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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: BPS Textbooks in Psychology
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive review of the practice and most recent research on coaching Coaching Researched: Using Coaching Psychology to Inform Your Research and Practice brings together in one authoritative volume a collection to the most noteworthy papers from the past 15 years from the journal International Coaching Psychology Review. Firmly grounded in evidence-based practice, the writings are appropriate for the burgeoning number of coaching researchers and practitioners in business, health, and education. The contributors offer a scientific framework to support coaching's pedagogy and they cover the sub-specialties of the practice including executive, health, and life coaching. The book provides a comparative analysis in order to differentiate coaching from other practices. Comprehensive in scope, the book covers a wide-range of topics including: the nature of coaching, coaching theory, insights from recent research, a review of various coaching methods, and thoughts on the future of coaching. This important book: * Offers a collection of the most relevant research in the last 15 years with commentary from the International Coaching Psychology Review journal's chief editor * Contains information on both the theory and practice of the profession * Includes content on topics such as clients and coaching, an integrated model of coaching, evidence-based life coaching, and much more >Presents insights on the future of coaching research Written for students, researchers, practitioners of coaching in all areas of practice, Coaching Researched offers an accessible volume to the most current evidenced-based practice and research.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
About the Editors
List of Figures and Tables
Section I: Insights from the Nature of Coaching Psychology and Coaching Supervision
1 Coaching Psychology: Exploring Definitions and Research Contribution to Practice
INTRODUCTION
DEFINING COACHING
SUBSPECIALIZED PRACTICES UNDER COACHING
EXECUTIVE COACHING
HEALTH COACHING
LIFE COACHING
REFLECTIONS OF THE DEVELOPING NATURE OF COACHING DEFINITIONS
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COACHING AND OTHER HELPING INTERVENTIONS
COACHING COMPARED WITH COUNSELING/THERAPY
COACHING COMPARED WITH MENTORING
COACHING COMPARED TO CHANGE AGENT
DEFINING COACHING PSYCHOLOGY
KEY FINDINGS FROM RECENT SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS ON COACHING PSYCHOLOGY
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
2 The State and Future of Coaching Supervision
PREVALENCE OF COACHING SUPERVISION
STATE OF COACHING SUPERVISION
FUTURE OF COACHING SUPERVISION
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
APPENDIX: DEFINITIONS OF COACHING SUPERVISION
Section II: Insights from Coaching Psychology Theory
3 Does Coaching Work or Are We Asking the Wrong Question?
HOW IS COACHING BEING USED WITHIN AN ORGANIZATION?
A FRAMEWORK OF PRACTICE?
DOES IT WORK?
DOES COACHING WORK?
REFERENCES
4 A Languishing–Flourishing Model of Goal Striving and Mental Health for Coaching Populations
COACH OR COUCH?
THE NORMAL CURVE: DISTINGUISHING THE ABNORMAL POLLUTION?
THE PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF COACHING CLIENTS:THREE RECENT STUDIES
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: A LANGUISHING–FLOURISHING DISTINCTION
GOAL STRIVING AND COACHING
SELF‐CONCORDANCE, GOAL STRIVING, AND MENTAL HEALTH
A LANGUISHING–FLOURISHING MODEL OF GOAL STRIVING AND MENTAL HEALTH
CAN INAPPROPRIATE COACHING INTERVENTIONS DO HARM?
ETHICAL ISSUES
FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
REFERENCES
5 Addressing Deficit Performance Through Coaching: Using Motivational Interviewing for Performance Improvement at Work
DEVELOPMENT OF MI
THEORY BASE OF MI: TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL
CLINICAL RESEARCH
APPLYING MI IN COACHING PSYCHOLOGY
THE EVIDENCE FOR MI IN COACHING PSYCHOLOGY
PROPOSED MODEL
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
6 Does Coaching Psychology Need the Concept of Formulation?
FORMULATION AND ITS ROLE IN PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICE: A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
DOES COACHING PSYCHOLOGY NEED THE CONCEPT OF FORMULATION?
TOWARD A MODEL OF FORMULATION FOR COACHING PSYCHOLOGY: INTRODUCING THE PURPOSE, PERSPECTIVE, PROCESS MODEL AS A FRAMEWORK FOR FORMULATION
THE PURPOSE, PERSPECTIVE, PROCESS MODEL: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
REFERENCES
7 An Integrated Model of Goal‐Focused Coaching: An Evidence‐Based Framework for Teaching and Practice
SMART GOALS CAN DUMB‐DOWN COACHING
WHAT ARE GOALS?
GOALS AS “INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS OF DESIRED STATES OR OUTCOMES” ARE CENTRAL TO COACHING
GOAL‐FOCUSED SELF‐REGULATION SITS AT THE CORE OF THE COACHING PROCESS
GOALS ARE NOT MONOLITHIC ENTITIES
TIMEFRAMING: DISTAL AND PROXIMAL GOALS
OUTCOME GOALS
AVOIDANCE AND APPROACH GOALS
PERFORMANCE AND LEARNING GOALS
COMPLEMENTARY AND COMPETING GOALS
UNCONSCIOUS GOALS?
SELF‐CONCORDANT GOALS
GOAL HIERARCHIES: LINKING VALUES, GOALS, AND ACTIONS STEPS
GOAL NEGLECT
PUTTING ALL THIS TOGETHER: AN INTEGRATED MODEL FOR TEACHING AND COACHING PRACTICE
GOAL SELECTION MODERATORS
GOAL CHOICE AND ACTION PLANNING
THE SELF‐REGULATION CYCLE, FEEDBACK, AND GOAL SATISFACTION
SO WHAT? DOES GOAL THEORY MATTER IN PRACTICE?
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Section III: Insights from Qualitative Coaching Psychology Research
8 Super‐vision, Extra‐vision, or Blind Faith?: A Grounded Theory Study of the Efficacy of Coaching Supervision
WHAT IS SUPERVISION?
SUPERVISION IN COACHING
THE GROWTH OF COACHING SUPERVISION IN PRACTICE
METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
9 Coaching with Emotion: How Coaches Deal with Difficult Emotional Situations
THE PLACE OF EMOTION IN THE WORKPLACE
DEFINING DIFFICULT EMOTIONS
METHODOLOGY
FINDINGS
CONCLUSION AND FURTHER RESEARCH
REFERENCES
10 Critical Moments of Clients and Coaches: A Direct‐Comparison Study
METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
11 Differences Between Critical Moments for Clients, Coaches, and Sponsors of Coaching
CLIENTS' AND COACHES' CRITICAL MOMENTS IN COACHING
SPONSORS' CRITICAL MOMENTS IN COACHING
CONGRUENCE BETWEEN CLIENTS, COACHES, AND SPONSORS
METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
LIMITATIONS
FURTHER RESEARCH
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
12 One‐to‐One Coaching as a Catalyst for Personal Development: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of Coaching Undergraduates at a UK University
METHODS
FINDINGS
DISCUSSION
IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
FUTURE RESEARCH
REFERENCES
Section IV: Insights from Quantitative Coaching Psychology Research
13 Evidence‐Based Life Coaching for Senior High School Students: Building Hardiness and Hope
THE CHALLENGE OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
COGNITIVE HARDINESS
HOPE
AIMS OF THE RESEARCH
METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
14 Positive Coaching with Frontline Managers: Enhancing Their Effectiveness and Understanding Why
COACHING TO ENHANCE CORE PERFORMANCE, PROACTIVITY, AND WELL‐BEING
WHY WILL COACHING IMPACT THESE EMPLOYEE OUTCOMES?
RESEARCH DESIGN
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
LIMITATIONS
DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
15 Evaluating the Impact of a Peer Coaching Intervention on Well‐Being Among Psychology Undergraduate Students
COACHING IN EDUCATION
LIFE COACHING IN EDUCATION
STUDENT STRESS
AIMS OF THE STUDY
THE STUDY CONTEXT
METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
16 A Pilot Study Evaluating Strengths‐Based Coaching for Primary School Students: Enhancing Engagement and Hope
POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION
APPLIED POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION AS MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION
AIMS OF THE STUDY
METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
LIMITATIONS
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
17 The Quantitative Assessment of Motivational Interviewing Using Co‐Active Life Coaching Skills as an Intervention for Adults Struggling with Obesity
STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS
RESULTS
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
DISCUSSION
LIMITATIONS
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Section V: Insights from Mixed-Methods Coaching Psychology Research
18 Coaching as a Learning Methodology: A Mixed‐Methods Study in Driver Development Using a Randomized Controlled Trial and Thematic Analysis
METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
19 Evaluating a Coaching and Mentoring Program: Challenges and Solutions
LITERATURE REVIEW
METHODOLOGY OF THE PROJECT
RESULTS
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
20 Toward a Model of Coaching Transfer: Operationalizing Coaching Success and the Facilitators and Barriers to Transfer
EXECUTIVE COACHING
MEASURING COACHING TRANSFER
TOWARD A MODEL OF COACHING TRANSFER
SUMMARY OF COACHING INPUTS
STUDY 1: OPERATIONALIZING A SUCCESSFUL COACHING OUTCOME AND THE FACILITATORS AND BARRIERS TO COACHING TRANSFER
STUDY 1 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
STUDY 2: VERIFICATION OF THE PROPOSED COACHING TRANSFER MODEL
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
GENERAL DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
Section VI: The Future of Coaching Research
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Differences and Similarities Between Coaching and Other Similar Profess...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Themes in Definitions of Coaching Supervision
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Using MI and Other Interventions Within a Model of Change
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Table of Categories, Subcategories, and Themes
Table 8.2 Sample Questions Used in the Observed Coaching Supervision Session...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Five Data Sets of Critical‐Moment Descriptions, 2002–2009...
Table 10.2 The 12 Codes Used to Analyze All Five Data Sets
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Critical Moments Coding Scheme
Table 11.2 Vignettes of the Critical‐Moment Descriptions Within Each Row Data Fro...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Participant Descriptors
Table 12.2 Superordinate and Emergent Themes
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Means and Standard Deviations for Major Study Variables for Times 1 an...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Various Components of the Workplace Coaching Program
Table 14.2 Demographics of Sample
Table 14.3 Medians (Means), Standard Deviations, z Scores, and Significance Level...
Table 14.4 Types of Goals Themed Into Major Categories
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Mean Scores for Study Variables at Time 1
Table 15.2 Mean Scores and SD for Study Variables at Times 1 and 2
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Results for Measures of Engagement and Hope
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Goals for Driver Education (GDE) Matrix
Table 18.2 Training Objectives
Table 18.3 Total Number of Hours Driving to Pass the Test
Table 18.4 Total Number of Kilometers Driven in Training to Pass the Test
Table 18.5 Total Number of Tests Taken to Pass the Driving Test
Table 18.6 Passing the Driving Test on First Attempt
Table 18.7 Cross‐Tabulation for Whether Both Groups Pass the Driving Test on the ...
Table 18.8 Key Themes From the Interviews With the Trainers
Table 18.9 Key Themes From the Interviews With the Learners
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Descriptive Data From Time 1 and Time 2 Questionnaires
Table 19.2 Comparing UWES Sample and London Deanery Sample
Table 19.3 Paired Sample t‐Tests to Measure Whether Time 2 Means Are Higher Than ...
Table 19.4 Summary of Qualitative Analysis
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Defining a Successful Coaching Outcome
Table 20.2 Defining Coaching Transfer
Table 20.3 Coaching Transfer Facilitators and Barriers
Table 20.4 Means, Standard Deviations, and Alpha Coefficients for All Scales
Table 20.5 Correlations Between Coaching Transfer Variables and Psychosocial Fact...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Roots of Present‐Day Coaching
Figure 2.2 Hawkin's Seven‐Eyed Model of Supervision Note.
Figure 2.3 Systemic Overview of Coaching Psychology Supervision
Figure 2.4 Systemic Meta‐Model of Coaching Supervision
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Coaching Role, Agenda, and Supervision
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Theoretical Distribution of Psychopathology in the Psychiatric, C...
Figure 4.2 Keyes's Model of Mental Health and Diagnostic Categories
Figure 4.3 Proposed Model of Goal Striving and Mental Health
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Change Continuum
Figure 5.2 Reflective Listening
Figure 5.3 Ambivalence Continuum
Figure 5.4 Coaching for Change Balance Sheet
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Generic Model of Goal‐Directed Self‐Regulation
Figure 7.2 Goal Hierarchy Framework
Figure 7.3 Goal Hierarchy Framework Illustrating the Outcomes of Goal Neglec...
Figure 7.4 Integrative Model of Coach‐Facilitated Goal Attainment
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Conceptual Framework: Coaching Supervision
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Usage of All Codes (EH, AC, CB)
Figure 10.2 Overview of Coding for All Five Data Sets (CB) Note. 1: Less exp...
Figure 10.3 Distribution of Codes Selected by Coder AC
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Second Critical‐Moments Coding Scheme Based on Schein's (1985) “...
Figure 11.2 Proportions of Codes Assigned to Critical‐Moment Descriptions Wi...
Figure 11.3 Proportions of Codes Assigned to Critical‐Moment Descriptions Wi...
Figure 11.4 Congruence Between Clients, Coaches, and Sponsors Referring to t...
Figure 11.5 Comparison of Sponsors' Critical Moments With Earlier Research F...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Perceived Effectiveness of Peer Coaching Intervention
Figure 15.2 GHQ Scores for Study and Control Groups at Times 1 and 2
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 A Generic Cycle of Self‐Regulation
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Weight for Participants One to Eight
Figure 17.2 Waist Circumference for Participants One to Eight
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Kolb's (1984) Stages of Learning Cycle.
Figure 18.2 A Model Comparing the Outcomes of the Coaching and Instructional...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Changes Perceived in Working Life as the Result of Coaching
Figure 19.2 Perception of Participants on How Changes Occurred Are Attributa...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Conceptual Coaching Transfer Model.
Figure 20.2 Linkages Between SCO Categories and Clusters
Figure 20.3 Coaching Transfer Model (Revised)
Figure 20.4 Conditions of Transfer Associated With Types of Development and ...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Coaching Researched
A Coaching Psychology Reader
EDITED BY
JONATHAN PASSMORE&DAVID TEE
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Passmore, Jonathan, editor. | Tee, David, editor.Title: Coaching researched : a coaching psychology reader / edited by Jonathan Passmore & David Tee.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2019] | Series: 2380 BPS textbooks in psychology | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020007535 (print) | LCCN 2020007536 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119656883 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119656906 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119656890 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Personal coaching. | Positive psychology. | Executive coaching.Classification: LCC BF637.P36 C6355 2019 (print) | LCC BF637.P36 (ebook) | DDC 158.3–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020007535LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020007536
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © James Lee/Unsplash
All of the royalty proceeds from this title have been gifted to the British Psychological Society by the contributors, authors, and editors.
“Bernard of Chartres used to compare us to dwarfs perched on the shoulders of giants. He pointed out that we see more and farther than our predecessors, not because we have keener vision or greater height, but because we are lifted up and borne aloft on their gigantic stature”
John of Salisbury, Metalogicon, 1159
This book is dedicated to Prof Anthony M Grant, whose work inspired many and set the foundations for an evidenced-based approach to coaching through the development of coaching psychology.
Foreword
We live in a world of change and transition. We cannot always control our environment or indeed what happens in our lives, but we can choose how we respond to it. We need to adapt to new ways of working and enhance how we interact with our world and those around us. At times, it can be challenging to see the way ahead or to explore different options. This is true for world and business leaders as it is for the rest of us in our daily lives. As Galileo said, ‘we cannot teach people anything; we can only help them to discover it within themselves’. Coaching has increased in popularity over the last 30 years and is now applied in a wide range of contexts – from boardrooms to students, to educational and medical contexts. There is a fine line between coaching, mentoring and indeed counselling; and, as with coaches, practitioners too operate from different models and different perspectives.
We want to create momentum for change – for each person, their teams and the environments in which they live and work. I readily observe this in practice. Take Jenna, the high‐flying executive, delivering and exceeding expectations. How can coaching support her? By using evidence‐based practice, we can appreciate her experience more clearly. We can enable her to see different opportunities as well as ways to make the most of her social and emotional capital and to leverage resources more effectively. This is simply one example but now multiple the use of research and practice across the thousands of coaching situations and there is power and impact from coaching psychology.
But are we making the most of the research and evidence in the way we apply coaching? What does research tell us about the impact of our interventions, and what data and evidence do we need for future work? This book provides us with insights into these areas and more. As the president of the British Psychological Society, I am delighted that this BPS‐sponsored book is being published. My interest in this book is twofold. First, my experience over the last two decades as a practitioner psychologist and executive coach highlights the need for scientific evidence and well‐researched frameworks. Second, as a sponsor of the application of science and evidence‐based practice in coaching, I want to see the perforation of research evidence and psychological base in coaching interventions.
The BPS Special Group in Coaching Psychology (SGCP) was formed in 2004 in response to the Coaching Psychology Forum (CPF) and the desire to share research as well as practical experiences. As the group evolved, the core focus has been on the scientific study and application of behaviour, cognition and emotion to deepen our understanding of individuals’ and groups’ performance, achievement and well‐being, and to enhance practice within coaching. What has this meant in terms of research and practice?
This book, titled Coaching Researched: A Coaching Psychology Reader, is a milestone in our understanding of the psychological research in coaching psychology. Our esteemed colleagues, Jonathan Passmore and David Tee, as editors have brought together a strong mix of researchers and research outcomes to explore the core themes for coaching research as we move into the next phase of coaching development.
In the 20 chapters, they address the core research themes and the evidence behind it, from a qualitative, quantitative and mixed research perspective. They discuss the value of coaching as a behavioural change tool, enabling us to appreciate the core threads and themes for development and coaching, and the value of different frameworks and approaches. They enable us to understand why the investment in coaching psychology adds significant value to clients, practitioners and organisations.
This book enables us to appreciate the value of rigorous research methods and insights. It encourages us to reflect on the coaching practice story and highlights the importance of research for practice, insightful coaching psychology theory and the value of the evidence base. It enables us to think seriously about how we can combine theory and practice. It emphasises the importance of coaching supervision and continuous professional development, and why coaching is an important part of psychology.
Most of all, it is a book that brings in the human perspective and challenges us all to think more broadly about coaching research and practice. Like me, I am sure that you will find this to be a thought‐provoking and genuinely interesting insight into coaching psychology. Enjoy!
– Dr Hazel McLaughlin:
President, British Psychological Society and Founder,MorphSmart [email protected]
About the Editors
Jonathan PassmoreJonathan is the editor of the British Psychological Society’s (BPS) International Coaching Psychology Review, the premier peer review coaching psychology journal, distributed across BPS members and psychologists in other English‐speaking countries. He is a chartered psychologist, practicing coach, and author. He has published widely with over 100 scientific papers and book chapters, and edited and written 30 books (including Excellence in Coaching, Appreciative Inquiry for Change Management and Top Business Psychology Models). Jonathan holds two professorships—one at University of Évora, Portugal and a second at Henley Business School.
David TeeDavid is the editor of The Coaching Psychologist, published by the BPS. He is a chartered psychologist, practicing coach, who couples work for University of Worcester and University of South Wales alongside independent consultancy. He has published widely including papers in The Coaching Psychologist, International Coaching Psychology Review and Danish Journal of Coaching Psychology.
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 2.1
Roots of Present‐Day Coaching
Figure 2.2
Hawkin’s Seven‐Eyed Model of Supervision
Figure 2.3
Systemic Overview of Coaching Psychology Supervision
Figure 2.4
Systemic Meta‐Model of Coaching Supervision
Figure 3.1
Coaching Role, Agenda, and Supervision
Figure 4.1
Theoretical Distribution of Psychopathology in the Psychiatric, Clinical, Counseling, and Coaching Populations
Figure 4.2
Keyes’s Model of Mental Health and Diagnostic Categories
Figure 4.3
Proposed Model of Goal Striving and Mental Health
Figure 5.1
Change Continuum
Figure 5.2
Reflective Listening
Figure 5.3
Ambivalence Continuum
Figure 5.4
Coaching for Change Balance Sheet
Figure 7.1
Generic Model of Goal‐Directed Self‐Regulation
Figure 7.2
Goal Hierarchy Framework
Figure 7.3
Goal Hierarchy Framework Illustrating the Outcomes of Goal Neglect
Figure 7.4
Integrative Model of Coach‐Facilitated Goal Attainment
Figure 8.1
Conceptual Framework: Coaching Supervision
Figure 10.1
Usage of All Codes (EH, AC, CB)
Figure 10.2
Overview of Coding for All Five Data Sets (CB)
Figure 10.3
Distribution of Codes Selected by Coder AC
Figure 11.1
Second Critical‐Moments Coding Scheme Based on Schein’s (1985) “Onion” Model
Figure 11.2
Proportions of Codes Assigned to Critical‐Moment Descriptions Within Original First Coding Scheme
Figure 11.3
Proportions of Codes Assigned to Critical‐Moment Descriptions Within Second Coding Scheme Based on Schein’s (1985) “Onion” Model
Figure 11.4
Congruence Between Clients, Coaches, and Sponsors Referring to the Same Coaching Assignments
Figure 11.5
Comparison of Sponsors’ Critical Moments With Earlier Research Findings
Figure 15.1
Perceived Effectiveness of Peer Coaching Intervention
Figure 15.2
GHQ Scores for Study and Control Groups at Times 1 and 2
Figure 16.1
A Generic Cycle of Self‐Regulation
Figure 17.1
Weight for Participants One to Eight
Figure 17.2
Waist Circumference for Participants One to Eight
Figure 18.1
Kolb’s (1984) Stages of Learning Cycle.
Figure 18.2
A Model Comparing the Outcomes of the Coaching and Instructional Approaches.
Figure 19.1
Changes Perceived in Working Life as the Result of Coaching
Figure 19.2
Perception of Participants on How Changes Occurred Are Attributable to Coaching
Figure 20.1
Conceptual Coaching Transfer Model.
Figure 20.2
Linkages Between SCO Categories and Clusters
Figure 20.3
Coaching Transfer Model (Revised)
Figure 20.4
Conditions of Transfer Associated With Types of Development and Stages of Transfer
Table 1.1
Differences and Similarities Between Coaching and Other Similar Professional Helping Interventions
Table 2.1
Themes in Definitions of Coaching Supervision
Table 5.1
Using MI and Other Interventions Within a Model of Change
Table 8.1
Table of Categories, Subcategories, and Themes
Table 8.2
Sample Questions Used in the Observed Coaching Supervision Session
Table 10.1
Five Data Sets of Critical‐Moment Descriptions, 2002–2009
Table 10.2
The 12 Codes Used to Analyze All Five Data Sets
Table 11.1
Critical Moments Coding Scheme
Table 11.2
Vignettes of the Critical‐Moment Descriptions Within Each Row Data From the Same Coaching Assignment
Table 12.1
Participant Descriptors
Table 12.2
Superordinate and Emergent Themes
Table 13.1
Means and Standard Deviations for Major Study Variables for Times 1 and 2
Table 14.1
Various Components of the Workplace Coaching Program
Table 14.2
Demographics of Sample
Table 14.3
Medians (Means), Standard Deviations, z Scores, and Significance Levels (Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test) by Time
Table 14.4
Types of Goals Themed Into Major Categories
Table 15.1
Mean Scores for Study Variables at Time 1
Table 15.2
Mean Scores and SD for Study Variables at Times 1 and 2
Table 16.1
Results for Measures of Engagement and Hope
Table 18.1
Goals for Driver Education (GDE) Matrix
Table 18.2
Training Objectives
Table 18.3
Total Number of Hours Driving to Pass the Test
Table 18.4
Total Number of Kilometers Driven in Training to Pass the Test
Table 18.5
Total Number of Tests Taken to Pass the Driving Test
Table 18.6
Passing the Driving Test on First Attempt
Table 18.7
Cross‐Tabulation for Whether Both Groups Pass the Driving Test on the First Attempt
Table 18.8
Key Themes From the Interviews With the Trainers
Table 18.9
Key Themes From the Interviews With the Learners
Table 19.1
Descriptive Data From Time 1 and Time 2 Questionnaires
Table 19.2
Comparing UWES Sample and London Deanery Sample
Table 19.3
Paired Sample t‐Tests to Measure Whether Time 2 Means Are Higher Than Time 1 Scores
Table 19.4
Summary of Qualitative Analysis
Table 20.1
Defining a Successful Coaching Outcome
Table 20.2
Defining Coaching Transfer
Table 20.3
Coaching Transfer Facilitators and Barriers
Table 20.4
Means, Standard Deviations, and Alpha Coefficients for All Scales
Table 20.5
Correlations Between Coaching Transfer Variables and Psychosocial Factors and Split on Development Type
Section IInsights from the Nature of Coaching Psychology and Coaching Supervision
Jonathan Passmore and David Tee
Coaching psychology has emerged from the wider tradition of coaching and has frequently struggled to provide a clear identity for itself as something distinct or separate from coaching. In the same way, coaching supervision has struggled to shake off its roots as a therapeutic process used by therapists to provide a space for reflection and guidance about their highly emotionally charged work.
In this first section of the book, we offer two papers from the International Coaching Psychology Review. The first explores the nature of coaching and coaching psychology, offering the reader multiple definitions to consider. Maybe one of coaching psychology and coaching's strengths is the diversity of its application and thus multiplicity of its definitions. One key aspect for psychologists is the central nature of evidence. If coaching psychology is anything it is evidenced‐based practice, which explores the behavior, cognition, and emotion of coaching.
The 2010–2020 period has seen a growth in coaching research, promoted not only by coaching journals such as the International Coaching Psychology Review and The Coaching Psychologist, but also through meta‐analysis papers (Grover & Furnham, 2016) which have brought together the research data to provide fresh insights and through systematic reviews, have sought to synthesize coaching research to provide an integrated understanding of published research (Athanasopoulou & Dopson, 2017). Through these meta‐studies, we hope coaching psychology, in its many forms, can lead to the refinement of practice.
In the second paper, the topic of supervision is explored; its role and the growing evidence for its contribution as a tool to aid reflective practice. While the jury may still be out in terms of the specific contribution which coaching supervision plays, there is mounting evidence that supervision is a useful resource worthy of further research (Hawkins, Turner, & Passmore, 2019).
REFERENCES
Athanasopoulou, A., & Dopson, S. (2017). A systematic review of executive coaching outcomes: Is it the journey or the destination that matters the most?
Leadership Quarterly
,
29
(1), 70–88. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.11.004
Grover, S., & Furnham, A. (2016). Coaching as a developmental intervention in organisations.
PLoS One
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11
(7), e0159137. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159137
Hawkins, P., Turner, E., & Passmore, J. (2019).
The supervision manifesto
. Henley‐on‐Thames: Henley Business School.
1Coaching Psychology: Exploring Definitions and Research Contribution to Practice
Jonathan Passmore and Yi‐Ling Lai1
INTRODUCTION
Since coaching started its journey of development as a separate discipline in the early 1980s (Brock, 2012; Passmore & Theeboom, 2016), definitions of coaching have been part of the debate within coaching practice and research across the literature, from practitioners' guides to academic texts. While there has been broad agreement over these years, the focus and emphasis have varied, reflecting the orientation and focus of different writers (e.g., Grant & Palmer, 2002; Passmore & Fillery‐Travis, 2011; Whitmore, 1992).
The search for a formal definition of coaching may be considered to be an academic pursuit. However, Grant (2011) argues that a clear definition is needed for the purpose of the development of evidence‐based practice, such as coach training and education. Summarizing from previous discussions on the need for a standardized coaching definition, we conclude that marking the boundaries of a domain is vital for three reasons. First, it is essential for practice; a standardized definition of an intervention makes it clear to clients what they can expect from a service provider (their coach), namely a regulated professional service. This view is shared by the International Coach Federation (ICF), which encourages coaches to include an exploration of the nature of coaching during the contracting phase with clients, ensuring both have a shared understanding of the process and what the client can expect (International Coach Federation, 2017). Second, it's vital for research. We need to clearly delineate the domain to understand the phenomena being studied. As coaching is still an emerging research domain, it is crucial to define the key components to differentiate coaching from other similar helping interventions (e.g., counseling) and provide a platform from which theoretical contributions can develop. Third, a consistent definition is vital for coaching education and qualification, with a scientific‐based framework to support its pedagogy. Meanwhile, we consider a distinct description and characterization of coaching helps us to have a better understanding of whether coaching psychology is a unique discipline, and what the essential body of knowledge is to support its theoretical domain.
This paper starts with reviewing the definitions of coaching, following with the distinctions between subspecialized practices under coaching, such as executive, health, and life coaching. In addition, we also provide a comparative analysis to differentiate coaching from other similar professional helping interventions (e.g., counseling). Moreover, we summarize the interpretations of psychology‐based coaching approaches considering that the term, coaching psychology, has been used and perceived as a developed (or developing) discipline in some regions (e.g., Australia and the UK). Nevertheless, it is still not widely accepted or used in other parts of the world. Therefore, we attempt to clarify whether the theoretical foundation of what so‐called “coaching psychology” is different from coaching and what the body of knowledge is under its domain from existing research evidence through reviewing the most used definitions. The term “coaching psychology” is used hereafter to maintain consistency in this paper. Finally, we integrate key perspectives and findings from recent systematic reviews and meta‐analyses on coaching to consider the psychological contribution to coaching practice.
DEFINING COACHING
Grant (2001) indicated the first reference to coaching in the workplace dates back to 1937. This has subsequently been cited by multiple research papers over the past two decades. The paper, a journalist's report by C.B. Gordy, the Detroit editor of Factory Management and Maintenance, examined the role of worker development (through training and coaching) to improve factory processes. The journalist offered little in the way of a formal definition of coaching. In fact, the only reference to coaching by Gordy comes at the very end of the paper: “whereas supervisors found it advisable in the early years to coach employees in the importance of spoiled work and cost reduction, it is now found the older men voluntarily assume this task in training the younger employees” (Gordy, 1937, p. 83). Gordy appeared to suggest that coaching and training are almost synonymous, with progress from what might be a short and informal approach to training (coaching) to a more formal training intervention.
Our own literature search, using the term “coaching” through the Henley One database, which searches multiple business databases, has revealed earlier references to the term. As early as 1911, the term was being used in journals to reflect its use as an educational tool within university and school debating societies, helping members improve their debating skills (Huston, 1924; Trueblood, 1911). As with Gordy, there is little description in these papers of the process, and no explicit definition of the term. Also, as with Gordy, the term appears to be used interchangeably with training. More workplace coaching papers were written during the 1930s (Bigelow, 1938). At the same time, sports coaching was developing too, where the first connections were made between coaching and psychology (Griffith, 1926). But these works were relatively few and far between, until the eruption of coaching in the 1980s.
As the literature evolved from a sporadic collection of papers, often with little if any definition of terms, Whitmore's seminal book placed a marker in the sand, and provides a clear definition of coaching. For Whitmore, coaching was about “unlocking a person's potential to maximise their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them—a facilitation approach” (Whitmore, 1992, p. 8). Whitmore drew heavily on Timothy Gallwey's inner game model. Gallwey had noted in sports performance that the internal state of a player was a significant factor. He went further to argue that it was more significant even than the opponent in individual sports like tennis and golf. If the individual could control their self‐talk, sizable performance gains could be made (Gallwey, 1986) At the core of coaching for John Whitmore was a belief that the purpose of coaching was helping individuals develop greater self‐awareness and personal responsibility: “Performance coaching is based on awareness and responsibility” (Whitmore, 1992, p. 173).
Other founding writers offered alternative definitions. Laura Whitworth, one of the pioneers in the United States, along with Thomas Leonard (Brock, 2009), developed co‐active coaching, which defined coaching as “a relationship of possibilities … based on trust, confidentiality” (Whitworth, Kinsey‐House, & Sandahl, 1998).
These perspectives highlighted the nature of the coaching process and its dependency on people, interpersonal interactions, and collaboration. This relational aspect distinguishes coaching from other tutoring or training interventions, where arguably knowledge exchange is at the heart of the process and has led to one stream of coaching research focusing on interpersonal and relational aspects, in the belief that if the relationship is sound, effective outcomes will result.
Passmore and Fillery‐Travis (2011) offered a more process‐based definition in an attempt to differentiate coaching from mentoring, counseling, and other conversation‐based approaches to change. They suggested coaching involved “a Socratic based dialogue between a facilitator (coach) and a participant (client) where the majority of interventions used by the facilitator are open questions which are aimed at stimulating the self awareness and personal responsibility of the participant.”
Bachkirova, Cox, and Clutterbuck (2010) have suggested that coaching is “a human development process that involves structured, focused interaction and the use of appropriate strategies, tools and techniques to promote desirable and sustainable change for the benefit of the coachee” (Bachkirova et al., 2010, p. 1), while Lai (2014) suggested coaching is defined as a “reflective process between coaches and coachees which helps or facilitates coachees to experience positive behavioural changes through continuous dialogue and negotiations with coaches to meet coachees' personal or work goals.” Again, positive behavioral changes are pointed out as the main purpose of coaching, with a recognition that a structured process is involved. Moreover, “negotiation” is put forward in Lai's reinterpretation of coaching that reflects back the previous definitions; coaching is a relationship‐based learning and development process.
SUBSPECIALIZED PRACTICES UNDER COACHING
As the coaching industry has grown, definitions have split into a series of subsets of coaching. These have included executive coaching, health coaching, and life coaching. The following sections summarize the definitions and characteristics of these most prevalent subspecialized areas of coaching.
EXECUTIVE COACHING
The application of coaching in the workplace, and specifically with senior managers, has led to the development of what has been labeled executive coaching. At its simplest, executive coaching could be defined as coaching for senior, or c‐suite, managers. Kilburg suggested executive coaching was distinctive in being
a helping relationship formed between a client who has managerial authority and responsibility in an organization and a consultant who uses a wide variety of behavioural techniques and methods to help the client achieve a mutually identified set of goals to improve his or her professional performance and personal satisfaction and, consequently, to improve the effectiveness of the client's organization within a formally defined coaching agreement.
(Kilburg, 1996, p. 142)
Similarly, de Haan, Duckworth, Birch, and Jones (2013), echoing earlier relational definitions, indicated executive coaching is a relationship‐focused development intervention. Their research and practice perceive executive coaching as a form of leadership development that takes place through a series of contracted, one‐to‐one conversations, with a qualified “coach.” The process itself is tailored to individuals, so that they learn and develop through the reflective conversation, but that such learning occurred because of the unique relationship based on trust, safety, and support.
Both definitions highlight the professional working relationship in the coaching process and the importance of “contracting” beforehand. However, the definition by de Haan et al. (2013) specifies the term “qualified coach,” which raises the awareness of a “standard” coaching qualification. Given de Haan's own background as facilitator and coach trainer, this is not surprising, but his definition opens up the discussion, what does “qualified coach” mean and who decides.
HEALTH COACHING
A further strand that has emerged and is continuing to grow in popularity is health coaching. The approach has grown in both the UK, within the National Health Service (NHS) (Evidence Centre, 2014), in the United States through private providers and globally. A literature review identified 275 published studies, with the approach now widely used by nurses, doctors, and allied health professionals such as physiotherapists and health advisors (Evidence Centre, 2014).
The study defined health coaching as:
a patient‐centred process that is based upon behaviour change theory and is delivered by health professionals with diverse backgrounds. The actual health coaching process entails goal setting determined by the patient, encourages self‐discovery in addition to content education, and incorporates mechanisms for developing accountability in health behaviours.
(Evidence Centre, 2014, p. 3)
A similar definition was offered by Palmer, Stubbs, and Whybrow (2003), who defined health coaching as “the practice of health education and health promotion within a coaching context, to enhance the wellbeing of individuals and to facilitate the achievement of their health‐related goals” (Palmer et al., 2003, p. 91). The distinction is the focus on self‐discovery, which echoes Whitmore's primary aims of coaching: self‐awareness and personal responsibility.
However, what is less clear from these definitions is where health coaching starts and finishes. If coaching is employed to help individuals with chronic conditions and to improve health outcomes, does this include approaches such as motivational interviewing, which are widely used for drug and alcohol treatment, or brief solution focus therapy and cognitive‐behavioral therapy (CBT), which might be considered to be included within the definitions above, but which the practitioner delivering it might consider to be counseling or therapy. This lack of a more clearly defined boundary has made it difficult to study and compare coaching interventions within health coaching (Boehmer et al., 2016).
One useful, although controversial, distinction we have offered is to use the time focus of the conversation, with coaching focused on future behavioral change for health improvement, while counseling or therapy focused on coping with managing or making sense of the past.
LIFE COACHING
Like health coaching, life coaching has become a popular means of helping nonclinical populations in setting and reaching goals and enhancing their well‐being (Green, Oades, & Grant, 2006).
Life coaching can be broadly defined as a collaborative solution‐focused, result‐orientated, and systematic process in which the coach facilitates the enhancement of life experience and goal attainment in the personal and/or professional life of normal, nonclinical clients (Grant, 2014). In other words, life coaching has often been considered to be coaching outside of the work arena, for example in education (Green, Grant, & Rynsaardt, 2007) or coaching for well‐being (Green et al., 2006).
One possible distinction between life coaching and health coaching is that health coaching is often defined in terms of the qualification of those providing it, as the coaching is delivered by health professionals, while life coaching is delivered by those outside of the health sector. In the UK and Australia, the term itself has slipped in popularity, being replaced by the term well‐being coaching. Although the term life coaching remains popular in North America, coaching continues to grow and spread to new areas beyond business and sports to areas including driving development (Passmore & Rehman, 2012; Wilmott & Wilmott, 2018), safety coaching (Passmore, Krauesslar, & Avery, 2015), maternity and childcare (Golawski, Bamford, & Gersch, 2013), and marital relationships (Ives & Cox, 2015; Williams & Williams, 2011).
REFLECTIONS OF THE DEVELOPING NATURE OF COACHING DEFINITIONS
Reflecting back on the wide‐ranging definitions, a common theme is the facilitative nature of coaching. First, the role of the agent (the coach) is not to guide, direct, or instruct, but to “facilitate.” The process is to support the client (coachee) in making new discoveries and insights, and moving closer to their goals. A second observation from reviewing these multiple definitions is that coaching has been refined and redefined continually over this period as it has changed, developed, and spread into new areas. This brings not only challenges, but could also be considered to be coaching's strength, reflecting a vibrant, dynamic, and developing area of practice. As Palmer and Whybrow note “definitions seldom stay static, unless the area has stagnated” (2007, p. 3).
The situation has been less fluid in coaching psychology. While there have been various definitions of coaching psychology offered since the turn of the millennium, the variety and volume of change have been markedly different, with only two or three alternative definitions offered in publications (Passmore, Peterson, & Freire, 2013).
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COACHING AND OTHER HELPING INTERVENTIONS
One way of understanding the essential defining elements of coaching is a comparison with other relevant facilitation activities. Traditionally, coaching has been compared with therapy/counseling and mentoring (Bachkirova, 2008) because they share very similar features and processes. In this discussion, we also include a discussion about organizational change. Various writers have discussed the key similarities and differences among coaching, therapy/counseling, mentoring, and change agent (e.g., Bachkirova, 2008; Leonard, Lewis, Freedman, & Passmore, 2013). Table 1.1 summarizes the key features subsequent to reviewing a number of related papers and book chapters (Bachkirova, 2008; Gray, 2006; Joo, 2005; McDowall & Mabey, 2008; Passmore et al., 2013).
Table 1.1Differences and Similarities Between Coaching and Other Similar Professional Helping Interventions
Note. Revised from Joo (2005); Gray (2006); Bachkirova (2008); McDowall and Mabey (2008); and Passmore et al. (2013).
Aspects
Counseling/therapy
Coaching
Mentoring
Change agent
Ultimate purpose and benefits
Development and well‐being of individual.
Development and well‐being of individual (if sponsored, also benefit for the sponsoring organization).
Development and well‐being of individual (if sponsored, also benefit for the sponsoring organization).
Development and organizational change.
Initial motivation
Eliminating psychological problem and dysfunctions.
Enhancing life, improving performance.
Enhancing life, improving performance.
Enhancing life, improving performance at the workplace.
Context of interventions
Open to any and potentially to all areas of client's life.
Specified by the contract according to the client's goals, the coach's area of expertise and the assignment of a sponsor if involved.
Specified by the contract according to the client's goals, the coach's area of expertise, and the assignment of a sponsor if involved.
Specified by the contract according to the client's goals, the coach's area of expertise, and the assignment of a sponsor if involved.
Client's expectations for change
From high dissatisfaction to reasonable satisfaction.
From relative satisfaction to much higher satisfaction.
From relative satisfaction to much higher satisfaction.
From relative satisfaction to much higher satisfaction.
Possible outcome
Increased well‐being, unexpected positive changes in various areas of life.
Goal attainment, increased well‐being, and productivity.
Goal attainment, increased well‐being, and productivity.
Goal attainment, increased well‐being, and productivity.
Theoretical foundation
Psychology and philosophy.
May include psychology, education, sociology, philosophy, management, health, and social care, etc.
May include psychology, education, sociology, philosophy, management, health, and social care, etc.
May include psychology, education, sociology, philosophy, management, and organizational change theories, etc.
Main professional skills
Listening, questioning, feedback, use of tools, and methods specific to particular approaches.
Listening, questioning, feedback, use of tools, and methods specific to particular approaches.
Listening, questioning, feedback, use of tools, and methods specific to particular approaches.
Listening, questioning, feedback, use of tools, and methods specific to particular approaches.
Importance of relationship in the process
High
High
High
High
Importance of the client's commitment
High
High
High
High
Role of the practitioner's self in the process
Very important
Very important
Important
Less important
Degree of formality
High
High
Less formal
High
Frequency
Variable, but usually several sessions needed based on client's individual situations.
Variable, but usually several sessions needed based on client's individual situations.
Variable, but usually several sessions needed based on client's individual situations.
Variable, usually based on the original contract with the organization.
Ownership of data/feedback
It is confidential data. Only shared between therapist and client.
Coach and individual, some data often shared with line manager. It depends on the agreed contract.
Mentor and the mentee. Some data and information are shared with the organization based on the initial agreement.
Most of the data and information are shared with the organization.
COACHING COMPARED WITH COUNSELING/THERAPY
The need for a clearer differentiation between counseling/therapy and coaching is emerging as the use of psychological models and tools in coaching interventions has increased considerably (Bachkirova, 2008). Such differentiation is essential to ensure a quality coaching engagement if the clearer orientation and required knowledge are defined in the coaching evaluation and training agenda. The similarities between the counseling/therapy and coaching domains are that both are concerned with the “relationship,” there is a need for engagement or “client's/coachee's commitment,” and both rely on the “practitioner's (coach's) self‐awareness” to both facilitate the relationship and keep the conversation moving forward. In both cases, the aim is to facilitate a person's change through an interpersonal interactive process, the relationship between practitioner and client, and how the practitioner facilitates an effective relationship is essential for a positive outcome. In addition, the counseling/therapy and coaching principle share a number of basic required professional skills such as listening, questioning, summarizing, reflection, and affirmations.
We suggest that there are at least three differentiating aspects. First, the initial motivation of clients to undertake counseling/therapy is different from coaching. For example, the individual usually expects to eliminate psychological problems and dysfunctions through counseling/therapy sessions. In this sense, it may be considered to be primarily problem‐focused. In contrast, coaching clients are seeking more.
The coachee arrives in anticipation of an improvement in personal and professional development. In this sense, it may be considered to be solution‐focused. Second, the focus of counseling/therapy may involve any matters relevant to the client's personal well‐being, while the coaching process is usually restricted to the agreed and contracted goals. The expected outcomes and evaluation methods are usually defined prior to the first session with the involved parties (e.g., coachee, supervisors, and other stakeholders). Third, the time horizon for the work is longer. While the coach may contract for 4, 6, or possibly 12 sessions, the therapist contracts week by week, with a view that it takes as long as it takes.
COACHING COMPARED WITH MENTORING
The similarity between coaching and mentoring is that they both provide a one‐to‐one relationship that is designed to enhance a person's career development (Feldman & Lankau, 2005). However, there are notable differences between these two activities. First, mentoring is a form of tutelage, which means a more senior or experienced mentor conveys knowledge and insight to a junior mentee about how to improve in a specific job, role, vocation, or organization. Passmore et al. (2013) referred to the definition of mentoring from Eby, Rhodes, & Allen (2007, p. 16): workplace mentoring involves a relationship between a less experienced individual (protégé) and a more experienced person (the mentor), where the purpose is the personal and professional growth of the protégé. The mentor may be a peer at work, a supervisor, or someone else within the organization but outside the protégé's chain of command. Both coaching and mentoring disciplines highlight the importance of “relationship.” However, coaching is typically conducted without the expectation of an equal relationship between the two parties, with less focus on technical knowledge (Joo, 2005). Besides, the main purpose of coaching is considered to be improving performance or workplace well‐being through self‐awareness and learning, whereas the purpose of mentoring varies widely from socialization of newcomers to management development (Joo, 2005). Some have also argued that coaching also differers from mentoring in its use of a structured process, involving specific tools and assessments, to provide both awareness in the client and the development of specific plans for improvement (Joo, 2005), which is in turn reflected in the timelines, with mentoring often running over several years and coaching over several months.
COACHING COMPARED TO CHANGE AGENT
A change agent is defined as being an individual who initiates and manages change in the organization (Lunenburg, 2010). Similar to the coaching intervention, the change agent can be assigned from internal staff (e.g., managers or in‐house HR professionals) or hired from external specialists (Tschirky, 2011). Integrating contemporary theoretical interpretations between the coach and change agent, these two roles share several common features and historical development processes. First, coaches and change agents are commissioned to transform individuals to fit into the norms (e.g., behaviors, attitudes, performance, thinking styles) of societies or organizations at the early stage of both practices (Bennis, Benne, & Chin, 1969; Kilburg, 1996; Parsloe, 1999). A “planned” change in the organizational setting has usually been expected by the change agency (i.e., the sponsored organization) since the late 1950s (Lippitt, Watson, & Westley, 1958). The primal definitions of coaching, as well as an emphasis on the purposes of coaching, are related to “corporate vision and goals,” “team performance,” “organisational productivity,” and “professional development” (Parsloe, 1999; Sperry, 2008). These descriptions of being a coach and change agent focus on the task, instead of people; and the process is viewed as an instrumental tool generating conformity in the organization. Nevertheless, a broader view of both practices is established alongside the development of relevant theories, such as motivation to change. For instance, Zaltman and Duncan (1977) indicated the change agent is an individual who transforms the status quo even though the operation is not sanctioned. In addition, Caldwell (2003) indicates the role of change agents has been shifted away from a planned approach to change, with a bottom‐up approach advocated. Meanwhile, the objective of coaching is expanded from specific corporate‐related goals to stimulation of personal potential and responsibility (Passmore & Fillery‐Travis, 2011).
The evolution of both practices is grounded on the idea that people's behavioral change is highly associated with their intention (i.e., motivation) to change (Webb & Sheeran, 2006). Accordingly, the focus of changing process research transfers to change recipients' needs and intrinsic motivation in this changing and learning process. Second, facilitating a collaborative and equal working relationship is encouraged in both practices. Zaltman and Duncan's study (1977) indicates change agents are more likely to be effective if they keep a flexible working relationship with the change recipient; for instance, acknowledging their needs, maintaining a collaborative process, and being receptive to new ideas. In the meantime, the quality of the professional helping relationship is recognized as an essential antecedent for positive coaching outcomes (Bozer & Jones, 2018; de Haan et al., 2013) through numerous primary studies. Third, psychology plays an essential part in both practices. The involvement of psychology in the change process can be traced back to the 1970s. Several papers indicate change agents as “consultants in behavioural clothing” or “psychological consultants”.
The explicit inclusion of a psychological perspective within coaching can be attributed to Grant (2001). Following Grant's Ph.D. (2001), the consideration of the psychological effects of coaching—both processes and outcomes—has been a popular area of research (Bono, Purvanova, Towler, & Peterson, 2009; Smither, 2011). More recently, several systematic reviews and meta‐analyses have established psychologically informed research at the vanguard of coaching research (Athanasoupoulou & Dopson, 2018; Bozer & Jones, 2018; Jones, Woods, & Guillaume, 2016; Theeboom, Beersma, & van Vianen, 2014). Nevertheless, in terms of practice, some papers (e.g., Bono et al., 2009; Passmore, Palmer, & Short, 2010) have argued that there is little evidence of differences in practice between coaching psychologists and nonpsychologically trained coaches. Despite these debates as to whether psychological training informs coaching practice, we would argue there is little doubt that psychology theory, be it behavioral change theory or psychological theories of human relationships, have informed all coach training. The understanding of human behavior, emotions, cognition, and motivation are key skills for all coaches, not just psychologists. Fourth, both practices involve managing a complex social context. According to O'Neill (2000), the change agent often has no direct authority over the implementer; therefore, it is a natural triangular working relationship between the sponsor, implementer, and agent. A similar relationship exists in the coaching context. More and more coaching studies (Ianiro, Lehmann‐Willenbrock, & Kauffeld, 2015; Louis & Fatien Diochon, 2014; Shoukry & Cox, 2018) have acknowledged the significance of the social dynamic in the coaching process. For example, Ianiro et al.'s study (2015) highlighted the importance of interpersonal interactions between the coach and coachee and how these are altered by different social circumstances.
