The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Coaching and Mentoring E-Book

Jonathan Passmore

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Wiley-Blackwell Handbooks in Organizational Psychology
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1332

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

A state-of-the-art reference, drawing on key contemporary research to provide an in-depth, international, and competencies-based approach to the psychology of coaching and mentoring. * Puts cutting-edge evidence at the fingertips of organizational psychology practitioners who need it most, but who do not always have the time or resources to keep up with scholarly research * Thematic chapters cover theoretical models, efficacy, ethics, training, the influence of emerging fields such as neuroscience and mindfulness, virtual coaching and mentoring and more * Contributors include Anthony Grant, David Clutterbuck, Susan David, Robert Garvey, Stephen Palmer, Reinhard Stelter, Robert Lee, David Lane, Tatiana Bachkirova and Carol Kauffman * With a Foreword by Sir John Whitmore

Leseprobe

Contents

About the Editors

About the Contributors

Foreword

Series’ Preface

Railway Children

1 The Psychology of Coaching and Mentoring

Introduction

What is Coaching?

What is Coaching Psychology?

What is Mentoring?

The Developing Research Agenda for Coaching and Mentoring

Conclusion

Section I Coaching

2 The Efficacy of Coaching

Introduction

Seek First to Understand

Sounds Simple: So Coaching Should be Easy to Evaluate?

Reviewing the Efficacy of Coaching is Complex, and the Literature is Disjointed

Outcome Studies

Two Key Case Studies

Within-subject Outcome Research

Between-subject and Randomized Controlled Studies

Longitudinal Studies: Is Coaching Effective Over Time?

Gauging Efficacy Through Measuring Outcomes of Coaching

Executive Coaching Efficacy Measures

Workplace and Personal Coaching Measures

Using Validated Measures to Assess Efficacy: Mental Health and Goal Attainment

Is Return on Investment a Reliable Measure of Coaching Efficacy?

Do We Yet Have an Evidence Base for the Efficacy of Coaching?

Inclusivity in Establishing Efficacy

Conclusion

3 The Role of Contracting in Coaching: Balancing Individual Client and Organizational Issues

Introduction

Underlying Issues

Five Kinds of Contracting

Future Research

Conclusion

4 The Development of Meaning and Identity Within Coaching

Introduction

Theories of Identity

How Coaching Helps to Define Meaning and Identity

Issues of Meaning and Identity in Coaching Individuals

Issues of Meaning and Identity in Coaching in Changing Times

Conclusion

5 Coaching Ethics

Introduction

Is Coaching a Profession?

Ethical by What Standard?

American Psychological Association Code of Ethics

International Coaching Federation Code of Ethics

British Psychological Society Code of Ethics

Canadian Psychological Association Code of Ethics

Overarching Principles and Standards of Ethical Behavior in Coaching

Scientific and Other Bases for Practice

Eight Generic Ethical Principles

Ethical Principle 1: Competence

Ethical Principle 2: Do No Harm

Ethical Principle 3: Integrity

Ethical Principle 4: Informed Consent

Ethical Principle 5: Avoiding or Effectively Managing Multiple Relationships

Ethical Principle 6: Confidentiality

Ethical Principle 7: Conflicts of Interest

Ethical Principle 8: Being Multiculturally and Internationally Competent

Consequences of Unethical Behavior

Emerging Literature on Coaching Ethics

Managing Ethical Conflicts

Conclusion

6 The Neuroscience of Coaching

Introduction

Section One: Neuroscience and Understanding the Nervous System

Section Two: Studying Neuroscience and Observing Behavior

Section Three: Applications and Future Directions

Conclusion

7 Mindfulness in Coaching: Philosophy, psychology or just a useful skill?

Introduction

The Changing World

Mindfulness: A Confused Construct

So, What is Mindfulness?

Mindfulness Practice and Purposeful, Positive Change

The Coaching Engagement – Five Reflective Spaces

Future Directions for Research

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

8 Developmental Coaching – Developing the Self

Introduction

Literature on Developmental Coaching as a Genre

Developmental Coaching as an Application of Adult Development Theories

A New Theory and Practical Approach to Developmental Coaching

Future Research

Conclusion

9 Gender Issues in Business Coaching

Introduction

Defining Gender

Challenges Which Gender Presents

Wider Research on the Gender Debate

Coaching as a Solution

Future Research

Conclusion

10 Team Coaching

Introduction

Why the Focus on Teams?

What Do We Mean by “A Team”?

Definition of Team Coaching

Discussion and Limitations of the Literature

Future Directions for Research

Conclusion

Section II Mentoring

11 Designing Mentoring Schemes for Organizations

Introduction

A Conceptual Framework

The Stages of Scheme Design

Involving Senior Stakeholders

Clarifying Scheme Purpose

Matching Mentors and Mentees Within Schemes

Supervision and Support for Mentoring

Review and Evaluation

Supporting Different Mentoring Needs

Context and Processes for Mentoring

Future Research

Conclusion

12 The Efficacy of Mentoring – the Benefits for Mentees, Mentors, and Organizations

Introduction

Benefits of Mentoring for the Individual

Benefits of Mentoring for the Organization

Critical Evaluation of the Literature

Advantages of Variations on Traditional Mentoring

Suggestions for Future Research

Conclusion

13 Training Mentors – Behaviors Which Bring Positive Outcomes in Mentoring

Introduction

A Brief History of Mentoring

The Research

Empirical Studies on Training Mentors

Expert Opinion

The Developing Curriculum for Mentors

Future Research

Conclusion

14 Mentoring Programs for Under-represented Groups

Introduction

The Formal Mentoring of Under-represented Individuals and Groups: Setting the Stage

Challenges to Studying Under-represented Groups

Formal and Informal Mentoring: A Comparison

Future Research

Conclusion

Section III Theories and Models With Implications for Coaching

15 Humanistic/Person-centered Approaches

Introduction

The Humanistic Psychology Theory

Humanistic Coaching

Distinguishing Humanistic Coaching as a Unique Practice

Research Evidence to Applied Practice

Future Research

Conclusion

16 Behavioral Coaching

Introduction

Behavioral Theory

The Behavioral Approach to Coaching

Coaching Models Incorporating Behavioral Approaches

Comparison of Behavioral Coaching Models

Effectiveness of the Behavioral Coaching Approach – Outcomes

Future Research

Conclusion

17 Cognitive Behavioral Approaches

Introduction

Theory of the Cognitive Behavioral Approach

Research Evidence of the Cognitive Behavioral Approach

The Development of the Cognitive Behavioral Approach in Coaching Practice

Theory of Cognitive Behavioral Coaching

Cognitive Behavioral Coaching Models

Behavioral Tools and Techniques

Cognitive Tools and Techniques

Research Evidence of the Cognitive Behavioral Approach in Coaching

Future Research

Conclusion

18 Motivational Interviewing Approach

Introduction

Theory of Motivational Interviewing

Research Evidence for Motivational Interviewing

The Spirit, Processes, Principles and Core Skills of Motivational Interviewing

Tools and Techniques Associated With Motivational Interviewing

The Development of Motivational Interviewing in Coaching Practice

Research Evidence of Motivational Interviewing in Organizational or Executive Coaching

Future Research in Motivational Interview Coaching

Conclusion

19 Psychodynamic Approach

Introduction

The Theoretical Development of Psychodynamic Coaching

Research Evidence

The Development of Psychodynamic Approaches in Coaching

Psychodynamic Executive Coaching and Future Research

Acknowledgements

20 Gestalt Approach

Introduction

Gestalt Theory

The Development of Gestalt Coaching

The Development of Gestalt Coaching Around the World

Gestalt Coaching Today

Gestalt Coaching Methodology

Co-creating the Relational Field

Using Self as an Instrument of Change

Using the Present Moment

Mobilizing for Learning and Growth

Experimentation

The Cleveland Coaching Model and Methods

The Cape Cod Coaching Model and Methods

The Art and Practice of Gestalt Coaching

Gestalt Coaching Research

Future Research in Gestalt Coaching

Conclusion

21 Narrative Approaches

Introduction

Theory of Narrative Coaching

Research Evidence of Narrative Coaching

The Development of the Narrative Approach in coaching

Future Research

Conclusion

22 Positive Psychology Approaches

Introduction

Positive Psychology Approaches and Coaching

Positive Coaching Psychology Approaches and Models

Research Evidence and Positive Coaching Psychology in Coaching Practice

Future Research

Conclusion

Section IV Issues in Coaching and Mentoring

23 Conducting Organizational-Based Evaluations of Coaching and Mentoring Programs

Introduction

Standard Evaluation Concepts and Taxonomies

Program Evaluation Models and Measures of Coaching and Mentoring Outcomes

Qualitative Evaluation

Challenging Questions of Evaluation Research

Conclusion

24 The Role of Emotions in Coaching and Mentoring

Introduction

Positive Psychology

Further Coaching Activities

Future Research

Conclusion

25 Cross-cultural Working in Coaching and Mentoring

Introduction

The Theoretical Foundations

Future Research

Conclusion

26 Virtual Coaching and Mentoring

Introduction

The Prevalence of Virtual Coaching

Empirical Review of Virtual Helping Relationships

Introduction to E-mentoring Literature

Virtual Coaching Empirical Literature

Future Research: Evolving Empirical Guidance From Virtual Domains

Conclusion

Index

Wiley-Blackwell Handbooks in Organizational Psychology

Series Editor: Jonathan Passmore

The aim of the Wiley-Blackwell Handbooks in Organizational Psychology is to create a set of uniquely in-depth reviews of contemporary research, theory, and practice across critical sub-domains of organizational psychology. Series titles will individually deliver the state-of-the-art in their discipline by putting the most important contemporary work at the fingertips of academics, researchers, students, and practitioners. Over time, the series will grow into a complete reference for those seeking to develop a comprehensive under­standing of the field.

Books in the series

The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Coaching and MentoringEdited by Jonathan Passmore, David B. Peterson, and Teresa FreireThe Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Leadership, Change, and Organizational DevelopmentEdited by H. Skipton Leonard, Rachel Lewis, Arthur M. Freedman and Jonathan Passmore

This edition first published 2013© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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The right of Jonathan Passmore, David B. Peterson, and Teresa Freire to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of the psychology of coaching and mentoring / edited by Jonathan Passmore, David B. Peterson, and Teresa Freire. p. cm. Includes index.

ISBN 978-1-119-99315-5 (cloth) 1. Personal coaching. 2. Employees–Coaching of. 3. Mentoring in business. I. Passmore, Jonathan. II. Peterson, David B. III. Freire, Tereza. BF637.P36W535 2013 158.3–dc23

2012029596

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: © Steve Goodwin / Shutterstock.Cover design by Cyan Design.

About the Editors

Jonathan Passmore, D.Occ.Psych Jonathan is a chartered psychologist, an accredited Association of Coaching coach, a trained coaching supervisor and holds five degrees. He has wide business and consulting experience, having worked for PricewaterhouseCoopers, IBM Business Consulting and OPM and as a chief executive and company chairman. He developed the UK’s first Master’s in coaching psychology and the first online coaching Master’s. He now divides his time between a part-time role as a professor in leadership and coaching and as a management consultant in private practice. Jonathan is the author of 14 books and 100 articles on organizational change, coaching and leadership. He is also a regular conference speaker, having spoken across the world, from Israel to the United States and South Africa to Estonia. Jonathan was awarded the AC Coaching Award in 2010 for his contribution to coaching research and practice. He has two small children and lives in the UK. He can be contacted at: [email protected] B. Peterson, PhD David is Director, Executive Coaching and Leadership at Google, Inc. Prior to that, he served as SVP and leader of PDI Ninth House’s coaching services. A pioneer in the field of executive coaching, he has written best-selling books and dozens of popular articles on coaching and leadership development, as well as conducting ground-breaking research. A Fellow of the American Psychological Association, the Society of Consulting Psychology, and Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, he received his PhD in I/O and counseling psychology from the University of Minnesota. David lives in San Francisco, with wife Alexis and an adorable Tibetan terrier named Pinot.Teresa Freire, PhD Teresa is assistant professor in the School of Psychology, at the University of Minho (Braga, Portugal), where she teaches graduate and postgraduate ­students. She coordinates the research line on positive psychology for master and doctoral students and leads the research group for the study of optimal functioning. She develops group and community interventions, being the coordinator of the Peer Tutoring and Coaching Project, and the Director of the Service of Psychology in the School of Psychology, University of Minho, Portugal. She belongs to the European Network for Positive Psychology (ENPP), and is a member of the Management Board Committee. She has a number of national and international publications in books and peer review journals.

About the Contributors

Geoffrey Abbott Geoffrey is Corporate Educator at the Queensland University of Technology Business School in Brisbane, Australia. Geoff is an experienced international coach and is co-editor of the Routledge Companion to International Business Coaching. Geoff’s doctoral thesis explored how executive coaching might assist expatriate managers in cultural adjustment. He can be contacted at: [email protected] Allan Julie coaches and consults to organizations and is an educator, supervisor, and speaker. She serves on the British Psychological Society Committees for Ethics and Coaching Psychology, is involved in developing coaching psychology standards and has chapters in The Handbook of Coaching Psychology (Gestalt) and Supervision in Coaching (Ethics). Her practitioner research concerns developing corporate wisdom. She can be contacted at: [email protected] Anstiss Tim is a medical doctor with a Master’s degree in sports medicine and a diploma in occupational medicine. A member of the British Psychological Society, Tim spends a lot of his time working with clinicians and managers, helping them have more person-centered, guiding, and empowering conversations with patients and employees respectively. He can be contacted at [email protected] M. Ayers Kathleen has worked in the mental health field since 1991, providing assessment and psychotherapy for all age groups. She has also worked in research and currently teaches psychology graduate students, medical students, and physician ­assistant students. Kathleen has also had extensive experience in civil forensic neuropsychology. She can be contacted at: [email protected] Bachkirova Tatiana is an academic, coach, and coaching supervisor with a particular expertise in coaching psychology and coaching supervision. She is based at Oxford Brookes University and leads the MA in Coaching and Mentoring Supervision, as well as supervising doctoral students. Tatiana is an active researcher and author.Miles Bowman Miles received his doctorate from Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. After completing his degree, he joined the coaching profession and obtained his certification through CTI shortly thereafter. He presently lives in Port Hope, Ontario where he runs his coaching business and does sessional work with universities in the surrounding area. He can be contacted at: [email protected] Boyce Camala is a consulting psychologist working globally to bring greater trust and cohesion to virtual, geographically distributed teams and coaching high performing leaders for increased success. She leads workshops on emotional intelligence and is on faculty at the California School of Professional Psychology, Alliant International University.Mary Wayne Bush Mary Wayne holds a Master ’s degree from Yale University and a doctorate in Organizational Change from Pepperdine University. In addition to writing and speaking on the subject of coaching, she teaches in a doctoral program at Colorado Technical University. Mary Wayne is a member of several international editorial and advisory boards that contribute to the field of coaching, and she was the Director of Research for the Foundation of Coaching, (now known as the Harvard Institute of Coaching).Alison Carter Alison is an independent researcher and evaluator in HR, leadership and coaching, and a Principal Associate with the Institute for Employment Studies (IES) in the UK. She has an MBA from Henley Business School and a professional doctorate. Alison was a founding Director of the European Mentoring and Coaching Council (2003–5), Co-chair of the 2nd International Coaching Research Forum (2009) and is on the editorial board of Coaching at Work magazine.Michael J. Cavanagh Michael is both a Coaching and Clinical Psychologist. He holds a BA (Hons, first class) in Psychology from the University of Sydney, and a PhD and Masters of Clinical Psychology from Macquarie University. Michael is Deputy Director of the Coaching Psychology Unit at the University of Sydney and was the key instigator of the Global Convention on Coaching. He has published widely and is the editor of the International Coaching Psychology Review.Sabine Dembkowski Sabine is founder and director of the Coaching Centre in London and Cologne. With her team she supports senior executives and high-potentials in Fortune 500, DAX 30, and other leading firms across Europe. Previously she was a strategic management consultant with A.T. Kearney and Monitor Company in London.Michael A. Diamond Michael A. Diamond is Professor and Director of the Center for the Study of Organizational Change at the University of Missouri. His latest (2009) book Private Selves in Public Organizations is published by Palgrave Macmillan. He is past pres­ident of the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organizations. He can be contacted at: http://csoc.missouri.edu.Fiona Eldridge Fiona is director of The Coaching and Communication Centre and also Senior Leadership Advisor at the National College of Police Leadership. She is an experienced non-executive Director and Chairman, taking one organization from start up to a mature top three business in its field via three MBOs and CEOs.Robert Garvey Bob is Professor of Business Education at York St John Business School, York. He is one of Europe’s leading academic practitioners in coaching and ­mentoring. He is in demand internationally as a keynote conference speaker and has ­presented papers and made keynote conference presentations around the world. Bob is widely published in a range of journals and books.Niloofar Ghods Niloofar is a consultant with Cisco’s Center for Collaborative Leadership’s Executive Development Practice, where she assesses and coaches Cisco’s SVP and VP talent pipeline. Prior to Cisco, Niloofar consulted for YSC, assessing and coaching senior executives of Fortune 100 multinational organizations and Dell’s Global Talent Management Team.Kate Gilbert Kate is Senior Lecturer in Coaching and Mentoring at Oxford Brookes University. She has been fascinated by the potential of cultural experiences for personal growth ever since her first trip to the United States as a young student. Her doctoral research was on the cultural aspects of management development programs for Russian leaders in the 1990’s transition period, and it was during this period that she was converted to coaching. Kate is currently researching attitudes to cultural awareness in UK businesses, and enjoys teaching research methods.Lucy L. Gilson Lucy is an Associate Professor at the University of Connecticut (PhD and MBA Georgia Institute of Technology, BSc from Georgetown School of Foreign Service). She serves as the Management’s PhD Coordinator and Women’s MBA Association faculty advisor. Lucy’s research primarily focuses on teams and creativity. She is also interested in mentoring, employee empowerment, diversity, fairness issues, and virtual communication.Anthony M. Grant Tony is Director of the world’s first Coaching Psychology Unit at Sydney University and Visiting Professor at Oxford Brookes University. In 2007 he was awarded a British Psychological Society Award for outstanding scientific contribution to Coaching Psychology. In 2009 he was awarded the “Vision of Excellence Award” from Harvard University for his pioneering work in developing a scientific foundation to coaching. He also plays loud (but not very good) blues guitar.Jane Brodie Gregory Brodie is currently a Visiting Assistant Professor of Social and Organizational Psychology at Washington & Lee University. Most recently she worked in Global Leadership Development with the Procter & Gamble Company, where she led the coaching program and performance management process. Dr Gregory completed her PhD in Industrial/Organizational Psychology at The University of Akron.Siegfried Greif Siegfried is managing director of a consulting institute (www.ifp.de). He was professor at the Free University of Berlin and had the chair of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Osnabrueck (Germany). He is editor of a book series on Innovative Management and the editor/author of 14 titles, including a German book series on coaching.Peter Hawkins Peter is Emeritus Chairman of Bath Consultancy Group, Professor of Leadership at Henley Business School, and is a leading coach, consultant, writer, and researcher in organizational strategy, leadership, team, and board development. He is the author of many books, including Leadership Team Coaching, Creating a Coaching Culture, and Coaching, Mentoring and Organizational Consultancy: Supervision and Development with Nick Smith.Kate Hefferon Kate graduated from the University of Ottawa with a BA in English Literature and Psychology, followed by a BA in Psychology from Carleton University. This led to the completion of an MSc in Performance Psychology at Edinburgh University. Kate’s PhD thesis was on the experience of post-traumatic growth among female breast cancer survivors and the role of the body in the recovery and growth process. She now teaches positive psychology at the University of East London.Joan C. King Joan received her PhD in neuroscience from Tulane (1972). Currently a Professor Emeritus Tufts University School of Medicine, Master Certified Coach and Board Certified Coach, Joan directed research and taught neuroscience prior to founding Beyond Success LLC (1998). Joan trains coaches in the Success Unlimited Network™ Program and mentors coaches in several coaching programs. Her concept of Cellular Wisdom™ is explored in a series of books. She can be contacted at: [email protected] E. Kram Kathy is the Shipley Professor in Management at the Boston University School of Management. Her primary interests are in the areas of adult development, mentoring, relational learning, and diversity issues in executive development. She is currently exploring the nature of peer coaching dyads, group peer coaching, and developmental networks. She can be contacted at: [email protected] J. Lee Robert is Managing Director of iCoachNewYork, a coach training group. He is affiliated with The New School University and Baruch College. Previously he was the CEO of the Center for Creative Leadership and of Lee Hecht Harrison. He is co-author of Becoming an Exceptional Executive Coach.Robin Leichtman Robin is finishing her PhD in Counseling Psychology at Cleveland State University and engaged in Gestalt Training (GTP XIV) at the Gestalt Institute in Cleveland, Ohio. With two Master’s degrees, she is a licensed teacher and a licensed professional counselor in the State of Ohio.Paul E. Levy Paul is a Professor and Chair of the Department of Psychology at The University of Akron. Dr Levy received his PhD in I/O psychology from Virginia Tech in 1989. He is a fellow of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology and the American Psychological Association. His research interests include performance appraisal, feedback, coaching, and motivation.Rodney L. Lowman Rodney is Distinguished Professor at Alliant International University, San Diego and President, Lowman & Richardson Consulting Psychologists. He has written or edited nine books (including The Ethical Practice of Psychology in Organizations), over one hundred articles, and made hundreds of conference presentation. He is a Fellow in three of the American Psychological Association divisions 12, 13, and 14 and past president of two psychology associations, the Society of Consulting Psychology and the Society of Psychologists in Management. He received his PhD in psychology (specializing in I-O and clinical psychology) at Michigan State University, USA. Lis Merrick Lis is Managing Director of Coach Mentoring Ltd, a consultancy, which specializes in mentoring and coaching solutions to clients on a global basis. She is also a Module Leader and Senior Lecturer within the Coaching and Mentoring Research Unit (C&MRU) at Sheffield Business School and a Senior Consultant at Clutterbuck Associates.Rowena Ortiz-Walters Rowena is an Associate Professor of Management at Quinnipiac University. Her research interests include mentoring relationships as a career developmental tool for women and racial minorities, and issues of diversity in the workplace. She received her PhD from the University of Connecticut. Her research has appeared in the Journal of Organizational Behavior and Journal of Vocational Behavior.Esra Ozkan Esra is a cultural anthropologist and holds a doctorate in Science, Technology, and Society from MIT. She wrote her dissertation on the emergence and development of coaching as a professional field of expertise in the United States. Currently, Esra is a visiting scholar at Parsons, the New School for Design, where she teaches and conducts research on the field of information visualization.Linda J. Page Linda is President and Founder of Adler Graduate Professional School located in Toronto, Canada. A graduate of Princeton University and Adler’s Professional Coaching Program, Linda is Co-Chair of the Academic Standards Committee of the Graduate School Alliance for Executive Coaching (GSAEC). She is co-author with David Rock of Coaching with the Brain in Mind (2009). She can be contacted at: [email protected] Palmer Stephen is the Founder Director of the Centre for Coaching, International Academy for Professional Development. He is an Honorary Professor of Psychology at City University London and Director of their Coaching Psychology Unit. He is president of the International Society for Coaching Psychology. He has authored numerous articles on coaching, stress management, and counseling, and has authored or edited over 40 books.Philippe Rosinski Philippe is the author of several books, including Coaching Across Cultures and Global Coaching. He was the first European ICF Master Certified Coach and is a visiting professor at universities in Tokyo and Prague. He is the principal of Rosinski & Company.Gordon B. Spence Gordon is a lecturer and researcher at Sydney Business School, University of Wollongong. He is a qualified psychologist with particular interests in leadership, mindfulness, peak performance, employee engagement, and workplace well-being. Gordon has over 20 refereed articles and book chapters, regularly speaks at national and international conferences and is Co-chair of the Scientific Advisory Council, Institute of Coaching at McLean Hospital/Harvard University.Juliann Spoth Juliann is an executive coach, consultant, educator, author, and speaker with over 30 years of experience in individual, team, and organizational development and coaching practice that has spanned 14 countries. Juliann is the principal of Spoth & Associates, the principal of Spoth & Associates, the Chair and faculty for the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland (GIC) Coach Certification Program coaching faculty for the National Training Institute (NTL) and a Master Coach for Case Western Reserve University. She has published in the organizational behavior field. She can be contacted at: [email protected] Stelter Reinhard, PhD in psychology, is an accredited member and honorary vice-president of the International Society of Coaching Psychology, is professor of Coaching and Sport Psychology and head of the Coaching Psychology Unit, Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Copenhagen, visiting professor at Copenhagen Business School, and fellow at the Institute of Coaching at Harvard. He can be contacted at: www.rstelter.dk.Paul Stokes Paul is a senior lecturer at Sheffield Hallam University where he teaches on the coaching and mentoring program. He is a member of the European Mentoring and Coaching Council, external examiner at the universities of Hertfordshire and Teeside, and has published widely in the field.Sunny Stout-Rostron Sunny is Executive Director of Sunny Stout-Rostron Associates (Cape Town), and Research Mentor at the Institute of Coaching at Harvard/McLean Medical School. With a wide range of experience in leadership development and business strategy, and over 20 years as an executive coach, Sunny works with international leaders to help them achieve individual, team, and organizational goals. Sunny recently published Business Coaching International.Sarah Toman Sarah is an associate professor at Cleveland State University and faculty at the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland. Sarah has published in both the career development and Gestalt therapy fields. She and Ansel Woldt co-edited, Gestalt Therapy: History, Theory and Practice. Sarah maintains a psychotherapy practice in Medina, Ohio.ChloéTong Chloé is a Business Psychologist. She has particular knowledge and expertise in designing and delivering high quality assessment and development programs. She has previously published in the field of emotional intelligence development through coaching.Gunnela Westlander Gunnela is Professor Emeritus in Social and Organizational Psychology and has held since 1995 expert appointments with the University of Linköping, the Royal Institute of Technology, and Stockholm University. Research areas include: quality of work life; human-computer interaction; technological change; human aspects of intervention strategies; organizational change; and development.Helen Williams Helen is an occupational and coaching psychologist specializing in solution-focused and cognitive behavioral coaching. An associate consultant at the Centre for Coaching, she is an HPC registered member and a member of the BPS SGCP, ISCP, and AC. Helen has co-authored several publications on assessment, coaching in organizations, cognitive behavioral and solution-focused coaching.

Foreword

This book is an important addition to the library of books on the psychology of coaching and mentoring. It bridges the gap that exists between scholars and practitioners, helping establish the science behind the practice. I understand this conflict well since I studied psychology as a practice and felt that that was much more valuable than any academic theory. In fact I believe that many academics lack real hands-on experience and therefore fall short of good therapeutic or applied process.

I would argue that the same is true of coaching and I have little time for theoretical coaches who talk up an essay but don’t deliver well. Jonathan, David, and Teresa have proven track records in both academic research and in workplace practice in the United Kingdom, United States, and Portugal. I think this book bridges the gap well. It illustrates practice well with a wide number of models that are wisely used by coaches and mentors, and offers insights into the growing research literature across coaching and mentoring, with contributions from the leading names in this emerging field of psychology.

I have personally worked with Jonathan on a number of projects, including improving police car driving, and Jonathan has published a number of research studies which provide evidence that coaching is a highly effective method for learning. In this book Jonathan, David, and Teresa offer value material for Master’s students and academics to build a scientific basis for their studies and future research. They also aims to win over the skeptics who still tend to hold onto the long redundant autocracy and hierarchy still found in the workplace, by providing clear evidence of coaching’s impact and potential.

The authors refer to a large number of examples provided by coaches from across the globe showing the importance of subtle language and cultural differences and the role coaching can play in helping build effective leaders and better organizations.

I believe it is worth adding here that coaching and its derivatives are not simply a useful tool, but a more advanced way of leading and managing others than instruction. Since a primary goal of coaching is to build self-responsibility in others, it is, in fact, an evolutionary need for humankind, for we have to move on beyond parental autocracy and hierarchy which are in general rather primitive states for adults. Humanity needs to continue to grow up and coaching and this book will contribute to our evolutionary process for many years to come. Defining it well and clearly, as this book does, will contribute to this process.

Sir John Whitmore, PhDCoach and author

Series’ Preface

Welcome to this second book in the Wiley-Blackwell Industrial and Organizational Psychology series. This title in the series focus is on coaching and mentoring, which are two fairly recent developments in I/O psychology. In terms of research, coaching and mentoring have only really come to the fore since 2000.

Over this period in the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom we have seen a growing number of university programs offer coaching or coaching and mentoring Master’s programs, including a small number of coaching psychology programs. In addition we have seen a significant growth in the number of coaching and mentoring PhDs and published research papers, which have made a book such as this possible.

We believe this series differs in three significant ways from other titles in the field.

First, the focus for the title is towards the researcher and student, as opposed to the practitioner, although scholar practitioners may also find this an interesting read. The aim of this book is to offer a comprehensive coverage of the main topics of inquiry within the domain and in each of these to offer a comprehensive critical literature review. Each chapter is thus an attempt to gather together the key papers, book chapters, and ideas and to present these for the serious researcher, student, and academic as a starting point for research in the key topics of I/O psychology.

Second, while many books take a UK/European or a US/North American approach with contributors drawn predominately from one continent or the other, in this series we have made strenuous efforts to create an international feel. For each title in the series we have drawn contributors from across the globe, and encouraged them to take an international as opposed to national or regional focus. Such an approach creates challenges. Challenges in terms of language and spelling, but also in the way ideas and concepts are applied in each region. We have encouraged our contributors to highlight such differences. We encourage you as the reader to reflect on these to better understand how and why these differences have emerged and what implications these have for your research and practice.

Third, the chapters avoid offering a single perspective, based on the ideas of the contributor. Instead we have invited leading writers in the field to critically review the literature in their areas of expertise. The chapters thus offer a unique insight into the literature in each of these areas, with leading scholars sharing their interpretation of the literature in their area.

Finally, as series editor I have invited contributors and editors to contribute their royalties to a charity. Given the international feel for the title we selected an international charity – Railway Children. This means approximately 10 percent of the cover price has been donated to charity.

With any publication of this kind there are errors; as editors we apologies in advance for these.

Jonathan PassmoreSeries Editor, I/O Psychology

Railway Children

Railway Children supports children alone and at risk on the streets of India, East Africa, and the United Kingdom. Children migrate to the streets for many reasons, but once there they experience physical and sexual abuse, exploitation, drugs, and even death. We focus on early intervention, getting to the street kids before the street gets to them, and where possible we reunite them with their families and communities.

In addressing the issue we work through our three-step change agenda to:

Meet the immediate needs of children on the streets – we work with local ­organizations to provide shelter, education or vocational training, counseling, and, if possible, reintegration to family life.

Shift perception in the local context – we work with local stakeholders to ensure that street children are not viewed as commodities to be abused and exploited – but as children in need of care and protection.

Hold governments to account – if we are to see a long-term, sustainable change for the children with whom we work, we must influence key decision makers, ensuring that provisions for safeguarding children are made within their policies and budgets.

Last year we reached over 60,000 children across India, East Africa and the UK. In 2010 we launched an extensive qualitative piece of research ‘Off The Radar’ which ­highlighted the reasons behind children leaving or being forced from their homes and the services they needed to be safe. The recommendations from this report informed our model of ­practice here in the UK we call ‘Reach’, that offers services to children both before, during and after they runaway from home. Last year we reached over 37,000 children here in the UK through preventative work in schools, emergency refuge, detached street work and therapeutic family intervention.

To find out more about our work, or to help us support more vulnerable children, please go to: www.railwaychildren.org.uk or call 01270 757596

1

The Psychology of Coaching and Mentoring

Jonathan Passmore, David B. Peterson, and Teresa Freire

Introduction

In this short introduction we aim to explore the nature of coaching and mentoring as tools for individual and organizational change. We will also consider the developing notion of coaching psychology and what this means for mentoring. Finally, we will briefly set out for the reader what follows in this edited title.

What is Coaching?

The issue of a definition in coaching is one which has been actively explored in the ­literature, in a way which is not found in mentoring. A host of papers have considered the question, some focusing on reviewing previous definitions, others offering new ­definitions. This activity reflects the immature nature of the domain and the desire to delineate boundaries and mark out territory for coaching being a different and distinctive intervention to other organizational interventions such as mentoring, careers counseling, appraisals, and feedback. The reality, in our view, is that coaching has many similarities and overlaps with many of these interventions.

Tobias (1996) suggested a more extreme position, arguing that executive coaching was really a repackaging of activities and techniques borrowed from other disciplines such as counseling, psychology, learning, and consulting. This position, however, is not typical, and most writers have suggested that coaching is different and distinctive, while having areas of overlap with many other interventions.

Several papers have reviewed and debated the nature of coaching and its boundaries with counselling (Bachkirova and Cox, 2004; Passmore, 2007), as well as the emerging domain of coaching psychology (Sperry, 2008; Stewart et al., 2008). However, after a decade of debate, there is as yet no agreed standard definition of coaching. This ­diversity may reflect both the multiple applications of the approach, with multiple clients and ­multiple ­environments, and more importantly a lack of a single body to pull together diverse strands and establish a single overarching definition.

Key early writers such as Whitmore (1992) and Whitworth et al. (1998) provide ­definitions that have informed the course of the debate. One of the most frequently quoted defintions is Whitmore’s. He suggests that: “Coaching is unlocking people’s potential to maximise their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them” (Whitmore, 1992, p. 10). Here Whitmore draws on the work of Gallwey’s Inner Game (1986). Gallwey notes in his own writing the critical nature of the self in enhancing personal performance; the “opponent within one’s own head is more ­formindable that the one on the other side of the net.” Whitmore’s response to overcome the self, is to use the self as a tool for reflection, raising self-awareness and through this personal ­responsibility for success or failure.

Whitworth places a stronger focus on the relational aspects of coaching, which are ­fostered by the coach. She notes coaching is, “a form of conversation with unspoken ground rules of certain qualities that must be present: respect, openness, compassion, and rigour, our committment to speaking the truth” (Whitworth et al., 1998).

Both definitions are simple and widely drawn. In this sense it may be argued that they fail to deliniate coaching from many of the other interventions identified above, although their wide embracing nature makes them attractive. In short these may be considered “big tent” definitions of coaching.

Other writers have attempted to be more specific in defining the nature of ­coaching, with the objective of more clearly establishing boundaries with other interventions. Grant and Stober (2001) in their largely Australian edited textbook of evidenced based coaching offer a definition: “A collaborative and egalitarian relationship between a coach, who is not necessarily a domain-specific specialist, and Client, which involves a systematic process that focuses on collaborative goal setting to construct solutions and employ goal ­attainment process with the aim of fostering the on-going self-directed learning and personal growth of the Client” (Grant and Stober, 2006, p. 2). This view of coaching can be contrasted with other definitions in edited texts.

Peltier (2001) in his US edited textbook of executive coaching psychology suggested that those trying to define coaching often start by stating what coaching is not: “­Coaching is specifically not therapy.” After a review of systems and consulting psychology, ­Peltier offers his own definition of coaching: “Someone from outside an organisation uses psychological skills to help a person develop into a more effective leader. These skills are applied to specific present moment work problems in a way that enables this person to incorporate them into his or her permanent management or leadership repertoire” (­Peltier, 2001, p. xx). Peltier’s definition reflects his background in psychology, combined with a desire to encourage the development of a stronger evidenced-base approach. This contrasts with earlier writers, such as Whitworth, who highlighted the strong intuitive nature of coaching.

As a comparison with another popular UK edited title Cox and her colleagues (Cox et al., 2010) offer a “workman-like” definition: “Coaching can be seen as a human development process that involves structured, focused interaction and the use of ­appropriate strategies, tools, and techniques to promote desirable and sustained change for the benefit of the coachee and potentially other stakeholder” (Cox et al., 2010). ­However, in the following debate they acknowledge that coaching is difficult to define. They note that definitions often seek to define coaching through reference to its ultimate purpose (what’s it for), the type of clients (who uses the service), or the process (how is it done). They note that many definitions offer little fresh insight, as their broad and all ­encompassing natures fail to ­distinguish them from other human development ­interventions.

For a more organizational perspective, Kilburg suggested that coaching needed to offer both individual and organizational benefits. He suggested the following definition of coaching:

Helping a relationship formed between a client who has managerial authority and ­responsibility in an organization and a consultant who uses a wide variety of behavioural techniques and methods to help the client achieve a mutually identified set of goals to improve his or her professional performance and personal satisfaction and, consequently, to improve the ­effectiveness of the client’s organization within a formally defined coaching agreement. (Kilburg, 2000, p. 142)

Kilburg’s definition mixes psychological practice with organizational consulting and has become a standard defintion, frequently quoted alongside Whitmore’s catchy definition, offering a contrast for readers in peer reviewed papers between the simple and more complex.

In reflecting on the research and publications over the past decade, Passmore and ­Fillery-Travis (2011) have attempted to offer a broad definition of coaching, which captures the three elements, “how, what and who for” highlighted by Cox and colleagues in their discussion about definitions. Passmore and Fillery-Travis suggest coaching is: “A Socratic based future focused dialogue between a facilitator (coach) and a participant (coachee/client), where the facilitator uses open questions, summaries and reflections which are aimed at stimulating the self-awareness and personal responsibility of the participant.”

Passmore and Fillery-Travis suggested that the “who for” can be vaguely defined as a ­“participant”, that is someone actively and voluntarily participanting in the activity. The “how” of the process are the common techniques which underpin all coaching ­interventions, from cognitive behavioral to solution focus, and motivational interviewing to GROW. The outcome in this definition, too, is vaguely stated and is not goal focused, although this is included, but is instead rooted in Whitmore’s view that in essence ­coaching is about self-awareness and personal responsibility.

In this definition the writters suggest, in using the term “Socratic dialogue”, that the coachee already has within them the answer to the question, and thus the role of the coach is not socio-educational as it might be within approaches such as CBT, but is primarily faciliative.

What is Coaching Psychology?

Alongside the debate about the nature of coaching, a new debate has emerged with the growing popularization in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Europe of coaching ­psychology. Writers have suggested that coaching psychology is different from coaching, and by implication psychologically trained practitioners operate in a different way to coaching. Some of the coaching writers have alluded to psychological principles, while not making an explicit coaching psychology definition, for example Peltier (2001).

The coaching psychology movement has emerged from two corners – in Australia from the work of Anthony Grant, who’s doctoral thesis examined the emerging phenomena of coaching in 2001 and led to the creation of the Coaching Psychology Unit at Sydney ­University, with Michael Cavanagh in 2001. This unit was later supported by the ­emergence of an Australian Psychology Society’s Interest Group in Coaching Psychology. Second, the work of a small group of coaching psychology practitioners in the UK, led by Stephen Palmer, but including Alison Whybrow, Pauline Willis, and Jonathan Passmore, who in 2002 formed the Coaching Psychology Forum. The forum led to the development of the British Psychology Society’s Special Interest Group in coaching psychology. Over the following years, coaching psychology groups have emerged across the world.

In parallel with its growth in popularity, there is discussion as to whether coaching ­psychology or coaching psychologists are distinctive and if so in what way are they ­distinctive to others who practice coaching. At the heart of this is the question: “What is ­coaching psychology?” Grant and Palmer (2002) defined coaching psychology as: “Coaching ­psychology is for enhancing performance in work and personal life domains with normal, non-clinical populations, underpinned by models of coaching grounded in established therapeutic approaches.”

This definition implies that coaching psychology is distinctive from coaching. Further, this definition of coaching psychology makes clear that the intervention is one targeted at “normal” and “non-clinical” populations. While this may have been true in 2002, the spread of coaching has taken coaching into new areas, including health (Anstiss and ­Passmore, in press) and education (Van Nieuwerburgh, in press). Coaching psychologists now work with non-adult populations in schools, with clinical populations in hospitals and with a wide range of individuals in care settings. Second, Grant and Palmer’s original ­definition suggests that coaching psychology must draw on models grounded in therapeutic approaches. This definition thus limited coaching pscyhology and restricted the development of this emerging approach. In response to these, and other points, Palmer and Grant updated their definition. A revised version of the definition for coaching ­psychology offered by the writers is: “Coaching Psychology is for enhancing well-­being and performance in personal life and work domains, underpinned by models of coaching grounded in established adult learning or psychological approaches” (adapted from Grant and Palmer, 2002).

While this deals with many of the concerns expressed about the original definition, some writers (including ourselves) have been concerned about creating an artifical distinction between coaching practice and coaching psychology practice, without evidence to support such a distinction. In fact research by Passmore et al. (2010) has suggested that there is little evidence to support differences in practice, at least within the UK coaching population – when comparing chartered pscyhologsits with the practices of coaches from other professional coaching bodies. A US survey, on which the UK survey was based, did find some small differences in practice, but these were tiny in comparison to the areas of ­commonality between coaching practitioners and coaching psychologists (Bono et al., 2009). In short, coaching practitioners and coaching psychology practitioners appear to use similar behaviors within their coaching practice.

This is not to say that there is not a distinction between evidenced-based coaching ­practice and some of the practices adopted by coaches who Sherman and Freas (2004) might have included within their “wild west” of coaching when they highlighted ­concerns about a lack of training, regulation, and maturity in organizations in appointing professional ­practitioners. In fact many of these concerns still exist today. Coaching still has zero barriers to entry, there is no regulation of coaches and there are frequent examples of poor quality coach ­commisioning by organizations, reflecting the immature nature of the market.

Given this evidence, an alternative approach to coaching psychology is to consider it as the study of coaching practice as opposed to a distinctive aspect of coaching practice itself. Passmore (2010) has offered the following definition: “Coaching psychology is the scientific study of behaviour, cognitive and emotion within coaching practice to deepen our understanding and enhance our practice within coaching.”

This approach to coaching psychology mirrors the definitions used for health, occupational, and other psychology disciplines and reflects a view that psychology is the scientific study of practice as opposed to the practice itself – which maybe evidenced based or not. Coaching psychology can study both and identify areas of excellence and areas of concern. We would argue that all coaching practice should be evidenced based and that while this is not the case at present, coaches should be asserting their voice to protect their domain from spurious practices, which in the long term will have a detrimental impact on the reputation of coaching.

This book has adopted this defintion of coaching psychology. Coaching psychology is concerned with the study, critical review, and sharing of evidenced-based coaching ­practice, as opposed to a distinct or seperate way of undertaking coaching with clients.

One issue not explored in this discussion is the lack of recognition around group and team coaching, as well as virtual coaching. The research on team coaching is at a lower level of maturity than one-to-one coaching, but there is a developing literature within the realm of team effectiveness (Mathieu et al., 2008). Specifically, Wageman (1997, 2001) has made a substantial contribution, culminating in the publication of a theory of team coaching with Hackman (Hackman and Wageman, 2005). In addition, there is a small literature on virtual coaching. We have included both issues within this publication.

What is Mentoring?

The complexity of the debate on definition within coaching has been matched in ­mentoring. Jacobi (1991) identified 15 different definitions of mentoring across the ­education, psychological, and management literature. Other researchers have made similar observations, noting the diversity in defining this organizational intervention (Burke, 1984; Merriam, 1983). As with coaching, the debate on definitions has created a ­challenge in trying to clarify the issue of impact and also the distinctive practices within mentoring that contribute to successful outcomes.

Given mentoring researchers longer history, over the past three decades, the topic has broadened and developed, allowing the emergence of both greater clarity on definitions and acceptance of diversity of practice depending on the mentoring goal and the client.

Within organizational mentoring, there is broad agreement about the nature of the topic. As Ragins and Kram (2007) note, the term “mentoring” is popularly used to denote a relationship between an older, more experienced mentor and a younger, less experienced protégé for the purposes of supporting the career development of the protégé. The ­mentor may not work in the same organization as the protégé, but is likely to work in the same sector or bring a deep understanding of the issues and challenges faced by the protégé.

Eby et al. (2007) offer the following definition, which we have used for this publication: “Workplace mentoring involves a relationship between a less experienced individual (­protégé) and a more experienced person (the mentor), where the purpose is the personal and professional growth of the protégé … and where the mentor may be a peer at work, a supervisor someone else within the organization, but outside the protégé’s chain of command” (Eby et al., p. 16). What is of interest, since the seminal work by Kram (1985) and the emergence of a mentoring research agenda, is that there has been no discussion about “mentoring psychology” as a distinct or separate area of practice or research. We would hold the view that coaching and mentoring share many qualities and as coaching has looked to counseling, coaching should over the coming decade also look to ­mentoring research for insights into the design of mentoring/coaching programs and how coaching can contribute to individual development. Given this belief we have asked leading ­mentoring researchers to share their insights from three decades of work.

The Developing Research Agenda for Coaching and Mentoring

Our hope is that this title will be a useful resource for postgraduate researchers, students, and academics alike, looking for a comprehensive review of the literature as a starting point for their own research and for scholar-practitioners to gain a full understanding of the depth and scope of the literature in their area of interest, with the objective of ­enhancing evidence-based practice and stimulating further research.

The book is structured using four sections focused on coaching, mentoring, theories and models, and a final section on issues in coaching and mentoring. We recognize this is only one of a number of ways we could have clustered these chapters. Together these ­sections combine what are the most important questions, conceptual frameworks, and practices related to the coaching and mentoring fields.

The first section comprises nine chapters devoted to coaching in general. The aim of this section is to present the state of the art about coaching issues that have been studied from a psychological perspective. A set of scholars, researchers, and professionals in the area of coaching discuss different concepts considered relevant for a better understanding of coaching science and practice.

Chapter 2 of this volume explores the efficacy of coaching. In this chapter Anthony Grant discusses two main questions, about organizational coaching efficacy and cost ­effectiveness. The author offers processes for answering these questions, which includes the discussion and definition of other main aspects, such as, the meaning of coaching, the nature of ­coaching-related evidence, the measurement of coaching effectiveness, and ­effective methodologies for assessing coaching outcomes. Grant also presents some broad delineations of coaching and the possible future directions for the measurement of ­coaching efficacy.

In Chapter 3 Robert Lee discusses the role of contracting in coaching, balancing individual and organizational issues. Lee reviews the literature regarding contracting as used in the field of executive coaching to provide insight into methods for establishing productive expectations among the multiple parties involved in an executive coaching engagement. Along the chapter all aspects related to contracting are discussed, underlying the notion that good contracts among all parties are a requirement for good coaching.

The development of meaning and identity within coaching is the focus of Chapter 4. This chapter explores how issues of meaning and identity relate to coaching individuals and groups. The authors argue that meaning and identity are foundational to all coaching practice and that these topics become involved at some point in all coaching. Such issues arise for both individuals and groups at key times of change and transition: when there are endings and/or new beginnings; when a person or team seems “stuck”, or unable to move forward.

The importance of ethics is highlighted in Chapter 5, where Rodney Lowman discusses whether coaching is (or has the potential) to become a separate and distinct profession. The chapter moves on to consider the nature of ethics and its application by three bodies: the American Psychological Association (APA), the Canadian Psychological Association (ACA), and the British Psychology Society (BPS). Finally, the chapter offers a review of the small but growing list of papers which have explored coaching ethics.

In a more internal perspective, Bowman and colleagues present the neuroscience of coaching in Chapter 6. They provide an overview of some of the emerging science from neuro-psychology and raise questions about the implications for coaching practice. They argue that while neuroscience may be a new field, it has potential to be a useful ally for those engaged in personal development.

Mindfulness in coaching is the focus of Chapter 7. In this chapter Michael Cavanagh and Gordon Spence seek to answer several main questions about mindfulness as a ­construct or as an intervention. The authors examine the conceptual and definitional issues related to mindfulness, and present a model to assist in clarifying these. They also consider the potential mechanisms by which mindfulness may have its beneficial effects in coaching, presenting a theoretical model of these mechanisms. Cavanagh and Spence show the important contributions that mindfulness makes to coaching efficacy at the level of the coach, the coachee and the coaching relationship itself.

Coaching is also discussed from a developmental perspective. In line with this, Tatiana Bachkirova discusses developmental coaching in Chapter 8, presenting a new theory and framework for practice. She discusses two potential perspectives on developmental ­coaching, namely developmental coaching and practical approaches based on adult development theories. Bachkirova offers a new approach to developmental coaching based on re-conceptualization of the self that leads to facilitating change in coaching.

Gender issues in business coaching, is considered by Sunny Stout-Rostron in Chapter 9. This chapter reviews the contemporary literature relevant to gender as it affects organizational and institutional coaching. The author explores gender diversity and gender ­coaching, discussing the definition of gender; the challenges which gender presents; the wider research on the gender debate and coaching as a solution to build organizations.

Finally, and as the last chapter of this first section, Alison Carter and Peter Hawkins focus on team coaching. The two authors critically review the team literature and explore its relevance for coaching in group and team settings.

Section II of the book focuses on mentoring, with four chapters from leading authors around the world. The first chapter of this section – Chapter 11 – relates to designing mentoring schemes. Lis Merrick and Paul Stokes critically examine the design of ­mentoring schemes and programs, drawing out the lessons for future practice in relation to issues concerning the different modes of mentoring, in particular electronic and mutual mentoring.

Kath Kram and Chloe Tong provide a comprehensive review of the literature relating to the efficacy of mentoring in Chapter 12. The chapter introduces the reader to the ­various benefits of mentoring, exploring the benefits of traditional mentoring relationships for the individual partners, the protégé, and the mentor, and the benefits to the organization. The difficulties with the mentoring literature to date are discussed, followed by the variations on traditional mentoring relationships and their unique benefits. The authors highlight the need to consider the changes in contemporary organizational contexts.

In Chapter 13, Robert Garvey and Gunnela Westlander explore the issue of training mentors. The chapter considers the behaviors in mentoring that bring positive ­outcomes. The authors discuss the main issues related to mentoring, with a particular emphasis on mentor education and curriculum for mentors. They highlight the need for training, recognizing the underlying complexity of these processes and the dynamic ­nature of organizational environments, where successful behaviors in the previous year can spell disaster in the following year.

Finally in this section, in Chapter 14, Rowena Ortiz-Walters and Lucy Gilson discuss mentoring programs for under-represented groups. They highlight the fact that although companies around the world and across industries are implementing mentoring programs to provide career, leadership, and personal development for employees, the employees have limited access to mentoring. For this, the authors argue that research and broader understanding is greatly needed.

Section III of this title focuses on theories and models with implications for coaching. Leading authors present different psychological theories and models, drawing on their expertise and previous publications. They offer insights into the origins of each model, its research and theoretical framework, and finally its application within coaching. In total, eight chapters on models are presented.

In the first chapter of this section – Chapter 15 of the book – entitled “Humanistic and P­erson-centered Approaches,” Jane Brodie Gregory and Paul Levy discuss how to provide structure and clarity to the notion of humanistic coaching, including techniques that can be incorporated into its practice. Some contributions from other psychological areas are discussed, namely the contribution from positive psychology, showing how coaches can maximize human potential of their clients throughout the practice of humanistic ­coaching.

Next, in Chapter 16, Sabine Dembkowski and Fiona Eldridge consider behavioral coaching. In this chapter the authors explore the influence and impact of behaviorism on developing effective executive coaching practice. For the authors, behavioral-based ­coaching is one of the most popular coaching models, although coaches and aspiring coaches are unaware of the theoretical basis of the models they learn about and apply, and of the consequences for their practice. This chapter aims to redress this balance.

Cognitive behavioral approaches are the focus of Chapter 17 authored by Stephen Palmer and Helen Williams. The authors review the historical development of the cognitive behavioral approach, detailing its philosophical routes and theoretical foundations, ­summarize the research evidence for the approach, detail the development of CBC in coaching and offer some examples of how the concept has been applied by coaching practitioners through new models and tools.

Tim Anstiss and Jonathan Passmore discuss, in Chapter 18, the motivational ­interviewing approach. After reviewing the origins, theory, and practice of motivational interviewing with clinical populations, the authors suggest that the approach has equal value with non-clinical clients where readiness to change is a challenge. They suggest that while the research with non-clinical populations is less extensive the approach will offer significant benefits in helping individuals prepare for change.