The Woman's Book of Household Management E-Book

Florence Jack

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 862

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

In the dim and distant past, when a Lady had servants to look after her house and there was no Mrs Hinch, she relied on the Edwardian bible for the household: the Woman's Book, a weighty tome full of useful information, hints and tips on how to run her household. With everything from the price of setting up and furnishing a new home to how to clean, deal with the paperwork, remove stains, wash and iron clothes properly, and generally run a house in the Edwardian period, this book, written in the rather formal style of 1911, is a mine of useful information, much of it still valid today.

Leseprobe

First published 1911

This paperback edition first published 2024

The History Press

97 St George’s Place, Cheltenham,

Gloucestershire, GL50 3QB

www.thehistorypress.co.uk

© Florence Jack, 1911, 2007, 2024

The right of Florence Jack to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the Publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 80399 847 3

Typesetting and origination by The History Press

Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ Books Limited, Padstow, Cornwall.

eBook converted by Geethik Technologies

CONTENTS

FOREWORD

PREFACE

SOME OF THE CONTRIBUTORS

THE HOUSE

MISTRESS AND SERVANTS

GUIDE TO HOUSEHOLD WORK

FOOD AND THE KITCHEN

THE TABLE

HOUSEHOLD LINEN

GUIDE TO LAUNDRY WORK

HOME PETS

HOUSEHOLD REPAIRS AND UPHOLSTERY

NOTES

FOREWORD

It is difficult today to imagine a life without the domestic appliances which have freed us from the perpetual grind of housework faced by most women in 1911.

In the first half of the twentieth century women generally had primary responsibility for the household and at that time there were no labour-saving devices to help with the daily chores – no washing machines, vacuum cleaners or dishwashers – and heating was provided by coal fires, which needed to be cleaned of the dirt and dust they produced.

Good housework was a highly valued social ethic of the era and women were dedicated to their house and families, rarely working outside the home. Middle-class families had maids to help with the housework, and this mistress/servant relationship was an important way in which women exerted authority on a daily basis.

Today servants have been replaced by machines; our appliances have reduced household chores to a minimum and opened up our leisure hours – in addition the domestic sphere is no longer specifically the woman’s arena. The great interest in recent home programmes such as How Clean is Your House and Perfect Housewife has reawakened a pride in their abode for both sexes and created an ethos of ‘It’s cool to have a well run, comfortable and inviting home’.

The Woman’s Book of Household Management – the original reference tool in 1911 – gives a nod towards the use of traditional, natural products; indeed How Clean is Your House emphasises the use of non-abrasive ingredients such as bicarbonate of soda, lemon and salt.

With information on subjects such as household work, laundry, pets, repairs and food, this comprehensive guide full of practical wisdom was state-of-the-art for its time.

This delightfully illustrated book – still valid today – is one that no house-proud domestic goddess should be without.

Emily Pearce

PREFACE

WE have been asked to address a few words to our readers before the Woman’s Book goes to press. Its preparation has been no light task, and we have attempted so much that it is with some reason we fear some omissions and not a few mistakes will be discovered by our critics. But, defects notwithstanding, we are confident that the book is valuable, and we look forward hopefully to new editions being called for, when any suggestions and corrections sent us can be effected.

We have done our best to provide a Reference Book dealing with all subjects of special interest to women. A glance at the Contents will show how varied a list it is. And now that our work is finished and we look back on the book as a whole, thoughts about women’s work in general force themselves upon us. Our work would have been mechanically done if they did not.

We have noted the variety of the work undertaken by women. It is matter for congratulation that so many new spheres of usefulness have been opened for women within recent years; but we look forward to the time when capacity for work will be the only test of competence to undertake it. To have the work well done—that is the end to be aimed at, whether it be done by men or by women.

It is often urged that the limited outlook and training of women in the past have left them insufficiently developed in mental capacity and judgment for certain responsible spheres of work. But it seems to us that, if the test of the educative value of work is the number of faculties it calls into play, woman’s work, even in the past—the work of the domestic woman—called forth faculties of the highest order. It has taken months of hard work to write an intelligible book on woman’s work. A considerable part of the book is devoted to the ordering of a household, and this portion has not been the easiest to write. In writing it we have discovered afresh that the qualities that are demanded of a field-marshal, and a few not unimportant qualities in addition, are the necessary qualifications of a model wife and mother. Instinct in selecting subordinates, tact in managing them, organising of daily work, financial ability in handling the household budget, the taste that imparts charm to a home—these are not common faculties. But the training of the child makes the highest demand upon a woman. Patience, wisdom, self-sacrifice are called for at every hour of the day. Morally as well as intellectually the domestic woman’s life is rich in opportunity.

While, however, we cannot appreciate too highly the value of the work done by the domestic woman, it is absurd to regard that as woman’s only sphere. Many have not the opportunity of such a life: many have not the aptitude for it. We have therefore endeavoured to take the widest possible view of Woman’s sphere. Everything she can do well, that she is entitled to have the opportunity of doing. We hope that the information given in the volume about the various kinds of work now open to women, and the various agencies at work to qualify women for the work they can do, will be found useful; and we hope, too, that the manner in which we have presented the domestic information may lead to a higher standard of attainment in woman’s greatest industry—the home.

F. B. J.

R. S.

London,

April 1911.

SOME OF THE CONTRIBUTORS

MRS. BERNARD MOLE, Principal, St. Mary’s Nursery College, Hampstead.

MISS FEDDEN, Principal, St. Martha’s College of Housecraft, London.

MISS MAUD COOKES, Head Teacher, Dressmaking and Millinery, National Training School of Cookery, London.

MISS ALICE LEMON, M.R.B.W.A.

MISS MARGARET E. BUCHANAN, Ph. Chem., M.P.S., President of the Association of Women Pharmacists.

MISS K. M. COURTAULD, Principal of Colne Engaine Farm, Earl’s Colne, Essex.

MISS N. EDWARDS, President of the Ladies’ Poultry Club and Principal of Coaley Poultry Farm, Gloucestershire.

MISS BERTHA LA MOTHE, Teacher of and Lecturer on “Beekeeping.”

THE HOUSE

THERE is nothing that requires more careful consideration than the choosing of a house—there are so many points to be studied, so many side issues to remember; yet many people set about selecting what to them must henceforth spell the magic word “home” in the most casual manner, giving never a thought to position, site, aspect, ventilation, sanitary arrangements, or any of the other important matters which are so necessary to ensure the health, comfort, and general well-being of the inmates of a dwelling. It is more often through ignorance, however, than through wilful neglect that the house is chosen in so thoughtless a manner, for the English are proverbially a home-loving nation, and, in spite of all that has been said to the contrary, it is the home life above all others which appeals to the average Englishwoman. In this chapter all the important considerations which should govern (1) the choice of a house, (2) its decoration, and (3) the selection of its furniture, are dealt with in a manner which, it is trusted, will be helpful to many a young housewife, and more especially to those whose choice must in many ways be restricted by the limitations of a slender purse.

First Considerations.—The first point for the would-be householder to consider is what rent can be afforded, or, if she wishes to purchase the house, what sum can be devoted to this purpose. She should be as exact as possible in her calculations before she makes up her mind whether to buy or rent a dwelling. Rates and taxes have to be considered in both cases. The purchase money, it must be remembered, represents money which otherwise invested would have brought in a yearly rate of interest. The loss of this yearly interest must be reckoned as equivalent to annual out-of-pocket expenditure, added to which must be the cost of upkeep and repairs, and those taxes which, in the case of a house let on lease, are paid by the landlord, not to speak of the many other expenses which the ownership of house property involves.

If it is proposed to lease a house there are several points which would increase or decrease the expenditure as the case may be. If it is taken on a repairing lease, the tenant will have to see to all repairs both inside and out. This will amount to not a little expenditure in the course of the year, and therefore repairing leases should be avoided where possible. In London, however, and many other large towns most of the houses are let upon repairing leases. In these circumstances it is more than ever important that the house be in thorough condition and repair before the new tenant takes possession.

In some leases a stipulation is made that the landlord will attend to all outside repairs, whilst a tenant will be held responsible for inside repairs; but the ideal arrangement is undoubtedly that in which the landlord undertakes to do all repairs, even though the rent may be a little higher in consequence. There are many important legal points involved in the drawing up of a lease or a deed of purchase (see Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 379). It is always advisable, therefore, for the would-be householder to secure the service of a good and reliable house agent to act for her in the transaction. She might also find it expedient to consult her lawyer.

A small amount expended upon agent’s and lawyer’s fees has often been the means of saving large sums of money, and it is worse than folly for the householder without any elementary knowledge of the law in regard to landlord and tenant, or of the intricacies of a contract of sale to hope to cope with the legal technicalities involved in a purchase or lease without any advice. Even if she does possess some knowledge of the law, it is better for her to have expert advice; often flaws are found in leases or agreements which only a trained legal mind can detect, and it is always better to be on the safe side in these matters. (See Agents’ Fees, p. 383.)

In regard to the purchase of a house, this may often be done through the medium of a good “Building Society.” A Building Society advances to its members loans for the purpose of acquiring houses, or of acquiring land for building purposes. In return for the loan, the house or land so acquired is mortgaged to the Society. When the loan is repaid, the house becomes the absolute property of the member. The fund out of which the Society grants the loans is provided by the subscription of the members themselves.

Locality.—Having calculated to the nearest figure the sum of money she is justified in spending, or the annual amount for rent, rates, and taxes which she can afford to allot out of her yearly income, the householder must consider in what locality she is most likely to obtain a house which will best meet with her requirements. If members of the family have to go into the city daily, then the residence should be one from which the city is of easy access. House rents in towns are higher than in the suburbs, but where a residence in the suburbs is selected, train and omnibus fares will have to be added to the yearly expenditure, so that in the long run the difference may not be so great. Very often in some parts of a town rents will be found to be on a cheaper scale than elsewhere, but this is mostly the case in streets which do not bear the best of reputations; the character of the locality should therefore be well inquired into before deciding to profit by a seeming bargain in the rental of a town house.

Where there is a family of children, it is better as a rule to choose a house in some accessible suburb rather than in a town itself. In the suburbs good roomy houses with gardens can be had at quite moderate rentals. Houses with gardens are rare in town, except at very high rentals, whilst in many towns even a high rental cannot secure the most minute amount of garden space.

A suburb where there is a good train service should be selected, and the house should be as near as possible to the station. This last is of the utmost importance. Some people, whilst being careful to select an easily accessible spot within twenty minutes’ train journey of town, choose a residence of about half-an-hour’s walk from the station. If they had chosen a home near the station in one of the more remote suburbs, they would have been better off. The time spent in going backwards and forwards would have been the same, and the drawback of the long walk to and from the house in inclement weather would have been avoided.

Many of the smaller towns, it is true, combine the advantages of town and suburban life in that good dwelling-houses may be had with gardens at fairly moderate rentals. These towns, however, are not great centres of activity, and the foregoing remarks must only apply, of course, to those cases where paterfamilias has to earn his livelihood in one of our large towns or cities.

In many cases, it will be argued on behalf of the children, that educational facilities in town are so much greater and cheaper than in the suburbs or in the country. Nowadays, however, good educational establishments are to be found everywhere, and in regard to specialised subjects such as these included in commercial training, many of the large town establishments have opened branches in most parts of the country. Then, again, if the suburb has been selected with due regard to railway facilities, cheap fares, &c., there is nothing easier than to let the young people go into town for their special lessons if necessary. In the selection of a house, educational facilities for the children should never be overlooked, and for this reason it is always better to inquire whether there are good schools in the neighbourhood.

The same argument must prevail if the house is selected in some country place. In many cases, apart from all question of low rental, &c., the love of paterfamilias for the country is so great, that not all the tedium and discomfort of the long train journey twice daily will deter him from pitching his tent “far from the madding crowd.” If he is prepared to endure the discomfort, well and good, but the welfare of the children from the point of view of education must be considered, and for this reason he should take care to be near some good educational centre, unless the plan of sending the children to a boarding-school is adopted.

If one decides to pitch one’s tent in the country, care should be taken to find out if there are one or two good reliable medical men within easy distance. In case of illness, the fact of having to send two or more miles for medical aid may at times amount to actual calamity. Such risks should therefore be avoided. It is advisable also that the house should not be too far away from a village where food and other commodities can be purchased.

The chief drawback to residence in the country lies in the fact that up-to-date arrangements in regard to sanitation, water supply, and lighting are not always to be found, and although many charms are to be found in life in a country cottage, there are also in many eases disadvantages which will more than counterbalance these charms if great care and discrimination are not exercised in the choice of both locality and dwelling.

House versus Flat.—The comparative merits of houses and flats as places of residence will ever be a debatable subject. There is no doubt, however, that as regards town life, for people of moderate means, flats represent the minimum amount of annual outlay. It is much easier for a woman to regulate her expenditure when she knows that the sums she pays yearly for her flat will cover not only rent, but also rates and taxes. As the latter usually amount to a third of the rental, this is a most important consideration. Then there is an old saying that “a large house is a big thief,” and many a weary householder, harassed at the thought of high wages claimed by servants, large sums spent in cleaning and keeping the house in repair, has proved the truth of this old adage.

With a flat expenditure is kept within easy bounds; none of the thousand and one odd expenses are liable to crop up in various unexpected quarters as in the case of a house, and all the rooms being on one floor, one’s housework is reduced to a minimum, and the amount spent on servants’ wages is correspondingly decreased.

There is also the additional advantage of security, for one feels quite safe when leaving for the annual holiday in locking up the flat and placing the key in the care of the doorkeeper. It can also be locked up during the daytime, when one wishes to go out, without the necessity of leaving any one in charge.

On the other hand, a flat nas many disadvantages as compared with a complete dwelling-house. The rooms are small, in many cases dark, the larder and cellar accommodation poor—dress cupboards are generally conspicuous by their absence, and in even the best and most expensive of flats the servant’s room, where there is one, is little better than a cupboard in size. Then, again, flats at the lower rentals are always on the top or second top stories of a building or else in the basement. In the case of the luxurious buildings which are let out in flats at high rentals a lift will be provided, but this is seldom the case in regard to the buildings at which flats are let out at moderate rents. In the absence of a lift there will be the weary climb up high flights of stone steps before one can reach one’s dwelling, a disadvantage which does much to counterbalance the advantage of the rooms being on one floor. But even with this disadvantage, top floor flats are preferable to flats in the basement in regard to light and ventilation.

In a flat it is impossible to maintain the same degree of privacy as in a house. One’s slumbers are apt to be disturbed in the small hours of the morning by the efforts of some conscientious youngster laboriously practising five finger exercises in the flat below, or else a “musical evening” in the flat opposite continued far into the night, though very enjoyable to those whom it may concern, succeeds in robbing you of those precious hours of “beauty sleep” which you prize so highly. In case of contagious illness also the danger of infection is greater, as isolation is more difficult.

On the whole, there are many things to be said for and against flat life; but it may be taken as a general rule that for the young couple beginning housekeeping on strictly limited means, a flat is always best from the point of view of keeping down expenditure; whilst in the case of a family of young children, flat life is incompatible with comfort owing to the limited space available, and the very fact of all the rooms being on one floor is in these circumstances a positive disadvantage.

Site and Soil.—Absence of damp is of the utmost importance to health, and in this respect a great deal will depend on the soil upon which the house is built. A gravel soil or chalk soil above the water level is best. A clay soil, being non-porous, retains moisture and should be avoided.

On the other hand, the position of the site is an important factor in determining the advantage or disadvantage of the soil upon which it is built. Generally speaking, a house should never stand low: it often happens that a house standing on high ground, although built on clay soil, is dryer than a low-lying dwelling situated in a valley upon gravel soil. Trees are desirable, if not too near the house, as they aid in drying the soil, certain trees such as eucalyptus, plane, and poplar being specially useful.

What is known as “made-up ground” is about the worst soil upon which a house can be built. The word “made” is true in its actual sense, for the ground consists of holes and hollows which have been literally filled up with all sorts of rubbish and refuse to make a foundation. The danger of building on such a soil, which will in many cases be largely composed of organic matter from which noxious gases emanate and force their way upwards, is obvious. Careful inquiry should therefore be made in regard to this important question of soil before selecting a dwelling.

Construction.—The absence of damp will also depend to a great extent upon the construction of the house, proper construction tending to minimise many of the disadvantages of an unsuitable soil. Houses built on clay soil should be well raised above the ground level, and should possess neither cellars nor basements. Houses with basements must be very carefully constructed with the view of preventing the damp from rising up the floor and lower walls. The subsoil should be drained by means of subsoil drain-pipes, which consist of short earthenware pipes laid in trenches several feet below the surface (see p. 4). To prevent dampness rising through the floor of the basement, the floor should be built upon a bed of concrete, whilst to prevent moisture from rising up the lower walls, these should not only be constructed upon a foundation of concrete, but what is known as a “damp course” should be provided. A “damp course” consists of an impervious layer of cement, slate, asphalt, or bitumen, which is placed in the brick-work of the wall above the ground level, but below the floor. Houses with basements should always be separated from the street by an area.

A great deal of the comfort and well-being of the inhabitants of a house will depend upon the plan upon which it is built. Houses with basements always entail work for servants in going up and down stairs between the dining-room and the kitchen. On the other hand, in houses where the kitchen and dining-room are on one floor, care should be taken that the kitchen is not situated in such close proximity to the other rooms as to make the smell of cooking go all over the house. The ideal plan is to have the kitchen and pantry shut off from the rest of the rooms on the first floor by a separate little passage and door, the passage running between the kitchen and pantry, the latter being placed at the back of the dining-room, with a hatch, i.e. a small cupboard like an aperture in the wall itself opening from the pantry into the dining-room, through which dishes may be passed to the servant waiting at table. When not in use, this little cupboard can be kept closed and will not be noticeable. A lift from the kitchen to the dining-room where there is a basement is a very great help; but these are as a rule expensive to fit in and are luxuries not within the reach of the many. Plenty of cupboards are also desirable, including a hot-air cupboard for the airing of linen. If the house is a high one, water should be laid on one of the upper landings in addition to the bath-room. There should in all cases be a housemaid’s pantry on one of the upper landings in which she can keep pails and brushes.

Too much stress cannot be laid upon the necessity of the house being thoroughly dry: for this reason it is never wise to take up residence too soon in a newly-built house, as the walls are usually damp. Fires should be kept burning in all the rooms for as long a period as possible before going into a new house.

A little wall-peeling and discoloration in the case of a new house is almost unavoidable, but if, when looking over a house which has been built for some time, the paper is seen to be discoloured, this may be taken as a sure sign of damp, and the house should be avoided. In these cases a musty damp smell will almost invariably be present; a house of this kind cannot possibly be healthy, and residence in damp dwellings is a most prolific cause of all kinds of illness. Many a case of chronic rheumatism can be traced to residence in a damp house. Care should also be taken to find out if the roof is in good condition, as dampness in the upper rooms may often be traced to some defect in the roof. Though for the purpose of drainage of the soil it is well to have trees near the house, they must not be too near, as in this case they are liable to make it damp. Ivy growing up the walls of the house, though very pretty and decorative in appearance, is also a cause of damp.

Illustration showing Concrete Foundation of a House with Damp Course and Drainage System.

Aspect.—A house should also be carefully selected in regard to its aspect. Generally speaking, the front should face south-west or south-east. The front bedrooms and sitting-rooms will in this way catch the morning sun, whilst the back rooms will have the afternoon sun. For this reason it is advisable to have as many bedrooms in the front as possible. The breakfast-room should also have a sunny aspect; where there is no breakfast-room, the dining-room should be in the front of the house in order that the cheering influence of the morning sun may be enjoyed at breakfast, whilst the drawing-room will do well in a position where it receives the sunshine in the afternoon. It is not advisable, as a rule, to choose a house facing due north; the rooms will be dark through absence of sunlight, and the house will be cold, requiring a much greater degree of artificial warmth in winter to make it habitable than in the case of a south-west or south-east aspect.

DRAINAGE

A house should not be purchased nor an agreement for a lease entered into before the purchaser or lessee is satisfied that the drainage system is in thorough order. To make sure of this, it is essential to take independent expert advice upon the subject and to have the premises examined by a sanitary engineer. Failing this, it would be advisable to insist upon a written guarantee from the vendor or landlord that the drains have been recently tested and are in good condition. It is well, however, to always have an independent opinion, therefore the former plan is the better of the two, and by adopting it the intending purchaser or tenant protects himself from becoming saddled with a house where insanitary conditions prevail.

However well a house may be constructed in regard to light and ventilation, if the drainage is wrong, sickness and disease will invariably follow, and a little trouble and expense in investigating this important matter in the first instance will save no end of trouble and expense in the long run.

The most usual system of drainage or disposal of sewage prevailing in towns and almost all but remote country places is that known as the “water-carriage system” by which all the sewage is carried off underground in pipes called drains. The following drain-pipes are to be found in the average house—

The sink pipe for taking away water from the sink; the water pipe for taking away the bath water; the soil pipe (discharging from the water-closets), with its ventilating pipe carried above the roof; the outer drain pipe for carrying off superfluous water.

These pipes all lead to the house drain which, in its turn, is connected with the street sewer. It is not only important that all drains should be properly constructed, but also that they be kept in good condition if the house is to be healthy. To this end they should be regularly examined and all defects put right with the least delay possible.

Good drains should be (1) water-tight; (2) well ventilated; (3) without direct connection between those carrying sewage and those carrying waste from baths, basins, and the like; (4) well flushed.

(1) In order to be water-tight, the drain-pipes are best made of iron, but owing to the expense this involves they are generally made of earthenware. Long iron pipes with lead joints constitute the most water-tight system invented so far. The bed in which the pipes are laid must not be liable to sink, or the joints will give, even although firmly cemented. For this purpose, care must be taken not to sink the original trenches deeper than is necessary, as any filling in with fresh earth promotes consequent sagging.

(2) The ventilation must be very thorough, or sewer gas will find its way into the house in spite of the most careful traps to prevent it.

(3) The waste pipes from baths, &c., should never open directly into the sewer, even although the connection is guarded by a trap. They should pour their water into an open receiver or gully placed outside the house, and the gully should be connected with the sewer. Then if any sewer gas escapes from the gully, it will pass off in the open air without being conducted into the house. In the case of all pipes connection with the sewer must be guarded by a trap. Traps are devised to prevent the escape of sewer gas from the drain into the house. Many of the older traps had the drawback that they allowed filth to accumulate in them. U- or S-shaped traps are the ones now chiefly used. By having it of either shape, whenever the drain is flushed some water is retained in the bent part or trap, which then prevents the passage of gas through this portion of the pipe. The water used to flush the water-closet should not come direct from the chief cistern, but from a special small cistern, the water of which is never used for drinking purposes. By this means, if sewer gas passes into the small cistern, it will be absorbed by the water in it without passing on to the chief water-drinking cistern.

(4) In order that a drain may be well flushed, not only must an ample supply of water pass down it, but the drain must be laid at such an incline that the flow is sufficiently rapid. It must be fairly narrow and as straight as possible for the same reason; and, again, friction must be reduced by making the internal surface smooth. By these means the accumulation of filth is reduced to a minimum.

Testing the drains is done by plugging the outlet of the suspected drain at the nearest manhole and then filling it with water from the nearest water-closet. If a leak is present, the water soon sinks, and if many leaks are present, it may not be possible to fill the drain at all. Suspected leaks may also be tested by pouring down strong oil of peppermint or assafetida in hot water, whilst a second person in the room below determines whether the odour escapes or not, but this method is not so thorough as the former test, though more easily performed by the householder.

The water-closet must be of such a pattern that it is always clean and efficiently trapped, has no direct connection with the drinking-water cistern, and is flushed by a special cistern of its own which should hold from two to three gallons. The “wash-out” closet and the “valve” closet are two of the best patterns in use at present—a “hopper” closet is commonly used, and it is satisfactory if a short hopper is used, but a long hopper is to be condemned for its lack of cleanliness. What is known as the “pan” closet is an old form of closet which cannot be too strongly condemned. The traps should be furnished with anti-siphonage pipes to prevent them becoming unsealed. In well-built houses water-closets are always separated from the other portion of the house by a small passage, and where there are two or three they are placed on the different landings one above the other. In properly constructed houses all places where water is laid on, such as the bath-room, lavatories, house-maid’s sinks, should come one over the other on the various floors.

The Earth System.—In the country, where a sufficient water-supply is not always available for a complete water-borne system of drainage, what is known as the “Earth” system is the most sanitary to adopt. In this system earth is used instead of water in the closet pails, and the contents of the latter are buried at intervals in the garden.

The principle of the earth system is founded on the well-known power possessed by dry earth of deodorising and disinfecting fæcal matter—a given quantity of earth, if applied in detail to fresh excrement, destroying all smell and absorbing all noxious vapours. Where sufficient earth is not available, ashes should be used. Moule’s earth closets are amongst the best-known sanitary appliances used in connection with this system.

Removal of Refuse.—All the dry refuse of a house which does not come under the designation of “sewage,” is removed by dustmen in the employ of the local authorities at regular intervals. The most sanitary dustbins are made of zinc. The dustbin should be kept closed to keep out rain and damp, otherwise the contents will quickly decompose, and noxious odours will be the result. It should not be kept too near the wall of the house, but should be at least six feet away from it. Only dry refuse should be placed in the dustbin. All vegetable matter, such as potato parings, &c., should be burnt if noxious and unsanitary odours are to be avoided. (See Kitchen Refuse, p. 94.)

WATER-SUPPLY

A pure and abundant water-supply is a necessity in every house. Care must be taken, therefore, to find out (1) if the supply is good; (2) if it is constant or intermittent; (3) if the latter, whether the cisterns are adequate for the storage of the water and are in good condition.

In regard to the purity of the water, this should be ascertained by applying to the county or borough analyst for an analysis. The usual fee for this analysis is one guinea. As a rule the water-supply in large towns is pure. When, as in country districts, the water is derived from wells, the utmost precautions should be taken. All well water should be boiled before use, as it is very liable to pollution. If a well is shallow the risk of contamination is often considerable. A well should be deep and have its sides protected by some waterproof material to prevent the surface water from entering it. The best wells are those which are driven through the first impervious stratum so as to tap the one lying below.

Filters are largely used for purifying water, but a number of those in domestic use are not so effective as is generally supposed. Many stop some of the germs, which then flourish in the substance of the filter and infect all subsequent water that passes through. Hence purification of the water by boiling is a much safer method. Among the more reliable filters are the Pasteur-Chamberland and the Berkefeld. In the Pasteur-Chamberland filter the water passes through a thick-walled unglazed earthenware tube, which stops germs. It has been recommended to clean this by brushing the outside with a stiff brush; as, however, the germs are not only outside but probably also distributed through the substance of the porcelain, to be thoroughly cleansed it should be boiled or a new tube substituted. All filters require thorough and constant cleansing if they are to be effective. A dirty filter will do more harm than good.

In most towns there is now what is called a “constant water-supply.” The constant supply system renders cisterns for the storage of water unnecessary, excepting in connection with the hot-water supply. Where there is what is known as an “intermittent supply” the water is turned off for a certain time each day. In these circumstances the intending householder should find out if the cisterns are large enough for the adequate storage of the water during those hours in which the supply is cut off, and also if the cisterns are clean and in thoroughly good condition. Cisterns should never under any circumstances be left uncovered, but should be provided with a well-fitting lid. No house should be taken until it has been ascertained that all cisterns have been thoroughly cleaned by the plumber. This cleaning should be repeated at regular intervals. The cisterns should be made of galvanised iron. An overflow pipe should be provided for any overflow of water that might arise; this pipe should discharge into the open air and never into a soil pipe or drain, or pollution of the water by sewage gases is likely to result. Cisterns from which drinking water is drawn should be as far as possible from water-closets and drains. The simple precaution of letting the water run a little before drawing it in the morning for drinking purposes should always be taken, as it should be remembered that the water has been stationary in the pipes all night, and the supply is therefore not so pure as when constantly drawn from during the day.

Hot-Water Supply.—A good hot-water supply is a necessity in every household, and a great deal of the comfort of the house depends upon this supply being adequate to the demands made upon it.

In most houses the water is heated by the kitchen range, at the back of which is a boiler; from this hot water is conveyed to the hot-water tank by means of circulation pipes. The supply of hot water will depend to a great extent upon the efficacy of the kitchen range and the supply system installed. The two best-known systems in this connection are the “tank” and the “cylinder” system. In the first system a tank is supplied for storage of hot water, while a cylinder takes the place of the tank in connection with the second system. Before taking a house, care should be taken to ascertain whether the hot-water system is in thorough working order.

Hot-water Circulator.

Heating Water by Gas.—There are other methods, however, of securing a hot-water supply independent of the kitchen-range. There has been placed upon the market within recent years an apparatus known as a “Circulator.” This is a small boiler heated by gas which can easily be connected to the “flow” and “return” pipes from the coal-range boiler, and will then with a quite moderate consumption of gas supply hot water to the circulating tank, either independently of, or in conjunction with, the coal-range boiler, the working of the latter, in the event of the kitchen fire being lighted, being in no way interfered with. These circulators are specially adapted for use in flats, and in villas where the length of the circulating pipes are not abnormal.

In small houses and flats where gas is used exclusively as fuel, many people obtain their supply of water for the bath by installing a geyser in the bath-room for the purpose of heating the bath water, whilst the water for kitchen and other purposes is boiled on the gas stove. Geysers for the purpose can be hired from all the gas companies. The geyser, however, does not give a storage of hot water throughout the house, and does not therefore fully take the place of the range boiler as does the circulator. It is a useful accessory to the bath-room, however, in summer, as hot water for the bath can be obtained by this means independently of the kitchen range.

VENTILATION

A supply of fresh pure air is essential to health, hence it follows that homes should be well ventilated. Good air must be admitted and bad air expelled. Ventilation is the renewal of the air contained in a room. The necessity for such renewal increases with the number of people occupying it, and the number of lights burning in it. Both lights and people alike use up the oxygen of the air and discharge into it a certain amount of carbondioxide; but the human breath has a more noxious effect than the flamo of an ordinary lamp or gas jet, for it emits a certain quantity of highly poisonous organic matter, and it is chiefly this which vitiates the air and gives it the well-known “stuffy” odour.

Every one is aware that air that has been breathed is warm, and that warm air rises. Many people think that if a room is sufficiently lofty the bad air will all accumulate near the roof and the air near the floor will not be vitiated for many hours. This is a great mistake, for unless some means of letting out the bad air is provided, its warmth will soon become lost and its moisture will condense, causing the bad air to become heavier than the fresh air, when it will sink and mingle with the latter and a vitiated atmosphere will be the result. As a matter of fact, the bad air rarely rises higher than twelve feet before it becomes cool and descends.

Every room, therefore, that is to be adequately ventilated requires both an inlet for good and an outlet for bad air.

To secure the ventilation of a dwelling-room we require no ceiling to be higher than twelve feet, but the windows should reach the ceiling and be open at the top. A fireplace should always be present and the chimney register should never be closed. The window and the chimney are the two readiest means of ventilation.

The ventilation should be arranged so that the fresh air is let in with its current directed upwards, and the bad air let out near the ceiling. It is an error to ventilate the room into the passage by leaving the door open and the window closed. “Windows were made to be opened, doors to be shut.” Bedroom windows, especially, should never be altogether closed at the top. Care should be taken that the bed is placed so that the cold air does not beat down upon the sleeper.

The danger of draughts, however, must be reckoned with in many cases, and for delicate people wide-open windows in winter are not always advisable. In these circumstances a very simple system of ventilation known as the Hinckes-Bird method should be adopted. It consists in raising the lower sash of a window a few inches, and blocking up the opening with a piece of boarding as long as the width of the window and about six inches broad, thus allowing the fresh air to enter the room, but only between the two sashes, and with an upper current.

The Hinckes-Bird Method of Ventilation.

The proper ventilation of a house will depend to a great extent upon its warming arrangements. Some grates are constructed so that the fire burning in them serves to warm the air before it enters the room. A Galton’s grate, for instance, has an air-space behind the chimney communicating below with the outside air and above with the interior of the room, the heat of the chimney being in this way used to warm the incoming air.

A very simple means of ventilating ordinary dwelling-houses is found in what is known as the “Sheringham Valve,” which is a metal guard placed around an aperture in the wall, so arranged as to direct the incoming air upwards and made to work on a hinge so as to show the opening when desired.

A Tobin’s Tube is a pipe the lower end of which communicates through an opening in the wall with the outside air, whilst the upper end opens into the room about six feet above the floor.

Among other simple aids to ventilation without draught are the following:—

Perforated Bricks, communicating with the room by gratings, which serve to break up the current and thus prevent the draught from being felt.

Boyle’s Valve inserted in the chimney near the ceiling. This contrivance consists of an aperture leading into the chimney with two talc flaps, forming a valve, which permits the air of the room to enter the chimney, but prevents the smoke from entering the room.

Louvre Panes, consisting of slips of glass placed obliquely in an oblong opening cut in the window pane. They are commonly used in shop windows that do not open. The Cooper rose ventilator is on the same principle.

LIGHTING

The proper lighting of a house is essential not only from the point of view of the health, but also for the comfort of its inhabitants. A person is more influenced by his or her surroundings than one would think—good temper and cheeriness come naturally amid cheerful surroundings, whereas dark, gloomy, and ill-lighted premises tend to have a most depressing effect upon even the most optimistic of individuals.

Good natural light during the daytime may be secured by a wise choice of aspect (see p. 5). Stained-glass windows should be avoided in living rooms. Many people elect to have the lower sashes of their dining-rooms, for instance, of stained glass. The effect may be imposing, perhaps, but it is certainly not cheerful, and grandeur is dearly bought at the expense of the light and cheeriness of a room. Then, again, creepers should not be allowed to grow over the front of the house in such a way as to overshadow the windows, nor should the light be shut out by the too close proximity of trees. It must be remembered that plenty of light is essential to our health, and care should be taken therefore to secure it.

Artificial Lighting.—In towns electric light and gas form the chief artificial illuminants. Gas is also supplied in a large number of country places, but where this is not to be had, lamps are generally used. In large country houses, however, air gas is often made from a plant on the premises.

Electric Light as an illuminant has many advantages. It is cleanly, hygienic, and convenient; and if care is taken in regulating its use, the quarterly electric light bill may be kept well within bounds. It is very little trouble to switch off the light when one leaves the room, and if this is done not once in a way, but as a general rule, a substantial saving on the electric light bill is the result. Low candle-power lights should be used in the bedrooms, one or two 7 or 8 candle-power lamps being usually sufficient for each room.

Economy may also be exercised by means of the electric lamps selected. Tantalum and many of the other metallic filament lamps, whilst giving a much brighter light than the ordinary incandescent lamps with carbon filaments, consume much less current than the latter, and are therefore more economical.

In connection with the installation of an electric plant for lighting in country mansions situated in localities where there is no public supply, the initial outlay will necessarily be higher. Where a public supply is available the only expense will be that of wiring the premises and purchasing the necessary fixtures. In most cases the latter may be hired from the electric light company by payment of a fixed sum every year. The cost of electric light varies in different towns. In London it averages from 4d. to 5d. per unit for lighting, whilst for heating purposes the cost is 1d. per unit.

Coal Gas is obtained by the distillation of coal in large chambers or retorts. The distillation proceeds for about four hours under a great heat, and the products are broadly coke, gas, and coal tar. The gas is then cooled, washed with water, and treated with slaked lime to remove impurities.

The large cylindrical vessels so prominent in all gas works are the gas-holders, from which the supply issues to the consumers. These holders rise and sink in a tank of water by their own weight and the upward pressure of the gas inside. The gas is conveyed from the holder by mains and from the mains to the consumer by service pipes.

The use of coal gas as an illuminant is almost universal, and many important improvements in regard to fittings have been made within recent years which have increased its usefulness to a remarkable degree.

Meters are used to measure the gas consumed, and it is important that every householder should know how to read and check the meter. Gas meters are usually lent on hire to the consumer by the gas company. It is important that the supply of gas to the burner should be regulated. This can always be done by means of a regulator or “governor” on the main pipes or governor burners.

Incandescent Gas.—This is by far the most superior and effective method of gas lighting. It is used in connection with special burners which admit air to be burned with the gas, a most brilliant effect being achieved by the illumination of the white mantle which is used in conjunction with the burner. The burner is usually fitted with a by-pass for lowering and raising the light. By means of this by-pass the gas may be left turned on at the stop-cock, whilst only the faintest flicker of a flame is left on the burner. The Veritas and Welsbach mantles are amongst the best known and most effective to use with incandescent gas.

Amongst the latest improvements in connection with gas lighting may be classed the Pneumatic Gas Switch, by means of which gas can be switched on in the same manner as electric light. With this simple apparatus any number of gas lights can be switched on or off, separately or together. It consists of three parts—a switch, a valve and a coil of small tubing. The switch turns the gas up or down from any position or distance. The valve with by-pass complete screws on to any ordinary gas bracket or chandelier at the burner, which is easily done without tools of any kind, whilst the tube, which is as small and flexible as a bell wire, conducts the air pressure from the switch to the valve, and is attached to the wall or woodwork with small staples supplied with the sets. By touching the switch, air pressure is sent through the fine tube, and the light is thus turned either on or off as desired. One of the special features of the gas switch is the fact that no batteries or chemicals of any kind whatever are required. It is self-contained and requires no further attention when fitted. Another advantage to be found in using this switch lies in the fact that incandescent mantles will be found to last much longer owing to the fact that the gas switches on easily; it does away with the slight explosion which always takes place when a match or taper is applied when lighting the gas in the usual way.

Air Gas.—In large country houses where there is no public gas-supply, air gas is largely used for lighting purposes. This is manufactured from a plant on the premises, and there are many apparatus for the purpose on the market. One of the best apparatus for manufacturing air gas is that sold by Messrs. W. A. S. Benson and Co., Ltd., of 82 and 83 New Bond Street, London, W. It is known as the “Aeos” Gas Apparatus. The light given by “Aeos” gas, whilst being brilliant and pure white, is exceedingly soft and restful. The apparatus is exceedingly simple, as the plant is wholly automatic; it is also absolutely safe to use, being non-explosive.

The price for a 25-light apparatus capable of supplying 25–26 candle-power burners would be as follows:—

whilst the cost of installing would be about £1 per point. Once the initial cost of installation has been borne this gas proves one of the most economical illuminants it is possible to have.

Electric Light, Gas and Oil Fittings.—A great deal of the beauty of a room depends upon the choice and position of suitable lighting fittings.

In the dining-room there should always be a centre light coming over the dinner-table in addition to any other bracket lights necessary. With electric fittings it is as well to have one or two lamps to the centre light which are switched on by different switches, so that either one or more of the lamps can be lighted at will. A red silk shade over the centre light has a most softening and soothing effect. The metal work is most effective when of antique copper or brass.

In the drawing-room which is lighted by electricity, the centre pendant is of different design, usually consisting of a number of lights, each with separate ornamental glass shades. A high electric standard lamp, with a pretty silk shade of a light colour to tone with the general decorative scheme of the room, gives a very pretty effect, as do small lamps to be placed on mantelpiece, table, or piano as desired.

The hall should be provided with a hanging centre lamp of lantern design, whilst, especially in houses built in the Queen Anne style, a plain old-time iron lantern should be hung outside the porch.

In the billiard-room the lights over the table should have plain green shades. In the library or study a centre light with one or two small metal table standard lamps with soft silk shades should be provided.

In the bedrooms there should always be a light in front of the toilet table and one over the bed, the latter to be turned on by a switch at the side of the bed. Pretty soft silk shades of a light bright colour to tone with the colouring of the room should be used; pale pink and pale green shades are very effective.

Bray’s Inverted Burner.

Gas and Oil Lamps.—In regard to gas, where inverted incandescent burners are used, fittings for centre lights and bracket lights may be very similar to those used for electric light, and where the “switch on” system is installed, the illusion can be made almost complete.

Many of the disadvantages connected with the use of oil for house lighting can be minimised by means of suitable fittings. Pendant lamps should be used as much as possible. In the hall a lantern lamp is most effective. The dining-room lamp can be provided with a pretty silk shade, or, where it is preferred, a plain white glass shade, and can be carried out in wrought iron metal work or polished brass. (For Care of Lamps, see p. 77.)

Bracket lamps for hanging on walls are also made in many pretty and effective designs.

Warming the House.—The comfort of the house will depend not a little upon the method of artificial heating adopted during the cold season. Warming should always be considered in relation to ventilation as there is a very close connection between the two.

Rooms may be warmed either by open fire-places, closed stoves (for burning of coal or coke, gas and oil), or by hot-water pipes and radiators.

The old-fashioned open grate will always be popular in English homes. There is something very cheery and comforting about a good bright coal fire that is lacking with closed-in stoves and other methods of heating. It is true it consumes a large amount of fuel for the heat it yields, as most of the heat goes up the chimney, but it makes the chimney a valuable ventilation shaft, which many more economical grates do not. A great deal of the heat-giving capacity of a fire will, of course, depend upon the construction of the grate. The best heating fire-places have the back and sides of brick and not of iron, as brick radiates back the heat, whilst iron lets heat slip through it up the chimney. The back should lean over the fire, not away from it. The slits in the grid that the coal rests on should be narrow so that cinders may not fall through and be wasted. The bars in front of the grate should also be narrow, and the space beneath the fire should be closed up in front by means of an iron shield. Again, the grate should be wider in front than at the back. All these principles of construction are to be found in the grates devised by Pridgin Teale and Lionel Teale; the Teale system, in fact, has formed the basis of all the latest improvements in fire-grates. Many fire-places are now made almost entirely of glazed briquette, this material covering both the hearth and fire-place surround. This is undoubtedly one of the most artistic as well as one of the most heat-giving styles of grate.

An adjustable canopy is in most cases fitted to the top of modern grates.

Many of the newer types of grate are constructed without the front bars. Of these the Wells fire-grates are perhaps the best known. The “Burkone” patent barless fire is another also of excellent design; both grates are so constructed as to give the maximum of heat with a mimimum consumption of fuel.

Stoves.—Closed stoves greatly economise fuel at the expense of ventilation. They often give the room a stuffy odour, probably from organic matter in the air being charred by contact with the stove, and also from the fact that hot iron is porous and permits the escape of some of the gaseous products of combustion through it. They also tend to make the atmosphere unpleasantly dry. This latter defect can be remedied to a certain extent, however, by keeping trays of water around the stove. The ventilating stoves specially constructed to admit air by means of pipes or tubes are the best kind to use. Various kinds of fuel are used for burning in these stoves, chief amongst which are coal, coke, and anthracite coal.

The last-named is a slow-burning natural coal which has three times the heating power of ordinary bituminous coal, and is absolutely smokeless. The fuel is very expensive, costing about £2 per ton, but as one fire will last for hours, an anthracite stove will really prove an economy in the long run. It has been calculated that the average cost for fuel for twelve hours continuous burning will not amount to more than 1½d. Anthracite stoves are best fitted in front of fire-places. Where there is no fire-place, it is always necessary that the flue pipe should be carried to a chimney.

Heating by Gas.—The open gas fires, consisting of jets of flame distributed amongst lumps of asbestos and burning in an ordinary grate with the chimney just as open as for a coal fire, form the healthiest method of heating rooms by gas in ordinary dwelling-houses.

An Anthracite Stove.

The most careful ventilation of the room is necessary when any means of heating by gas is employed. Whenever gas is used as fuel, whether in open fires or stoves, trays of water should be kept near the fire-place or stove to prevent excessive drying of the atmosphere.