, which is much reduced in quantity and contour. This reduction continues into the cushion area, which is vastly diminished to be almost non‐existent, with the tight feathering sweeping up to meet the main tail almost at the top; the main tail being carried at an angle of almost 90° and finishing with a tight feathered point in the females. The male’s tail is more similar to the Orpington’s, but tightly feathered and, as with the female, carried well upwards without being ‘squirrel tailed’.
Being a self‐coloured breed, and with no especially difficult areas of shape to be achieved, the headpiece becomes an important feature of the breed and is allocated 25 points. Great emphasis is placed on the birds having a utility type of head, free from coarseness and with prominent and expressive eyes. The face should be free from feathering and fine in texture. The wattles are not too large and cumbersome with a sound red ear lobe. Obviously, the comb features highly in any judge’s mind and should have evenly cut and distributed spikes, up to six in total, and be a rich red colour. The Standard for Australorps only allocates five points for the actual comb part of the head, but anyone new to the breed should not pay too much attention to these marks; most judges will attach a far greater importance than one‐twentieth of the bird to the comb!
An equally important part of the bird is the colouring of the face, especially in the females. Any sign of ‘gypsy face’ is taboo to most judges, though a little tolerance is given to young pullets, knowing that the face will become a clearer red as she becomes fully matured. In the breed’s Standard, 35 points are allocated for type, with a further 27 points covering the bird’s utility qualities of feathering and freedom from coarseness, but curiously only five points for the legs and feet. These should be black with white toenails and white soles; any sign of green or willow, which would indicate Java or Jersey Giant blood, is a serious fault and can be considered a disqualification in some judge’s eyes. The whole of the black‐coloured body feathering should carry a rich and lustrous green sheen. This is a striking feature of the breed.
The Australorp returned to the United Kingdom in the early 1920s and was successfully used by many poultry farmers as a commercial breed that could lay large quantities of good‐sized eggs. Coupled with this, the cockerels killed out into good carcasses of white‐skinned meat, with one drawback that the black stubs and legs stood out badly. This problem was highlighted when some housewives found out that they had been sold Australorp cockerels as small‐sized American Bronze turkeys and were not impressed.
Their egg‐laying capabilities were demonstrated at the laying trials, where several breeders combined breeding show stock and commercial birds from the same stock. Mr A. F. Arlett, Mr A. J. Spink from Nottinghamshire and Thomas Clarkson, who was the uncle to Clive Bradbury, the Club Secretary at one time, all won at the major shows and gained copper‐ringed birds at the trials.
The first bantam Aussies were seen in the early 1930s, with Mr Roy N. Corner claiming to be the originator. When Sid Newton was poultry manager for a man called Belbin, who was a Mill owner from Yorkshire, he was also involved with the miniatures, but this strain seemed to die out during the Second World War. Consequently, they were restarted during the 1940s. Tom Clarkson and George Robinson were among the pioneers of the breeds reconstruction.
The miniatures are now the dominant of the two sizes by a long way, with some excellently shaped specimens in all parts of the British Isles. As with other breeds, the miniatures should be an exact replica of the large fowl and be approximately one‐quarter the size. The breed also exists in self‐blue and self‐white forms and should be identical to the blacks in type. Very few are seen in the United Kingdom, but it is believed that they are plentiful in Australia and South Africa. The Australorp has been a popular breed for many years and should continue to be so. It is hardy, easy to prepare for showing and retains its showing potential for several years.
Image: Australorp bantam black female
Image: Australorp bantam blue female
Image: Australorp black bantam male
Image: Australorp trio of black bantams
Autosexing These are a group of breeds in various colours, where the chick produced from them can be selected into males and females at birth. For example, Crested Cream Legbar females are partridge in colour, whereas males have a white dot on the back of their head.
An autosexing breed is one in which the chicks at hatching can be sexed by their down colouring. It was when crossing the gold Campine with the barred Rock in 1929 that Professor R.C. Punnett and Mr M.S. Pease discovered the basic principle in their experimental work at Cambridge, and bred the Cambar. Barring is sex‐linked, there being a double dose in the male and a single dose in the female, with the barring being indicated by the light patch on the head of the chick. This light patch is very similar in chicks of both sexes with black down, but when the barring is transferred to chicks with brown down there is a marked difference. The light head spot on the female chick (one dose) is small and defined, whereas on the male chick (double dose) it spreads over the body. For that reason, the down colouring in the day‐old cockerel is much paler and the pattern of markings more blurred than in the newly hatched pullet chick, which has the sharper pattern of markings. Recently, autosexing breeds have warranted enough popularity to reform the previously inactive Autosexing Breeds Association.
Avian Referring to birds.
Axial feather The small feather between wing primaries and secondaries (not waterfowl).
Ayam Cemani The Cemani fowl originates from the Indonesian archipelago. In 1998, the first examples came to The Netherlands, and in 2008 to Britain. There is some variety in type, but most look rather gamey and all have single combs. The main characteristic of the breed is the intense black feather colour in combination with black skin colour, including face, ear lobes and comb. Black‐skinned fowl are valued in many Asian countries for eating in ceremonial traditions.
Image: Ayam Cemani female
Image: Ayam Cemani male
Aylesbury duck The Aylesbury derives its name from the town of Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom, where it was bred as a white table duck in the eighteenth century and used in increasingly large numbers to supply the London market. The white plumage was valued for quilt filling and the pale skin provided an attractive carcass. This light colouration is evident in the pink bill colour that continues to be a key characteristic of the breed. The Aylesbury was a leading waterfowl exhibit in the first National Poultry Show held at the London Zoological Gardens in June 1845. This was the beginning of live poultry exhibitions, and it was the Victorian stress on size that led to the development of the modern Aylesbury duck, with its pronounced keel and long, pink bill. It was standardised in 1865.
Image: Aylesbury drake
Image: Aylesbury duck
B
Back Top of body from base of neck to beginning of tail.
Bacteria Microorganisms that can cause disease in birds.
Bacteriology The study of bacteria.
Bali duck Originally imported from Malaysia in 1925, these ducks take their name from Bali, an island east of Java where they were indigenous. Originally standardised in 1930, the breed has recently been recreated in Britain (in the 1990s) by crossing crested ducks with Indian Runners.
Image: Bali crest
Image: Bali duck headshot
Image: Bali female
Image: Bali head.
Image: Bali male
Bands Stripes straight across a feather (see also ‘Cuckoo’ and ‘Pencilling’).
Bantam Miniature fowl, formerly accepted as one‐fifth the weight of the large breed it represented, but nowadays one‐quarter.
Barnevelder They are one of the latest breeds created when the breeding programme commenced in The Netherlands, at roughly the same period as the one for the Welsummer. The breed takes its name from a small town called Barneveld, where commencement of the breed began just before the First World War (1914–1918) and resulted in the first imports being made into Britain after the war ended. A breed club was formed for them in 1922. The reason for the breed’s creation was to produce a bird that was capable of laying a large quantity of good‐sized, dark‐brown‐coloured eggs. You could say that it was the forerunner to a modern brown‐egg‐producing hybrid.
The actual breeds used in the parent stock are unknown; the eggs used having been selected purely on shape and the necessary deep colour. Many of the birds involved were simply cross breeds. The breeds involved in the crosses included Cochins, probably partridge‐coloured, black–red Malays, Brahma types and most certainly, the Croad Langshan; all original breeds that carry the brown egg factor. Edward Brown recalls seeing some of the parent stock and describes them as including blacks, white laced, brown and buff coloured. Their combs varied between single, rose and walnut, with some birds being feathered legged, whereas others were clean shanked.
The inclusion of Malay blood is interesting in that both the Barnevelder and the Welsummer have yellow legs and feet but with a distinctive dark‐brown‐coloured toenail. Many of the Indian Game also have this feature, which is inherited from the Malay. The egg‐laying capabilities of the Barnevelder were illustrated at the Harper Adams laying trials, where during the 1925–1926 test, a pen of six Barney pullets laid a total of 1212 eggs in the 48‐week duration. This averaged at 202 a piece with 974 of them being first grade. The top pullet laid 240, which earned her a copper ring. Once the birds had settled into a consistent breeding pattern, they passed into the showman’s hands to develop the breed into one with uniform markings and shape etc. The result was that two types were produced, one with double lacing as found in Indian Game and the other, less elaborately marked and originally termed partridge or stippled.
The self‐black was approved by the Poultry Club Standards Committee in 1928. The birds had been shown for many years previously without full recognition, but even the seal of approval failed to increase their popularity. Apart from the colour of their shanks, they were very similar to the Australorp, which was enjoying good support; however, self‐black‐coloured birds are not the most popular colour with the general fancier. The original concept of the breed’s colouring was such that double mating would have to be used to obtain the best results. Later the Standard was altered, with double lacing on the females, and males having a reddish‐brown mottling to their black breast. This can be either as an outer lacing or better still a full double lacing. The neck and saddle are black with the same red–brown edging, showing a strongly marked quill shaft. The wing bow and bar can, on some of the best birds, be very well double‐laced. The tail and its side hangers should be black. There is a tendency for some birds to be light and under coloured; they should be dark slate in colouring. The female has basically the same double‐laced feathering all over, the more distinctive the better, and the aim is to achieve a total covering of perfectly double‐laced feathers on the thighs and up to the tail, under the throat and across the back and also over the wings. The ground colour on the female should be red–brown, the same as the male bird’s and free from ‘peppering’. The neck hackle should be black, as should the main tail feathers. A very important feature of both sexes is that the black really does carry a beetle‐green sheen to it. Any sign of purple cast is bad news.
The markings are allocated 25 points. Coming slightly higher are type and size with 30 points. The bird’s shape and carriage are nicely outlined by the fact that the breed has rather tight feathering; in many ways similar to an Australorp, which is consistent with other utility breeds. Their shoulders are fairly pronounced with the breast full and deep, which when accompanied by a shortish back, gives the bird an appearance of being only just longer than deep, especially with the tail being carried in a well‐upright position. The male’s tail has several furnishings but is not too flowing in appearance and the hen’s is only slightly fanned. The legs require a good round bone as do those of all utility breeds, and their colour is stated to be yellow, but, especially in the miniatures, there is a tendency for them to carry a dusky coloured front. Both sexes require a smooth‐textured and utility‐looking head with bold and alert‐looking eyes. The single comb is to be evenly serrated, not too large in size, standing on a strong base and with the leader following the head’s contours.
There are plenty of excellent miniatures around and, as in many breeds, probably nearer to perfection than the large fowl. The breed is an excellent choice for anyone wishing to keep birds that are capable of winning at shows, providing some good meals and capable of laying plenty of good‐sized eggs, though their colour in many cases is not as deep a brown as that of the Welsummer, probably because of the showman, who, as usual, with their desire for perfection in markings, has lost the bird’s ability to lay a dark‐coloured egg.
Image: Barnevelder bantam female
Image: Barnevelder bantam male
Image: Barnevelder large female
Image: Barnevelder pair large and bantam females
Image: Barnevelder silver bantam female
Barring Alternate stripes of light and dark across a feather, most distinctly seen in the barred Plymouth Rock.
Bassette This breed was mentioned in Britain during the 1920s and 1930s, but little has been heard of it since. There is no mention of the birds in either Wright’s ‘Book of Poultry’ or in Edward Brown’s ‘Volumes on Poultry Breeding’. This would suggest that the breed has been perfected by man in recent times. The breed would seem to be shrouded in a certain amount of mystery, certainly to an Englishman talking about a continental breed, of which very little has ever been recorded. The breed originated in the Liege area of Belgium, which is the same location where the Sans Queue version of the Ardennes had been recorded for centuries. It would therefore seem to be logical to assume that there is a relationship between the two breeds, especially as there is a distinct similarity between them. They are popular in Europe, being shown in a miniature version, although the original reference to the birds was a very successful farmyard‐type of laying fowl, capable of living semi‐wild and searching for much of its own keep. At that time there was no Standard for the birds and consequently in 1930, a breed club was formed and a Standard of excellence was produced. In 1934, this Standard was printed in Britain and attempts were made to create interest for the breed in this country. Unfortunately, this did not prove successful.
The Standard is well written and includes one feature that is probably unique. The ear lobes must be white in colour, in the shape of a triangle, as opposed to the usual round shape. There is a sketch of the birds showing this feature, but unfortunately no photographs illustrating that the phenomenon is possible to achieve. The bird is described as having a single comb, which is quite large, upright in the male and folded in the female. They have a long back, with a broad and deep breast that is well rounded. Their tail is carried half open and is fully furnished in males. Their legs should be in different shades of blue, depending on the bird’s feather colouring. The colour of their toenails is interesting; they are described as being horn coloured, as is their beak. This can also be blue in certain colour types.
