The Kingdom of the Isles E-Book

R. Andrew McDonald

• Herausgeber: John Donald
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 718

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2008

Beschreibung

This study explores the history of the western seaboard of Scotland (the Hebrides, Argyll and the Isle of Man) in a formative but often neglected era: the central middle ages, from the mightly Somerled to his descendant John MacDonald, the first Lord of the Isles (c. 1336). Drawing on a variety of sources, this very readable narrative deals with three major and closely interrelated themes: first, the existence of the Isles and coastal mainland as a kingdom from c.1100 to 1266; second, the rulers of the region, Somerled and his descendants, the MacDougalls, MacDonalds and MacRuaris; and third, the often complex relations among the Isles, Scotland, Norway and England. A fully rounded history emerges, which transcends national viewpoints. While political history predominates, the changing nature of society in the isles is emphasised throughout, and separate chapters address the church and monasticism as well as the monuments – the castles, monasteries, churches and chapels that form an enduring legacy.

Leseprobe

THE KINGDOM OF THE ISLES

SCOTLAND’S WESTERN SEABOARD, c.1100–c.1336

SCOTTISH HISTORICAL REVIEW MONOGRAPHS SERIES NO. 4

Scottish Historical Review Monographs are major works of scholarly research covering all aspects of Scottish history. They are selected and sponsored by the Scottish Historical Review Trust, in conjunction with Tuckwell Press

EDITORIAL BOARD

Stewart J. Brown, Alexander Grant, Alison E. Grant, I. G. C. Hutchison and Hector L. MacQueen, with the Trustees of the SHR Trust

CURRENT AND FORTHCOMING VOLUMES

1Helen M. Dingwall

Physicians, Surgeons and Apothecaries: Medicine in Seventeenth-Century Edinburgh

2Ewen A. Cameron

Land for the People? The British Government and the Scottish Highlands, c.1880–1925

3Richard Anthony

Herds and Hinds: Farm Labour in Lowland Scotland, 1900–1939

4R. Andrew McDonald

The Kingdom of the Isles: Scotland’s Western Seaboard, c.1100–c.1336

5John McIntosh

Church and Theology in Enlightenment Scotland: The Evangelical Party, 1740–1800

6Graeme Morton

Unionist-Nationalism: Governing Urban Scotland, 1830–1860

R. Andrew McDonald

THE KINGDOM OF THE ISLES

Scotland’s Western Seaboard c.1100–c. 1336

This eBook was published in Great Britain in 2022 by John Donald,

an imprint of Birlinn Ltd

Birlinn Ltd

West Newington House

10 Newington Road

Edinburgh

EH9 1QS

First published in Great Britain in 2008 by John Donald

Copyright © R. Andrew McDonald, 2008

eBook ISBN 978 1 78885 412 2

The right of R. Andrew McDonald to be identified as the author of this book has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted in any form, or by any means electronic, mechanical or photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the express written permission of the publisher.

The publishers gratefully acknowledge the support of the Strathmartine Trust towards the publication of this book

for

MY FATHER AND MOTHER

Contents

Illustrations

Abbreviations

Preface

Map: The Western Seaboard

Introduction

  1 Celts, Norsemen, and Gall-Gaedhil in the Isles: The Historical Background to 1100

  2 The Age of Somerled, 1100–1164

  3 ‘A Good Family’: The MacSorleys, 1164–1249

  4 1266 And All That: The MacSorleys and the Dilemma of Divided Allegiances, 1249–1266

  5 From Kings to Barons: Autonomy and Assimilation, 1264–1293

  6 MacDougalls, MacDonalds and MacRuairis in the Wars of Independence, c. 1293–1329

  7 The Western Seaboard meets Western Christendom: The Church and Monasticism, c. 1100–1300

  8 A Golden Age? The Monuments of the Western Seaboard

  9 Conclusion: In Search of the Kingdom of the Isles

Appendix: Genealogical Trees

Bibliography

Index

Illustrations

between pp. 144 and 145

Plate 1Grave slab from Kilmory Knap, Argyll

Plate 2Dunvegan Castle, Skye

Plate 3Mingary Castle, Ardnamurchan

Plate 4Castle Tioram, Ardnamurchan

Plate 5Skipness Castle, Kintyre

Plate 6Castle Sween, Knapdale

Plate 7Rothesay Castle, Bute

Plate 8Dunstaffnage Castle, Argyll

Plate 9Dunstaffnage Chapel

Plate 10Iona Abbey

Plate 11Iona Nunnery

Plate 12St Blane’s Chapel, Bute

Plate 13Archway, St Blane’s Chapel

Plate 14Chapel at Kilmory Knap, Knapdale

Plate 15Interior of chapel at Kilmory Knap

Plate 16Teampull Mholuidh, Lewis

Plate 17St German’s Cathedral, Isle of Man

Abbreviations

Ann. Conn.

Annála Connacht: the Annals of Connacht, AD 1224–1544,

ed. A. M. Freeman (Dublin, 1944; repr. 1970)

Ann. Four Masters

The Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters,

ed. J. O’Donovan (2nd edn, Dublin, 1856)

Ann. Inisf.

The Annals of Inisfallen (MS Rawlinson B 503),

ed. S. Mac Airt (Dublin, 1951; repr. 1977)

Ann. Loch Cé

The Annals of Loch Cé,

ed. W. M. Hennessy (Rolls Ser., 1871)

Ann. Tigernach

The Annals of Tigernach,

ed. W. Stokes, in

Revue Celtique,

xvi–xviii (1895–7)

Ann. Ulster

Annals of Ulster,

ed. W. M. Hennessy and B. McCarthy (Dublin, 1887–1901)

APS

The Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland,

ed. T. Thomson and C. Innes (Edinburgh, 1814–75)

Barbour, Bruce

[John Barbour],

Barbour’s Bruce,

ed. M. P. McDiarmid and J. A. C. Stevenson (STS, 1980–5)

Beauly Chrs.

The Charters of the Priory of Beauly with Notices of the Priories of Pluscardine and Ardchattan,

ed. E. C. Batten (Grampian Club, 1877)

Book of Dean of Lismore

Scottish Verse from the Book of the Dean of Lismore,

ed. W. J. Watson (Scottish Gaelic Texts Soc., 1937)

CDS

Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland,

ed. J. Bain

et al.

(Edinburgh, 1881–1986)

Chron. Bower

Walter Bower,

Scotichronicon,

ed. D. E. R. Watt (Aberdeen, 1987- )

Chron. Bower (Goodall)

Joannis de Fordun Scotichronicon cum Supplementis et Continuatione Walteri Boweri,

ed. W. Goodall (Edinburgh, 1759)

Chron. Fordun

John of Fordun,

Chronica Gentis Scotorum,

ed. W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871–2)

Chron. Holyrood

A Scottish Chronicle known as the Chronicle of Holyrood,

ed. M. O. Anderson (SHS, 1938)

Chron. Lanercost (Maxwell)

The Chronicle of Lanercost, 1272–1346,

trans. H. Maxwell (Glasgow, 1913)

Chron. Man

The Chronicle of Man and the Sudreys,

ed. P. A. Munch and Rev. Dr Goss (Manx Soc., 1874)

Chron. Melrose

The Chronicle of Melrose

(facsimile edn), ed. A. O. Anderson

et al.

(London, 1936)

Chron. Wyntoun (Laing)

Andrew Wyntoun,

The Orygnale Cronykil of Scotland,

ed. D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872–9)

Clanranald Bk.

The Book of Clanranald,

in A. Cameron,

Reliquiae Celticae: Texts, Papers and Studies in Gaelic Literature and Philosophy,

ed. A. MacBain and J. Kennedy (Inverness, 1894)

CPL

Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers relating to Great Britain and Ireland: Papal Letters,

ed. W. H. Bliss

et al.

(London, 1893– )

Diplom. Norv.

Diplomatarium Norvegicum,

ed. G. R. Unger and H.J. Huitfeldt (Kristiana, 1849–1919)

Donaldson, Scot. Hist. Docs.

Scottish Historical Documents,

ed. G. Donaldson (Edinburgh, 1970)

Durham Liber Vitae

Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dunelmensis,

ed. J. Stevenson (Surtees Soc., 1841)

ER

The Exchequer Rolls of Scotland,

ed. J. Stuart

et al.

(Edinburgh, 1878–1908)

ES

Early Sources of Scottish History, 500 to 1286,

ed. A. O. Anderson (London, 1922; repr. Stamford, 1990)

ESC

Early Scottish Charters prior to 1153,

ed. A. C. Lawrie (Glasgow, 1905)

Foedera

Foedera, Conventiones, Litterae et Cuiuscunque Generis Acta Publica,

ed. T. Rymer (Record Commission edn, 1816–69)

Hakon’s Saga

Sturla Thordarsson,

Hakon’s Saga,

in

The Saga of Hacon and a Fragment of the Saga of Magnus with appendices,

trans. G. W. Dasent (Rolls Ser.,

Icelandic Sagas,

iv, 1894).

HP

Highland Papers,

ed. J. R. N. Macphail (SHS, 1914–34)

Inchaffray Chrs.

Charters, Bulls and Other Documents Relating to the Abbey of Inchaffray,

ed. W. A. Lindsay

et al.

(SHS, 1908)

OPS

C. Innes

et al.

(eds.),

Origines Parochiales Scotiae: The Antiquities, Ecclesiastical and Territorial, of the Parishes of Scotland

(Bannatyne Club, 1851–5)

Paisley Reg.

Registrum Monasterii de Passelet,

ed. C. Innes (Maitland Club, 1832)

Palgrave, Docs. Hist. Scot.

Documents and Records illustrating the History of Scotland,

ed. F. Palgrave (London, 1837)

PSAS

Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland

(1851– )

RCAHMS

Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Constructions of Scotland

RMS

Registrum Magni Sigilii Regum Scotorum,

ed. J. M. Thomson

et al.

(Edinburgh, 1882–1914)

Rot. Scot.

Rotuli Scotiae in Turri Londinensi et in Domo Capitulari Westmonasteriensi Asservati,

ed. D. Macpherson

et al.

(London, 1814–19)

RRS, i

Regesta Regum Scottarum,

vol. I:

The Acts of Malcolm IV, King of Scots, 1153–1165,

ed. G. W. S. Barrow (Edinburgh, 1960)

RRS, ii

Regesta Regum Scottorum,

vol. II:

The Acts of William I, King of Scots, 1165–1214,

ed. G. W. S. Barrow (Edinburgh, 1971)

RRS, v

Regesta Regum Scottorum,

vol. V:

The Acts of Robert I, King of Scots, 1306–1329,

ed. A. A. M. Duncan (Edinburgh, 1988)

RRS: Handlist Alexander III

Regesta Regum Scottorum: Handlist of the Acts of Alexander III, The Guardians, John, 1249–1296,

comp. G. G. Simpson (Edinburgh, 1960)

SAEC

Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers, 500 to 1286,

ed. A. O. Anderson (London, 1908)

Scot. Stud.

Scottish Studies

SHR

Scottish Historical Review

SHS

Scottish History Society

SRS

Scottish Record Society

Stevenson, Documents

Documents Illustrative of the History of Scotland, 1286–1306,

ed. J. Stevenson (Edinburgh, 1870)

STS

Scottish Texts Society

TGAS

Transactions of the Glasgow Archaeological Society

TGSI

Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness

Watt, Fasti

D. E. R. Watt,

Fasti Ecclesiae Scoticanae Medii Aevi ad annum 1638: second draft

(SRS, 1969)

Preface

The aim of this book is to shed some light on the western seaboard of Scotland (Argyll, the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man) during a fascinating and formative, but nevertheless obscure, era: the period from the rise of Somerled of Argyll (c.1100) to the beginnings of the Lordship of the Isles (1336). It is nearly half a century since anything approaching a main historical survey of the region has been attempted (namely, Colin MacDonald’s History of Argyll, published in 1950, and the essay by A. A. M. Duncan and A. L. Brown on ‘Argyll and the Isles in the earlier Middle Ages’, in 1956). Given the advances in scholarship since then, the time seems right for such a volume.

The book has been written with the needs of an ordinary, informed reader in mind, one who does not know much about the history of the western seaboard in the Middle Ages but would like to know more. Although I have utilised references to permit readers to follow up on sources or ideas, I have attempted to keep them to a manageable number, and they are not, for the most part, discursive. I have also quoted translations of medieval texts rather than citing them in the original. The historian of medieval Scotland is fortunate to possess the translations of various sources published by A. O. Anderson in his Early Sources of Scottish History, 500 to 1286 and Scottish Annals From English Chroniclers, 500 to 1286. Many other important sources are available in translation, too, including the Chronicle of Man, John of Fordun’s Chronica Gentis Scotorum, and Walter Bower’s Scotichronicon. Although these translations are by no means a substitute for reading the medieval sources in the original (which I have endeavoured to do, and, when necessary, have adapted the translations accordingly), I have chosen to reference them wherever possible since they are available in standard editions that are readily accessible. For documents which are not available in translation I have provided my own summaries or translations. The one exception to these guidelines is Barbour’s Bruce, where I have followed the normal practice of quoting the original Scots.

On the matter of names, I have agonised greatly over whether to utilise Gaelic versions or their modern English (Scottish) equivalents. In the end I have settled upon the latter, partly in order to be consistent with other standard works; and partly because, by the middle of the thirteenth century at least, it is by no means certain how the west-coast bearers of names such as Alexander or John would have rendered them. As a general guide I have followed versions of Scottish names given in A. A. M. Duncan’s Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom, while Irish names have been modelled on the forms used in the New History of Ireland. I use the designation ‘MacSorleys’ to refer collectively to the descendants of Somerled. From about the second half of the thirteenth century I utilise either the surnames (MacDonald, MacDougall, MacRuairi) or the territorial designations (of Islay, of Argyll, of Garmoran) to distinguish the different branches descended from Donald, Dugald, and Ruairi respectively. Since the spelling of names prefixed by Mac (son) is so variable, it is difficult to be entirely consistent. I have endeavoured to use a capital letter for all forms following the prefix, whether a patronymic or a surname.

This work has benefited from the help and encouragement of many people. Archie Duncan read the entire book in manuscript form, saved me from many errors, and gave me much to consider. Ted Cowan has endured many discussions about the Western Highlands over the years, and I appreciate his willingness to share his knowledge with me. I am also grateful to Seán Duffy, who read and offered advice on parts of the manuscript relating to the Isle of Man. I have corresponded with John Bannerman, Rees Davies, Sandy Grant, David Sellar, Brendan Smith, and Keith Stringer, and their advice as well as their printed works have greatly influenced the present study. I must also thank the Manx National Trust, which provided me with information on Peel. My colleagues at Trent University have provided further guidance and support, and I am particularly grateful to David Page and Sarah Keefer. Finally, I would like to record my debt to two former instructors, John Gilchrist of Trent University, and John Trueman of McMaster University, who introduced me to the study of medieval history. Although all these people must share in whatever merits the work possesses, they are by no means to be held accountable for whatever errors remain.

Sharon Bosnell, Inge Lovell, and Anita Erschen at the Interlibrary Loans Office of the Bata Library at Trent University obtained many of the sources used in the preparation of this book; without their efforts it would have been much longer in the making. Donna Beaudin, Tracey O’Donnell and Lynn McIntyre at the University of Guelph xeroxed documents for me at short notice and never once complained. Cory Richards read early drafts of several chapters, while Karen Park and Tammy McGregor helped with the proofs, and they have saved me from some potentially embarrassing blunders.

A year as a resident don at Otonabee College, Trent University, in 1995–6 provided a comfortable environment in which to work, and I would like to thank the college head, administration, and my fellow dons for helping to create this setting. My secretary, Shirley Alguire, deserves special thanks for tolerating my demands on her time. The enthusiasm and interest of my students and former students for the topic has been a great inspiration to complete this book. I hope that it will answer their questions, and perhaps prompt them to ask some more.

I am very grateful to Alison Grant for typesetting the book and for drawing the map; and I am also grateful for her and Sandy Grant’s advice on content and style. Their hospitality, too, was most gracious! Thanks are also due to John and Val Tuckwell at Tuckwell Press, who have been a pleasure to work with and who were instrumental in securing the illustrations.

I have received some funding toward research from Trent University’s professional development fund for part-time instructors, and I am grateful to Historic Scotland, the National Monuments Record, and the Conference of Scottish Medievalists for permission to reproduce copyrighted material. Thanks also to the Communications Office at Trent University for preparing the genealogical tables.

My two cats, Islay and Erin, have also had a hand (or a paw) in the production of this book. Without their diligent assistance at the keyboard, it might have been completed a few months earlier.

Without question, however, my greatest debt is to friends and family. Bill and Laura MacGregor, Shane Aitken, and Heather Hall braved midges, mist, and mud to visit many of the sites with the author. Jacqueline Buchanan has helped with many facets of the work, but without her unwavering encouragement at a critical juncture it might have taken much longer to complete. My mother and father, Norma and Hugh, and my brother, Jeffrey, have always provided support, encouragement, and understanding for my choice of careers, and I hope that this volume offers some compensation. Finally, Margaret McDonald lived with this project for several years, and it owes much to her friendship, patience, and many sacrifices on my behalf. These people better than any others know how much of my time has been spent in the past at the expense of the present, and I am certain they would agree with Cicero: Vulgo enim dicitur: Iucundi acti labores.

R. A. McD.

Map: The Western Seaboard in the Central Middle Ages

Introduction

There are also many islands, both great and small, at the back of Scotia, between it and Ireland, separated from the Orkneys by a great intervening firth … These … islands, as well as many others, lie scattered about in the sea, on the western confines of Scotia, between it and Ireland; and some of these, to the north-west, look out upon the boundless ocean; whence it is believed that the inhabited world is bounded by this region of Scotia [John of Fordun, c.1385].1

Dr Samuel Johnson, perhaps one of the more eminent travellers to the western islands of Scotland (between Donald Monro in the mid-sixteenth century and the present-day tourists who board Caledonian MacBrayne ferries for the Isles at Oban pier), remarked of the Hebrides that, ‘Of these islands it must be confessed, that they have not many allurements, but to the mere lover of naked nature.’2 No one would dispute that the Hebrides are rich in natural beauty, but to these attractions Dr Johnson could easily have added historical ones. Indeed, despite his remarks, Johnson and his travelling companion, James Boswell, were quick to appreciate the historical monuments they observed during their famous tour in 1773. At Iona, a destination that Boswell, ‘had thought on with veneration’ as long as he could remember, the two friends embraced cordially upon arrival. Dr Johnson said:

We are now treading that illustrious island, which was once the luminary of the Caledonian regions, whence savage clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits of knowledge, and the blessings of religion. To abstract the mind from all local emotion would be impossible, if it were endeavoured, and would be foolish if it were possible … That man is little to be envied, whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer upon the ruins of Iona!3

Although few today might subscribe to his interpretations of the early medieval inhabitants of what would become Scotland, Johnson, along with Boswell, was clearly quite well aware of the historical significance of the ruins that lay before him. While staying with MacLean of Lochbuie on the Isle of Mull, Johnson pondered the castles of the Hebrides and their sea-girt locations, unable to discern the purposes for which they had been constructed, but impressed by them nonetheless. And, while enjoying the hospitality of the English-bred and educated chieftain Sir Alexander MacDonald, at Armadale in Skye, Dr Johnson nevertheless seems to have taken great pleasure in rebuking Sir Alexander for his abandonment of his Celtic heritage: ‘Were I in your place, sir, in seven years I would make this an independent island. I would roast oxen whole, and hang out a flag as a signal to the Macdonalds to come and get beef and whisky.’4 Unknowingly, perhaps, Johnson had harkened back to an age when not only Skye, but the rest of the western seaboard, too, could rightfully be called an independent kingdom of the Isles. It is this kingdom of the Isles that forms the focus of the present book.

The book deals with the history of the western seaboard of Scotland – the Hebrides, Argyll, and the Isle of Man – in an era which was formative, yet which remains obscure: that of the central Middle Ages, between c.1100 and c.1336. The period possesses more than just an artificial unity. From about 1100, a powerful new dynasty, that of Somerled MacGillebrigte, rose to power in the western seaboard, and wrested control over many of the islands from the Scandinavian rulers of Man. Somerled and his descendants, the MacDonalds, MacDougalls, MacRuairis, and others, would hold power in the West in one guise or another until 1493, when the MacDonald Lordship of the Isles was finally forfeited to the Scottish Crown. Yet within the continuum of dominance by the MacSorleys (as the descendants of Somerled can collectively be known), 1336 marks a significant development. In that year, John of Islay, a great-great-great grandson of Somerled, first utilised the style dominus Insularum or Lord of the Isles, and this date is consequently taken by historians as marking the beginning of the Lordship of the Isles. The date 1336, therefore, serves as a convenient terminal point for the present study, although it would be misleading to view the central Middle Ages as entirely disconnected from what preceded and what followed. The origins and ancestry of Somerled were rooted in the Scandinavian period, and, similarly, the MacDonald Lords of the Isles in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries traced their ancestry from Somerled.

It is perhaps worth while asking why the central Middle Ages should be singled out for special attention, particularly since the period is often addressed within the context of Scandinavian or Viking Scotland.5 Quite simply, by comparison both with what precedes it (Viking-Age Scotland), and with what follows it (the Lordship of the Isles), this era remains poorly known and relatively obscure.6 In contrast to Viking-Age Scotland and the Lordship of the Isles, both of which are well served by recent historical works, academic and popular, no comprehensive survey of the western seaboard in the central Middle Ages has, to my knowledge, ever been written. This book, therefore, will fill an obvious lacuna in Scottish historiography.

That said, there is quite a considerable amount of secondary literature to be taken into account. Many aspects of the history of the Isles in this era have been discussed in more general studies, by scholars such as Donald Gregory (in the introduction to his Western Highlands and Isles of Scotland, 1493–1625),7 W. F. Skene (in his groundbreaking Celtic Scotland and Highlanders of Scotland),8 E. W. Robertson, D. Mitchell, R. L. Bremner, W. C. MacKenzie,9 C. MacDonald (whose History of Argyll is still very useful),10 and, most recently, Geoffrey Barrow (in a chapter in his Kingship and Unity).11 Moreover, specialist articles on various aspects of the history of the region, including architecture, archaeology, and genealogy, are continually appearing in both academic and popular journals. One article that especially deserves to be singled out is that of A. A. M. Duncan and A. L. Brown, on ‘Argyll and the Isles in the earlier Middle Ages’,12 perhaps the most comprehensive and scholarly survey of the region during the period in question yet published.

This book deals with three major, and closely interrelated, themes: first, the existence of the Isles and coastal mainland of the region as a Kingdom of the Isles between 1100 and 1265; second, the rulers of the region, Somerled and his descendants, the MacSorleys; and third, the multiple and often very complex relations among the Hebrides, Scotland, Ireland, England, and – to 1266 – Norway. These three themes lend a certain unity to the region and to the time period in question, but there are other subthemes that also guide the present study: the development of the Church and monasticism, and the nature of the society of the western seaboard during the central Middle Ages. In both cases the fragmentary surviving evidence throws only fitful light upon these themes, but some attempt to squeeze the sources for information must nevertheless be made. For this purpose, a third subtheme is particularly important: the monuments of the western seaboard, especially the castles, monasteries, and parish churches and chapels. These physical remains are often held to be the preserve of the archaeologist and of the architectural historian, but as historical sources they have much to tell us; and they are also among the most visible (and often the most spectacular) of the legacies left behind by the society of the western seaboard. Indeed, for the modern visitor to the Western Isles, these monuments prompt fundamental questions: who built them, and why? It is my hope that this book will provide answers to those questions, and set those answers within a broader historical context.

Historical Sources and Historical Perspectives

With the central Middle Ages, historians of the western seaboard encounter a rather surprising paradox in the contemporary sources. As we move from the early medieval period into that from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, there is a gradual shift in both the quantity and the provenance of our historical documentation. Between about 500 and 1100, most of the surviving source material actually seems to display a bias towards the Highlands.13 Up to the mid-eighth century, the Irish Annals, for example, have been shown to contain material derived from an Iona chronicle, now lost; the lives of saints like Columba are rich in Highland material; and there is even the remarkable administrative document known as the Senchus fer nAlban (‘History of the men of Alba’), the core of which dates from the mid-seventh century and pertains to the western seaboard. By contrast, the Highlands and Islands, in the period between 1100 and 1300, are poorly served with historical documentation, at a time when the emphasis in the sources shifts to the Lowland regions. Thus, just as we are able, almost for the first time, to construct a relatively comprehensive history of the Scottish kingdom itself, the peripheral regions of the kingdom – that is to say, most of the Highlands and Islands – begin to fade into the background. Not only does the interest of the historian shift to the better-documented Lowland regions, but the sources for the history of the western Highlands become less amenable to analysis. It is no exaggeration to say that the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are among the most obscure in the whole history of the Highlands.

Our knowledge of the western seaboard in the central Middle Ages must be gleaned from a diverse, patchy, and often confusing array of chronicles, annals, sagas, charters, poems, genealogies, and clan histories of Scottish, Irish, Norse, Manx, and English provenance, written in Latin, Gaelic, Scots, and Norse languages. Not all are contemporary with the events that they purport to describe, nor are they of equal authority; and the use of sagas, genealogies, and clan histories is the subject of considerable debate. It will, therefore, be useful to draw a brief sketch of the types of sources that must be utilised in order to reconstruct the history of the western seaboard in the Middle Ages.

There were really only two strictly contemporary Scottish chronicles for the twelfth and thirteenth centuries: the Chronicles of Melrose and Holyrood. Both were composed in monasteries at the heart of the Scottish kingdom, by foreign elements in Scottish society, and neither took much interest in events on the kingdom’s periphery. Neither was written specifically as a history of Scotland, nor even as history in general, but were records of recent significant events; both were more concerned with religious, than secular, affairs; and both exhibit the usual characteristics of medieval annals: a lack of context for events; a lack of explanation; and a lack of interest in causation. The mid-thirteenth-century Chronicle of Man, composed, it is thought, at the Cistercian monastery of Rushen on the Isle of Man, is the closest that we come to an indigenous account from the Isles during our period. But, important as it is, it is also, at best, a confused source; its chronology has been called into question on many occasions, and, as is pointed out in Chapter 2, it tends to be hostile toward the descendants of Somerled. Sources of Irish, Norse, and English provenance are also crucial to our investigation. Of the Irish sources, the most important are without doubt the Irish Annals, many of which, by the twelfth century, were contemporary with the events they described. They share the drawback with the Scottish and Manx chronicles that much of the information they record is incidental and external, but they have the attribute of viewing Scottish society, especially the periphery, from a Gaelic perspective, and they also record island events. The Norse evidence, consisting largely of two sagas, is based upon oral tradition written down after 1200. The Orkneyinga Saga, which takes as its focus the powerful Orkney earldom between its formation and the twelfth century, is important because the Northern Isles were closely connected with the Hebrides and Argyll during our period, and, accordingly, this saga provides valuable information on events in the Isles. For the momentous events of the thirteenth century in the Hebrides, Sturla Thordarsson’s Hakon’s Saga is a valuable, although not unbiased, account. It throws much light on the thirteenth-century descendants of Somerled and their dilemma of divided allegiances, and it has the added advantage that it seems to sympathise with the Hebrideans; what is not dear is the saga’s historicity.14 English writers, like Ailred of Rievaulx (d. 1166) and Matthew Paris (c. 1200–59), also shed some light on the Isles in the central Middle Ages, but most of the information they record is incidental and often without context, and they generally remain unsympathetic because they regarded Scotland and its inhabitants – particularly those of the remote regions like Argyll and Galloway – as backward and barbaric.15

Another category of source material is the later medieval and post-medieval. This embraces non-contemporary Scottish chroniclers such as John of Fordun (c.1380), Andrew of Wyntoun, Prior of Loch Leven (c.1415), and Walter Bower, Abbot of Inchcolm (c.1445), whose works are also crucial to our understanding of the western seaboard. Our knowledge of the central Middle Ages is not so great that we can ignore these writers altogether, especially since they sometimes provide the only account of events otherwise unrecorded, and they undoubtedly had access to sources of information that are now lost. While it would be wrong to accept their statements wholly on trust, we should not dismiss them out of hand, either, and often their version of events can be buttressed by other circumstantial evidence provided by charters or architecture. Finally, although far removed from the events they purport to describe, the late medieval and post-medieval genealogical information and the clan histories, discussed at greater length in Chapter 2, are increasingly regarded as preserving fossilised oral tradition, and these sources often illuminate regions and problems which are otherwise virtually unrecorded.

Two other types of evidence must be mentioned briefly: charters and non-documentary sources. From the late eleventh century, the use of written titles to land has left many charters, the evidence of which greatly enhances the extant narrative sources. A charter was a ‘formal and legal record of a grant of land and rights’; it is not the conveyance itself, but rather a record of this, drawn up for posterity.16 The earliest Scottish charters, recording grants of land to Durham Cathedral, date from the very end of the eleventh century, but before long the use of the charter was increasingly common in Scotland. Nevertheless, for the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the geographical distribution of this material, like the narratives, is heavily biased towards the Lowland regions, and documentation relating to the margins remains scarce. The earliest charters relating to the western seaboard date from the middle of the thirteenth century, and even though King Robert I (1306–29) is known to have made many grants of land that pertained to the West, only a few survive in full, though others are known in outline form from an index of now-lost materials.

Finally, there is the unwritten evidence: the physical remains of the past, and the very structure of the landscape itself. ‘Documents and texts by themselves are not enough’, writes Bruce Webster. ‘Before we can understand them we need to use our imagination, our eyes and our feet, tramping the countryside, to learn about the land itself, and about the remains of the past that lie on every side.’17 Although it is difficult to visit the remains of a medieval monastery, or castle, without being influenced either by the Romantic movement of the eighteenth century or by the finely trimmed lawns and didactic presentations of the present-day heritage industry, there is a considerable corpus of archaeological, architectural, and topographical evidence which enhances our knowledge of the period in question. Indeed, Argyll and the Isles are rich in historical monuments.18 Moreover, the study of place-names also yields much fruitful evidence. But medieval stone walls and place-names carry no dates, and the historian seizes uncritically upon the conclusions of archaeologists or toponymists at his peril; they must be used with caution and a certain amount of understanding – especially where all-important questions of dating are concerned.19

It is, perhaps, worth while at this point considering some of the limitations of the work, which have been imposed largely by the nature of the source material. The book is primarily about the politics of the western seaboard in the central Middle Ages, the ruling families of the West, their foreign and domestic relations, battles, and treaties. If the emphasis throughout is on the elite of the islands, it is a focus imposed by the sources; we simply do not possess information about those who worked the soil, raised the animals, and fished in the depths of the sealochs, to write with knowledge about their way of life. Medieval chroniclers and annalists said nothing of the daily rhythms of life, and the charter and material evidence is too sparse to shed much light on this otherwise dark corner of the history of the Isles in the central Middle Ages.

Another difficulty, and one that may well surprise the reader more familiar with the modern era, is the fact that our chronology is often, of necessity, very vague. We do not always know the exact year in which an event transpired: the expedition of Alexander II to Argyll, for example, may have taken place in 1221 or 1222, or there may have been a campaign in each year; such is the state of the source material that we cannot be sure. The difficulties with chronology will also become apparent in discussing the lives and careers of the MacSorleys. Lacking records of their birth and, in many cases, of their death, their dates are most often best expressed by an approximate range in which they were active – a ‘floruit’. The death of Ranald, the son of Somerled, for instance, can be placed with certainty only in the first quarter of the thirteenth century; that of his son, Donald, the ancestor of the Clan Donald, is similarly uncertain. The MacSorleys, then, flit in and out of historical documentation like moths around a flame; many of them remain shadowy figures about whom relatively little can ever be known. In short, the reconstruction of the history of the Western Isles in the central Middle Ages requires, ‘a creative historical imagination, as well as a determination to use every scrap of evidence that exists, whatever form it may take’.20

If the state of the historical sources is partly responsible for the fact that no full-scale history of the Isles in our period has ever been undertaken, it does not completely explain the lack of a comprehensive study of the western seaboard. Much of the neglect of the Hebrides in the Middle Ages by modern writers stems from the constraints implicit in most modern historical writing: to put it simply, we are too well conditioned to thinking in terms of national history. When the foundations of modern historical writing were laid in the nineteenth century, history was primarily an account of how the great powers of the world had come into being. Such notions sprang, in turn, from Darwinian models of biological evolution, each nation having its own character and destiny, with, consequently, a teleological emphasis upon its development into a nation-state. Scotland, which might be deemed to be an example of an ‘unsuccessful’ nation-state because of the effects of the Union with England in 1707, nevertheless possesses enough national identity to allow its history to be written in this same tradition. But kingdoms, states, or lordships which did not succeed in becoming European powers, did not warrant study. Thus, they are all too often ignored in the tradition of historical writing.

As a prominent Irish scholar has put it: ‘The writing of national history as a genre has had the unfortunate result of obscuring entities once important in their own right that have not survived as nation states or even as geographical units.’21 This is particularly true apropos the kingdom of the Isles, which, superficially, at least, had a most tumultuous history, and which did not evolve into a nation-state. The deaths of Godred Crovan in 1095 and Somerled in 1164 removed powerful, stabilising elements, and gave way to periods of confusion and turbulence. Following the partition of the kingdom between the sons of Somerled and the Manx kings in 1156 and 1164, there were numerous power struggles between the two sides, which contributed significantly to the tumultuous conditions in the Hebrides. Finally, in 1266, both the Isle of Man and the Hebrides were ceded to Scotland; this fact notwithstanding, Edward I seized control of the strategically important Isle of Man in 1290, and it took the Scots about another twenty-five years to recover it, albeit briefly. In short, for around fifty years in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, the Isle of Man was little more than a bone poised between the snarling jaws of the two most ‘successful’ states of medieval Britain: England and Scotland.

The fate of the Isle of Man between 1266 and 1338 neatly exemplifies the fate of the kingdom of the Isles at the hands of modern historians. As rulers on what British historians have come to term the periphery, or margin, of the Scottish kingdom, the descendants of Somerled, as well as their relatives and rivals, the Manx kings, have fallen between the cracks in modern historical writing. Most recent Scottish historical writing, for example, takes as its central theme the ‘making of the kingdom’ – the development of the Scottish monarchy and the territorial consolidation of the kingdom – and has paid relatively little attention to the peripheral regions. Where these regions are discussed, it is seldom in their own right, but rather in the context of the so-called ‘winning of the West,’ the process whereby the Hebrides and Argyll in the west, Galloway in the south-west, and Moray in the north were brought under the authority of the Scottish king. Hence, the Hebrides and their rulers, the MacSorleys, are thrust into the mould of nationalistic historical writing, which relegates them to the margins of Scotland and Ireland; they are seldom, if ever, viewed in a maritime context in their own right.22 Even R. H. Kinvig, in his History of the Isle of Man,23 had surprisingly and disappointingly little to say of Somerled and his descendants, while a more recent biography of King John of England ignores his dealings with the Manx kings in the context of his relations with native rulers of the British Isles.24 More promising is the current trend towards a holistic British historiography, which is less concerned with old-fashioned nationalist history than with comparative, trans-national and cross-border themes.25This approach offers the most potential for lifting the sea-kingdom of the Isles from out of its crack between two national histories, and placing it into its proper setting: that of a maritime, multi-ethnic milieu. In short, the traditional perspectives need to be turned upside down: the periphery should become the core; the core should become the margin. To the MacSorleys and the Manx kings, as well as to others who plied the western seas in their war-galleys, these seaways defined their core; Scotland, Ireland, and England were their periphery.26

‘A sea-coast inhabited by highlanders’: Topography and Geography

The Hebrides stretch in a double archipelago lying parallel to the west coast of Scotland – over 500 islands of varying size and shape, shielding the mainland from the battering of the Atlantic. In total, these islands curve for nearly 250 miles, through three degrees of latitude, from the Mull of Oa in the south to the Butt of Lewis in the north. Most are tiny and uninhabited, but about twenty or thirty larger islands form two main groups: the Outer and Inner Hebrides. The Outer Hebrides – Lewis and Harris, Berneray, the Uists, Benbecula, Barra, and others – lie thirty-five to fifty miles from the mainland, a narrow and compact group stretching for some 130 miles, which, at some point in their distant past, formed a single island. Indeed, they are so closely connected that the whole chain is sometimes referred to as ‘the Long Island’. These outer islands overlap for some sixty miles with the inner islands. The Inner Hebrides, generally more scattered and stretching for about 150 miles, lie closer to the coast, and can be divided into three major groups. In the north, Skye with the adjacent islands, including Raasay, Rhum, Eigg, and Muck, is separated from the mainland by part of the Minch, the Inner Sound, Kyleakin, the mouth of Loch Alsh, and the Sound of Sleat. The islands south of Ardnamurchan can be divided into two groups: the Mull group, stretching from Ardnamurchan to the Firth of Lorn, and the Islay group, stretching from the Firth of Lorn to Kintyre. The Mull group includes Mull, Lismore, Kerrera, Iona, Staffa, Ulva, the Treshnish Isles, and Coll and Tiree. The Islay group contains Islay, Jura, Scarba, Gigha, Colonsay and Oronsay. The traditional definition of the Hebrides excludes those islands that lie deeply within the arms of the Scottish mainland, such as the islands of the Firth of Clyde, as well as the Isle of Man. For the purposes of this book, however, these islands will be encompassed by the terms Hebrides or Western Isles; as the following pages will make clear, their history is intricately bound up with that of the rest of the western seaboard.

The Hebrides exhibit a very diverse topography. They range from great ‘fangs of rock 600 feet high, like St Kilda, to flat pancakes like Tiree; from close-packed mountains that tower out of the water, like Rhum or Skye, to the low monotonous line of Coll’.27 Generally speaking, the outer Isles are lower to the sea, hilly and gently rolling (except Harris). Their eastern shores are rocky, or dominated by cliffs and skerries, while the western shores, facing the Atlantic, are often characterised by sandy beaches and stretches of meadowland. The inner Isles, on the other hand, share many characteristics with the adjacent mainland: they rise higher from the water, display great peaks and valleys, and often possess long sea inlets. Thus, while Clisham on Harris rises to about 2,600 feet and is the highest hill in the outer Isles, the Cuillins on Skye rise to some 3,200 feet, and Ben More on Mull to 3,170 feet.28

During the period covered by this book, the Hebrides were closely connected to the neighbouring region of the Scottish mainland, Argyll. Medieval Argyll was much more extensive than the modern region of the same name; it embraced the whole area from the Mull of Kintyre and the Clyde in the south to Loch Broom and beyond in the north. The seventeenth-century Book of Clanranald several times refers to Argyll as encompassing the lands from Dumbarton to Caithness, or from Dingwall to the Mull of Kintyre. This vast and rugged region with its extensive coastline was commonly divided into two areas: North Argyll, the region between Glenelg and Loch Broom, which pertained to Moray and to Ross in the Middle Ages, and South Argyll, stretching from Knoydart to the Mull of Kintyre, known as ‘Ergadia que pertinet ad Scociam’ (‘Argyll which pertains to Scotland’);29 it is the latter region with which this work is principally concerned. The eastern boundary of Argyll was the natural barrier of the mountain range known as Drumalban, the Spine of Britain. The twelfth-century tract De Situ Albanie referred to it as ‘the mountains which divide Scotia from Argyll’, and its use to distinguish the west from the central and eastern regions dates back to the time of St Columba.30 These mountains cut off the Atlantic coast from the rest of Scotland,31 and throughout the period covered by this book, travel from Argyll and the Isles by sea to Norway was easier than the overland route, through heavily forested mountains, to the Scottish court at Edinburgh, Perth, or Stirling.

This vast coastal region has been historically divided into several distinct sections: Kintyre and Knapdale, Cowal, Lorn, Ardnamurchan, and Morvern Kintyre, along with its northern link of Knapdale, forms a long, narrow peninsula jutting south from Crinan for about fifty-five miles to its southern-most extremity, the Mull of Kintyre. Because the sea-loch of West Loch Tarbert penetrates to within a mile of East Loch Tarbert, Kintyre is all but an island, which means that its history is closely linked with that of the western seaboard, rather than with the mainland. Cowal, separated from Knapdale by Loch Fyne, is bounded on the east by Loch Long and the Clyde estuary; it reaches out to embrace the Isle of Bute, which is separated from it by the Kyle of Bute. Despite its proximity to Glasgow, it remains, even today, largely remote and inaccessible, because it is heavily cut into by sea-lochs with steep mountain ridges in between Lorn, perhaps the best-known region of Argyll, is very extensive; the modern-day territory stretches from Loch Fyne northwards to Loch Leven, and eastward to Rannoch. It is notable for its varied physical features which include a scenic sea-coast, jutting sea-lochs like Crinan, Craignish, or Melfort, and mountains like Ben Cruachan or Buachaille Etive Mor. This was the heart of the MacDougall, and later the Campbell, lordships, and it is liberally dotted with historic monuments. Finally, there is the Ardnamurchan-Morvern region, a large, detached, and very scenic territory on the west side of Loch Linnhe. It is a roughly triangular-shaped peninsula that is nearly bisected by Loch Sunart, which separates Ardnamurchan from Morvern.32 Remote and inaccessible by automobile even today, the sea-girt castles which helped to define and defend this region are sufficient reminder that the highway of the seas helped integrate even Ardnamurchan and Morvern into the kingdom of the Isles. It seems clear that, when people of the Middle Ages thought of Argyll and Kintyre, they tended to associate them with the Isles rather than with the Scottish mainland: Matthew Paris’s map of Britain, c.1250, labels Argyll ‘a sea-coast inhabited by highlanders’.33 In geo-political terms, then, mainland Argyll belonged not to the heart of the Scottish kingdom, but rather to the maritime world of the western seaboard from the eleventh to the late thirteenth century – a theme to which we shall return shortly.

Medieval writers were surprisingly well informed about the geography and topography of the western seaboard of Scotland. Perhaps the most definitive of the late medieval works of topography was written in 1549, when the newly appointed archdeacon of the Isles, Donald Monro, travelled through many of the islands and subsequently wrote his comprehensive topographical essay on the western islands: the Description of the Western Isles of Scotland. Beginning with the Isle of Man in the south, and concluding with Rona in the north, Monro described or mentioned some 250 islands in total, only a small handful of which remain to be identified today.34 Despite the value of his account, Monro was not, however, the first to compile a description of the islands, and it is worthwhile considering exactly what medieval people knew of the lands and seas of the western seaboard.

Despite their position on the periphery of the Scottish kingdom and, indeed, on the margins of Europe in general, the western islands were not terra incognita. Robert of Torigni, the abbot of Mont St Michel in Normandy (1154–86), and the author of a chronicle for the years 1112–86, noted that the kingdom and the bishopric of the Isles contained thirty-two (unnamed) islands; he may have obtained his information directly from a bishop of the Isles. Reginald of Durham, who compiled an account of the miracles of St Cuthbert in the mid-twelfth century, also included a brief description of the Isles, which began with Uist and Lewis, included Coll, Tiree, Colonsay, and Skye, and ended with Islay, Iona, and Mull. It is an intriguing question as to how a monk of Durham should come to possess detailed information on the Western Isles; one possible solution is that such knowledge was obtained from the rulers of the West, the MacSorleys themselves, since in 1175, Dugald, the son of Somerled, and his clerk visited Durham and made a gift to St Cuthbert.35

By the early thirteenth century, we possess both further literary descriptions and topographical information contained, in official documents. Gerald of Wales (d. c.1220) included a brief passage on the northern and western islands in his Topography of Ireland:

In the Northern Ocean beyond Ulster and Galloway are a number of islands, namely the Orcades and the Incades, and many others. Almost all of them are held by, and are subject to the Norwegians. For even though they lie nearer to other regions, nevertheless the Norwegians, who keep their eyes ever on the ocean, lead, above any other people a piratical life. Consequently, all their expeditions and wars are decided by naval engagements …

Among the smaller islands there is one of fair size that is now called the Isle of Man … They say that it is equidistant from the north of Ireland and Britain.36

A papal privilege for Iona Abbey, in 1203, provides evidence of some topographical knowledge; it listed possessions in the Outer Isles, Mull, Iona, Colonsay, Oronsay, Canna, and other individual churches and lands. It was probably drawn up from written documents, perhaps charters given by Ranald, the son of Somerled, and other benefactors of the monastery. There is also a papal bull for the bishops of the Isles, purporting to have been issued in 1231 but in fact most likely a forgery of between about 1340 and 1505. It contains a fairly comprehensive listing of the islands, from Bute and Arran to Skye; the last six names on the list are difficult to read and identify, but they might correspond to the ‘Long Island’ with its division into Barra, Uist, Harris and Lewis.37 Finally, the treaty of Perth (1266) which transferred the Western Isles to Scotland from Norway, referred to ‘Man with the rest of the Sudreys and all other islands on the west and south of the great sea.’38 This can hardly be characterised as a detailed topographical description of the Hebrides, but the cession of the Western Isles to Scotland paved the way for the Scottish government to acquire a sound knowledge of the western seaboard by the late thirteenth century. Thus, when the first Parliament of John Balliol in 1293 created three new sheriffdoms in the West, it was possible to outline in some detail the territorial divisions of these sheriffdoms, and to name the principal landholders in each.39

By the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the integration of the western seaboard into the Scottish kingdom meant that very detailed and comprehensive topographical knowledge was available. John of Fordun (c.1380), who began his chronicle with a portrait of the land and peoples of Britain, included a description of the islands of western Scotland. This represents the earliest such description in a Scottish source. ‘There are also many islands’, he wrote, ‘both great and small, at the back of Scotia, between it and Ireland, separated from the Orkneys by a great intervening firth.’ Beginning with the Isle of Man in the south, Fordun then worked his way northwards through the islands, listing forty-five of them, including Arran, Bute, Islay, Colonsay, Jura, Mull, Iona, Kerrera, Lismore, Coll and Tiree, Barra, Uist, Rhum, Skye, Lewis and St Kilda. He then concluded with the comment that,

The above-mentioned islands, as well as many others, lie scattered about in the sea, on the western confines of Scotia, between it and Ireland; and some of these, to the north-west, look out upon the boundless ocean; whence it is believed that the inhabited world is bounded by this region of Scotia.40

Fordun’s list of islands has been called an ‘elaborate essay in topography’,41 but the source of his information is not clear. The suggestion that Fordun had written his description after visiting the islands is not now in favour; a more recent explanation is that the chapter was based upon the alleged papal bull of 1231 discussed above, of which Fordun might have obtained a copy. But a careful examination of Fordun’s description of the Isles, its attention to secular sites, and its relative ignorance of ecclesiastical ones, has led to the conclusion that his source was not of Manx or Iona provenance, but rather an informant in, or close to, royal circles of the late fourteenth century 42 The fifteenth-century chronicler Walter Bower, Abbot of Inchcolm, incorporated much of Fordun’s material in the early books of his Scotichronicon, including the description of the Western Isles. But Bower also made many small additions to Fordun’s topographical sketch, revealing what his modern editor calls ‘an unexpected knowledge of the west coast’;43 this is especially true when Bower discussed Scotland’s ‘famous lochs and very broad stretches of water containing a large number of islands …’44

Bower’s discussion of the famous lochs of Scotland returns us to the essentially maritime context of the region; just as the sea dominated the topography of the region, so too did it dictate the politics. There is perhaps no more vivid illustration of this theme than the events of 1098, when King Magnus Barelegs of Norway sailed to the west to exact tribute from the troubled Kingdom of Man and the Isles. In the course of his expedition, he came to an agreement with the king of Scots, whereby Magnus should be allowed to have ‘the islands off the west coast which were separated by water navigable by a ship with the rudder set’. The Orkneyinga Saga, which describes this agreement, goes on to relate how, when King Magnus reached the Kintyre peninsula, ‘he had a skiff hauled across the narrow neck of land at Tarbert, with himself sitting at the helm, and this is how he won the whole peninsula’45 Whether the feat was historical or not, it is clear that Norwegian claims to Kintyre never seem to have been recognised. But what is really important is that the whole arrangement, which attempted to distinguish between mainland and insular territory, was quite impractical, particularly in a region of Scotland where it is difficult to tell if land is insular or mainland. As Barbara Crawford has remarked, ‘the saga tale of King Magnus’ attempts to include Kintyre in his lot no doubt reflects a realisation that to separate Kintyre from the islands to which it is linked by water made no sense in politico-geographical terms’.46

Whether the feat of Magnus Barelegs at Tarbert in 1098 was historical or not – and some historians have doubted its authenticity – it nevertheless demonstrates how the sea acted as the unifying factor between mainland Argyll and the islands. Indeed, the western seaboard of Scotland was part of a single cultural zone during the central Middle Ages; the basis of this culture was its maritime orientation, and it was the highway of the western seas that lent unity to the kingdom of the Isles. Some of the most remarkable geographical features of Argyll and the Hebrides are the deep sea-lochs and inlets stretching far inland. Notable sea-lochs include Loch Sunart, which penetrates eastward between Ardnamurchan and Morvern. The Sound of Mull separates Morvern from Mull, and from it Loch Aline branches north-eastward. Loch Linnhe stretches north-east from the south-eastern end of the Sound of Mull, and separates Morvern from Appin. From the junction of the Sound of Mull and Loch Linnhe, the Sound of Lorn reaches southward, separating Mull from Lorn, and embracing Kerrera, while Loch Etive branches off to the east. Loch Awe, in the heart of Lorn, was described by Bower as ‘twenty-four miles long, where there are three castles’. From the southern reaches of the Sound of Lorn, the Sound of Jura opens; Loch Craignish and Loch Crinan run off to the north-north-east and the east-south-east respectively. The Sound of Jura separates Knapdale from Islay and Jura, and is joined on its lower part by three virtually parallel Lochs: Sween, Caolisport, and West Loch Tarbert. On the other side of Kintyre, the Firth of Clyde at its widest extent, separates the southern part of Kintyre from Ayrshire, while Kilbrannan Sound, an arm of the Firth of Clyde, separates Arran from Kintyre. Loch Fyne, a continuation to the north of Kilbrannan Sound, penetrates the mainland deeply, first in a north-north-westerly direction and then north-north-east; it separates Cowal from Kintyre, Knapdale, and Lorn, and from its north-western extremity reaches Loch Gilp. Loch Long, jutting northwards from the Firth of Clyde, separates Cowal from Lennox.

So serrated is the coastline of Argyll that no part of the interior lies more than about twelve miles from either the open sea or a sea-loch. This fact of geography is appropriately reflected in the name of the region Morvern, which probably derives from the Gaelic a’ Mhuir-bhearna, meaning ‘sea-cleft’ or ‘sea-gap’, and refers to its many indentations, which include Loch Teacuis, Loch Aline, Loch a Choire and the river of Gleann Dubh with Loch Uisge.47 Many of the Hebrides, like Mull, Skye, and Lewis, are similarly indented with deep lochs; it has, for example, been estimated that no point on the Isle of Skye is more than five miles from the shore, and that these inlets, bays, and arms of the sea give the Hebrides a total coastline approaching 4,000 miles.

The importance of the sea as a highway and a line of communication is easily overlooked, particularly by peoples who are conditioned to thinking in terms of terrestrial civilisations and empires. In the Middle Ages, most of western Europe inherited this pattern of thought from the Roman Empire. ‘All roads lead to Rome’, goes the old axiom; it neatly emphasises the terrestrial organisation of the Roman Empire, which is often symbolised by its vast system of overland communication, and its physical frontiers (limes) in the sweltering deserts of Syria or the cold and damp hills of Northumbria. The Romans possessed a fleet, it is true, but it was the legions upon which the glory of the Empire was based. The ideas of terrestrial empire were perpetuated and spread by the Christian church, which carried them well beyond the old frontiers of the Roman Empire, in the course of the conversion of the Germanic peoples, and they were inherited by early medieval rulers like Charlemagne (768–814), whose efforts at reviving the Roman Empire created one with land-bound limitations.

One of the few early medieval peoples who used the seaways extensively, as a means of communication and settlement, were the Scandinavians. Their advanced shipbuilding technology and navigational methods allowed them, from the end of the eighth century, to plunge land-bound Europe into a state of terror and confusion (see Chapter 1). That the assault from the sea was as unexpected as it was novel, is indicated by a letter written by the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin to Ethelred, the king of Northumbria, in 793, in which he described the Viking onslaught. ‘It is nearly 350 years that we and our fathers have inhabited this most lovely land’, he wrote, ‘and never before has such terror appeared in Britain as we have now suffered from a pagan race, nor was it thought that such an inroad from the sea could be made.’48 Four hundred years later, Gerald of Wales, whose comments have already been noted, also remarked on the sea-going nature of the Scandinavians.

Of course, the western seaways had served as a line of communication for centuries before the Vikings arrived to dominate them. It has been demonstrated that the shorelands of the Irish Sea were united under a single cultural stimulus, and that they were linked with lands even further abroad, from at least three millennia before the Christian era. Although the Roman occupation of Britain between AD 43 and about 400 weakened this network of lines of communication, the end of Roman Britain saw its gradual revival. One of its greatest expressions came in the early Christian period, when what has been described as a ‘Celtic Christian Thalassocracy’ extended from Iceland to Spain.49 Among those who contributed to the formation of this civilisation were the peregrini