Veterinary Guide to Goat Health and Welfare E-Book

David Harwood

• Herausgeber: Crowood
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 470

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019

Beschreibung

Goats are adaptable creatures in the wild but, if kept as pets, or commercially farmed, they rely very heavily on their owners not only for food, water and shelter, but also for protection from disease or injury. This second edition has been extensively updated to include more information on current issues such as antimicrobial and anthelmintic resistance, herd health planning, and new and emerging or changing conditions such as bovine TB. It is a clearly written, well-illustrated book and should be an invaluable, practical reference work aimed at all those who own, or care for, goats whether they be commercial goat farmers, smallholders, stock people, veterinary surgeons and students. It is written by an experienced veterinary surgeon, and its overall objective is to provide some practical advice on managing goats daily including tips on how to keep them fit and healthy, how to recognise signs of ill health, and when a veterinary surgeon needs to be consulted.

Leseprobe

THE VETERINARY GUIDE TO

Goat Healthand Welfare

THE VETERINARY GUIDE TO

Goat Healthand Welfare

David Harwood

Fully RevisedNEW EDITION

First published in 2006 as Goat Health and WelfareThe Crowood Press LtdRamsbury, MarlboroughWiltshire SN8 2HR

This e-book first published in 2019

[email protected]

www.crowood.com

Revised edition 2019

© David Harwood 2006 and 2019

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 78500 622 7

Disclaimer

The author and the publisher do not accept responsibility in any manner whatsoever for any error or omission, nor any loss, damage, injury or liability of any kind incurred as a result of the use of any of the information contained in this book, or reliance on it.

Dedication

To my late parents Malcolm and Joyce, to my wife Gerry, and to Madeleine, Jessica, Nicola, Kimberley, Freya, Darcy, Riley, Billy and Elsie.

Acknowledgements

To the many goat keepers who have allowed me to investigate problems in their goats: our conversations have taught me a lot. To the many veterinary practitioners who have shared their goat problems with me. To members of the British Goat Society for nominating me as one of their honorary vets and thus stimulating my interest, and to members of the Goat Veterinary Society for helpful discussions.

Most of the images are my own, but I would like to acknowledge the following who have allowed me to reproduce their images: Kathy Anzuino, Kat Bazeley, John Matthews, Karin Mueller, APHA (Animal and Plant Health Agency), the British Goat Society and the Pirbright Institute (European Commission for the control of Foot and Mouth Disease).

Contents

    Preface to the Second Edition

    Introduction

1UNDERSTANDING GOAT BEHAVIOUR2THE NORMAL GOAT – FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT3HOW TO RECOGNIZE SIGNS OF ILL HEALTH4ENSURING YOUR GOAT REMAINS FIT AND HEALTHY5THE RESPONSIBLE USE AND STORAGE OF MEDICINES6REPRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTIVE PROBLEMS7KIDDING: RECOGNIZING AND AVOIDING PROBLEMS8PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN YOUNG KIDS9THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM10THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM11THE CIRCULATORY/CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM12THE NERVOUS SYSTEM13THE LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM14THE SKIN AND COAT15THE EYES AND EARS16THE UDDER17THE URINARY SYSTEM18HAS IT BEEN POISONED?19ZOONOSES20NOTIFIABLE, EXOTIC, NEW AND EMERGING DISEASES21GOAT HEALTH PLANNING

    Appendix I: Goat Weights

    Appendix II: Weights and Measures

    Glossary

    Index

Preface to the Second Edition

Goats are kept for a wide variety of reasons around the world, and this makes the species unique in the animal kingdom. They are ruminants like cattle and sheep, and as a result are farmed for milk, meat and fibre. On many units they are kept intensively, with large herds housed all year round on specialist rations. Conversely, however, many goats are kept in very small groups purely as a hobby, providing a small quantity of milk for liquid consumption by the household, or to be made into cheese or yoghurt. Yet a further group of owners keeps single goats, or small groups of, for example, pygmy goats, purely as pets.

The goat is able to adapt to this wide variation, but relies heavily on its owner or keeper for its well-being, no matter how it is kept. Goats are friendly, inquisitive and fascinating creatures, and they will give endless pleasure to their keepers.

This second edition has been extensively updated throughout, with many more images and illustrations. New chapters have been added, covering firstly the responsible use and storage of medicines, and the importance of understanding global concerns regarding antimicrobial resistance. The section on notifiable diseases has also been expanded to cover surveillance for new and emerging threats, and a new chapter on herd health planning has been added.

I originally based this book mainly on my own experiences, and have tried to give guidance to the reader on how to ensure that goats in their care remain fit and healthy, emphasizing the importance of a thorough knowledge of, familiarity with, and respect for the species. But inevitably things will go wrong, and a goat may become ill or injured. Such problems need to be recognized promptly, and guidance is provided throughout the book on how to achieve this. It is important, however, that the reader recognizes his, or her, limitations. This is particularly the case when professional help needs to be sought – a good working relationship with your vet is an important one to develop.

If you are establishing a new goat unit, or even contemplating buying a goat as a pet, make adequate time both to prepare your unit and develop your knowledge! Look out for local sources of information, join a local goat club, visit local goat units, and ask your vet to come and visit you when the goats have arrived, establishing an early working partnership.

I hope a second edition of this book will go some way to ensuring that the health and welfare of all goats continues to be enhanced, and that those keeping them – for whatever reason – continue to find them rewarding and stimulating, often frustrating, but always an interesting species.

David Harwood BVetMed, FRCVS

Introduction

This book has been written to give the novice goat keeper some help in ensuring that the goat or goats that they keep remain fit and healthy. It is lavishly illustrated throughout, and therefore should also be a useful reference guide to more experienced goat keepers, including those who farm goats commercially on a large scale.

The book begins by considering normal goat behaviour, in particular with a view to recognizing early signs of ill health often manifested by subtle behavioural changes. The value of becoming a good stockperson is the key to success, and this is a constant theme. Normal goat activity such as feeding and nutrition is considered, and how goats adapt to management change associated with housing, grazing and so on. Signs of ill health are discussed in general terms to give the reader some further pointers to recognize signs of disease, and the remaining chapters then consider each of the major organ systems, and the health and welfare problems that can arise.

Reference is made throughout the text to the importance of working with your veterinary surgeon, and guidance is given wherever possible as to when and how your vet should be involved – and it is for this reason that the word ‘veterinary’ has been incorporated into the title.

This second edition has been updated to include reference to ‘herd health planning’, a concept that has developed across all farmed species, particularly in the UK. The worldwide importance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has ensured that veterinary surgeons must now develop a cautious approach to when and how an antibiotic should be prescribed. Similarly, new anthelmintics have been developed to support the worldwide problems associated with anthelmintic (wormer) resistance. New diagnostic, treatment and control measures are all updated, as is reference to new and emerging diseases since the first edition was published. A prime example is the emergence of bovine TB as a problem in goat herds in the UK, and this is now included in some detail.

Goats are fairly adaptable creatures in the wild, but if they are kept as pets or farmed they rely very heavily on their owners for food, and for protection from disease, injury and predators. And as the book title suggests, goat health and welfare are closely linked in that a fit, healthy goat is a ‘happy’ goat; its welfare is not compromised, and if it is farmed commercially, it will also remain productive.

1Understanding Goat Behaviour

Goats develop strong bonds with each other, particularly with siblings and other family members, and as a result, separation can have a negative impact on welfare. When kept in increasing numbers they will develop close groups, each with its own strong hierarchical structure, with regular confrontations to establish dominance by both males and females. For this reason it is inadvisable to keep together goats with horns and goats that have been dehorned/disbudded or are naturally polled, to avoid potentially harmful confrontations. It follows, therefore, that goat groups need to remain fairly static where possible, as constant movements and regrouping can be unnerving and lead to reduced milk yields, and may even predispose to illness. Move goats in pairs or small groups (for example after kidding), so that they integrate into the herd faster and face significantly fewer interactions than if they are introduced individually.

Avoid separating goats from the herd whenever possible. If isolation is necessary, then as much as is practicable, locate the isolated goat in a pen nearby or adjacent to the herd. Keep small groups of animals together when handling for veterinary procedures such as blood sampling, and they will remain much calmer and easier to handle.

Goats also appear to develop an affinity for owners, and are often unnerved by changes in ownership and environment, and may even pine for their owner if he or she is away!

Goats are inquisitive!

Goats are gregarious animals, can become easily bored, and will constantly look for stimuli – hence their apparent desire to investigate anything in their environment (including light switches, electric cables, gate fasteners) by licking and chewing with their mouth. They can stand on their hind legs, reaching up to two metres above the ground, and any building/paddock/yard should be constructed in such a way that it is not simply ‘stock proof’ but also ‘goat proof’, as they are masters of escape!

They are good climbers and are extremely agile, clambering into and over obstacles that are of interest, including trees, which if accessible, they will readily climb. This natural behaviour, although to be encouraged, can also lead to mishaps as they can get caught up in fencing, netting or other material, with broken limbs a possible sequel, particularly in young kids, and strangulation at any age if an inquisitive head gets caught.

This inquisitive and gregarious behaviour should be fostered at all times; the domesticated ‘barren’ environment should be discouraged, and environmental enrichment encouraged. This might include the provision of very simple fixtures that the goats can climb on to, left around the pen:

•Mounds of earth and/or stone

•Chairs, tables

•Straw bales

•Large plastic drums open at one end, which they can roll around

Places to hide in or under are also important; goats have evolved as a ‘prey’ species, and as such will seek out a place of safety if they are frightened.

When goats are content and in good health, they are usually quiet creatures of habit, full of energy, often playful and impulsive. A good stock-keeper should be able to recognize when a goat is ill, often simply by observing its behaviour and by noticing changes in its normal behavioural activities. If well looked after, there is no reason why a goat should not reach twenty years of age.

Environmental enrichment: a rock to climb on…

…a straw bale to play with…

…a plastic drum.

It is not often that you will hear a goat bleating or vocalizing for no reason, and if they begin to make a noise it is often a sign that something may be wrong. There are exceptions to any rule, however, and some goats make gentle noises when they are content and become quieter when something is wrong. Knowing your stock is vitally important.

Good stockmanship is the key to keeping all goats fit and healthy, and the earlier a problem is recognized, the more likely it is that any treatment administered will be effective. This is particularly true when goats are kept in large numbers, since these early subtle changes may be more difficult to recognize. In large groups, however, there are other signs that indicate that a goat may not be feeling well, such as a reluctance to enter the milking parlour for milking, hanging back from feeding troughs, and standing in the background away from the main group activities.

There are three reasons why a normally quiet, placid goat may start bleating, and bleating more constantly:

•When it is hungry or thirsty, and this is usually alleviated by giving food/water, resulting in a quick return to normal behaviour.

•During the breeding season, particularly when a doe is on heat, or during the latter part of pregnancy as kidding approaches. There may be a similar change in activity during weaning.

•When a goat is sick or in pain it will often begin to vocalize, and as with the human voice, the volume and pitch will change depending on the intensity of pain or discomfort felt. Conversely, as the animal deteriorates, or in a goat that is feeling miserable, the sound will be of a lower intensity.

Goats seem to have a relatively low pain threshold when compared with some other farm animals, such as cattle, and they don’t tolerate ill health very well. A diligent owner will be aware of this, as is also the need to give plenty of ‘TLC’ (tender loving care) to any sick goat to ensure that it continues to feed, is warm and comfortable, and that it maintains an interest in life.

A HEALTHY GOAT

In addition to the behavioural features already discussed, goat owners should familiarize themselves with the physical appearance of a healthy goat, then with experience they will recognize any subtle changes that may indicate that all is not well.

The head: The head is normally held up with a bright, alert attitude. It is not a good sign if it is lowered and the goat is showing little interest in what is going on around it.

The eyes: These should be bright and kept open; look out for any discharge, or for a constant blinking, as this may indicate a problem. By gently lifting one eyelid, look at the colour of the conjunctiva: in the healthy goat it is pink, if it is pale the goat may be anaemic.

The ears: Ear shape, size and carriage will vary among goat breeds; thus, some will hold their ears erect, whereas others – for instance Anglo Nubian goats – will maintain a droopy ear. Again, a good stockman will recognize any change from the normal appearance. A swollen ear (haematoma or blood blister) may occur if the head is being constantly shaken due, for example, to ear irritation caused by mange mites.

Mouth and teeth: Goats are usually very clean feeders and are selective and careful what they eat. It follows, therefore, that the mouth should be clean, and there should be no saliva drooling from the lips. There should be no swellings along the jaws or cheeks, or any discomfort when the mouth is handled. Watch your goats ‘chewing the cud’ and get used to the actions involved. Many goats will occasionally grind their teeth for no real reason, but excessive teeth grinding can indicate pain.

Respiration: Again, it is important to observe your goats, and to get used to their normal breathing rate. This will vary tremendously depending, for example, on whether they are resting or have just run in from the field. An apprehensive or frightened goat will often breathe more quickly. The respiratory rate will also be higher on hot days than on cold. It follows, therefore, that although the rate will rise in illness, particularly in a goat with pneumonia or a high temperature, the worried owner should always look for other signs of illness. In extreme respiratory distress, the breathing rate will be faster, but the goat will also hold its head out straight to allow air to pass freely up and down the airways, and its nostrils will be flared. These are signs that all is not well; look out for an accompanying cough.

The respiratory rate in adults is fifteen to thirty breaths per minute, and in kids it is twenty to forty per minute.

Temperature: The normal goat temperature is again quite variable, depending on whether it has been recently stressed, for instance by being moved from one location to another or if it is a hot day. It is generally accepted that the temperature should be 38.6– 40.6°C (102–104°F), average 39.3°C (103°F). A thermometer can be a useful part of your firstaid kit or medicines cabinet; you can use either a stub-ended glass mercury thermometer or a thermometer with a digital readout. The goat’s temperature is taken ‘per rectum’, when the end of the thermometer is gently inserted into the anus, using a small amount of lubricant for ease of insertion.

Remember to shake down the mercury in a glass thermometer before use, or to reset the dial in a digital thermometer. For baby goats the easiest way is to lay the kid across your lap; taking the temperature of a larger goat is usually a two-person job and is best done with the animal standing. Leave the end of the thermometer inside the rectum for at least two minutes before you remove it, then wipe it clean and record the temperature. If you are concerned about your goat running a high temperature, then phone your vet and discuss it, remembering to record any other observations you may have made.

Taking a goat’s temperature.

Pulse/heart rate: The pulse rate of an adult animal varies depending on its size, but normally it falls within the range 65–95 per minute. As with temperature and respiratory rate, this will rise if the goat has been stressed or moved, or on hot days. It isn’t easy to take a goat’s pulse, and normally the heart rate gives the best indication. A veterinary surgeon will usually listen to the latter using a stethoscope, but you can get a good indication by holding your hand over the heart area (placing your hand over the chest wall just inside the elbow).

Locomotion: Goats will normally graze or feed on all four feet, with the feet placed squarely on the ground. Although some goats will occasionally feed with their knees bent (and you should recognize those that do), if a goat suddenly adopts this stance it may be an indication that it is lame, usually in one of its front limbs.

You may also notice hair loss and thickening of the skin on the front of the knee joint. Watch your goats moving: a sound animal will normally have a well-defined and regular gait, picking a spot to place its front foot, with the back foot following in more or less the same spot as it moves forwards. If it is lame, then the gait becomes irregular, often with a hopping movement, and when stationary the painful limb will often be held off the ground, or with the tip of the toe just touching the ground.

Get to know your goats’ behavioural habits!

Skin and hair covering: Although hair covering will vary depending on the type and breed of goat (from the fine hair covering of the traditional dairy breeds to the thick covering of the Angora), there are a number of signs of ill health to watch out for. All goats will moult, particularly when warmer weather arrives, but an excessive moult may be cause for concern, particularly if only a single goat is affected. A goat in poor bodily condition (for whatever purpose) may moult excessively, and the hair may become fragile and break easily. Look for other signs – is the hair loss generally all over the body, or is it confined to just one or more areas? Is the hair loss symmetrical? This may indicate a hormonal problem. Is there any sign of itchiness, or scab and scurf formation? A goat exhibiting excessive rubbing, scratching or nibbling is usually fairly distressed, and should be dealt with urgently, by seeking veterinary attention to determine a cause.

Digestive tract: The ruminant digestive tract is a complex structure, and its function will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. There are, however, several features that an experienced stockman will recognize that indicate a good functional digestive system, and conversely others that he will recognize when things are going wrong. An integral part of the ruminant digestion is the regurgitation of the contents of the rumen back up into the mouth for further chewing. This process is known as rumination, or ‘chewing the cud’, and normally takes place when the goat is relaxed and recumbent. Watch the procedure: you can follow the cud as it moves up the neck, and the goat will then commence a chewing routine with jaw movements to left and right, and at a remarkably consistent rate and duration, before swallowing.

Cessation of rumination is usually a sign of ill health and should be recognized. Belching regularly expels gas that builds up in the rumen, and this again is a normal procedure. If this mechanism fails – and there are a number of reasons why it may – then gas will build up in the rumen, causing the abdomen to become distended and visible, initially high on the left side, where the normally ‘hollow’

flank will fill out. If pressure continues to build, the abdomen will become distended and progressively tighter, and the goat will become very agitated; in this condition it is said to be bloated, and this is a true veterinary emergency when help should be sought quickly.

Become familiar with the appearance of the droppings. Although they should normally be pelleted, it is not unusual for the faeces to become looser and more ‘pasty’, particularly when the goat is at grass. However, it is the sudden change to loose or watery faeces – diarrhoea or so-called ‘scouring’ – that may indicate a developing gut problem. If it is excessive or blood-tinged, then consult your veterinary surgeon without delay, as it may indicate a serious problem such as enterotoxaemia. Diarrhoea in young kids can be very debilitating, and can quickly cause dehydration and even kidney failure if untreated. Excessive straining to pass faeces may also be cause for concern; it could indicate a blockage, or a severe parasite infection such as coccidiosis.

Normal goat faeces should be pellets.

Reproductive tract: Goats are seasonal breeders, and the onset of cyclical activity in does (in the northern hemisphere) is usually between the months of August and February, with the greatest activity in the period September to December. The stimulus to breed is a declining day-length, and many commercial units now use this phenomenon to encourage out-of-season breeding using artificial lighting.

They reach puberty as early as three months of age, but more typically between five and twelve months of age, although this can vary tremendously between breeds and is also dependent on nutritional status.

The normal doe is on heat (in oestrus) for approximately thirty to forty hours, although this may extend up to ninety hours. Oestrus may result in much vocalization, and this behaviour can be confused with a goat in pain or distress; however, it is quite normal.

Never forget the buck – he needs to be fit and healthy if he is to be fertile during what can be a relatively short breeding season.

Urinary system: Watch your goats urinate and familiarize yourself with the attitudes and postures adopted. A normal healthy female will crouch slightly to pass urine, and may adopt this attitude and pass urine when she is apprehensive – it is a normal behavioural activity. The male will often pass urine in dribbles rather than in a steady stream, and entire bucks may well urinate over their limbs and head, to enhance their hormonal attraction! Neither males nor females should have any difficulty in passing urine, and straining, particularly in males, is an indication that something is wrong. Urine colour will vary depending on a number of factors, but should be a pale yellow ‘straw’ colour. Very dark urine may indicate dehydration and illness.

Goats should have access to clean water at all times; they are relatively fastidious and may refuse to drink if the water is dirty or contaminated. Failure to drink in males (particularly castrated males) may encourage stone formation in the bladder.

Lactation: Goats will lactate at the end of pregnancy, but unlike other ruminants some females can lactate spontaneously: these are called ‘maiden milkers’. Milk production will vary tremendously between breeds, and will also be dependent on nutritional input. Dairy breeds typically produce around 1,000 litres (220gal) per lactation, and some top females are capable of 2,000 litres (440gal) in a single lactation. Lactation lengths often extend to 365 days and longer. The composition of goats’ milk is similar to that of cattle, although milk taints are occasionally reported as a problem (seeChapter 18).

Comparative Average Composition of Goat and Cow Milk

Horns: Most goat kids are born with the horn bud already developing. Some kids can be born naturally polled, but in many dairy breeds of goat such as the Toggenburg and the Saanen, and in alpine breeds of European descent, this is linked genetically to an infertility trait. In these breeds the presence of horn buds is determined by a recessive gene. The polled trait is dominant, but is linked to a recessive gene for infertility. A female goat that is homozygous for the polled gene develops into a sterile intersex.

Dentition: Goats have a dental pad replacing the upper incisors, as in other ruminants. They may be born with the central incisors already erupted, and all eight temporary incisors should have fully erupted by four weeks of age. The first pair of permanent incisors erupts at around twelve months of age, the second pair by eighteen to twenty-four months, the third pair by thirty to thirty-six months, and the final pair by forty to forty-eight months. The molar teeth grow constantly and are continuously ground down by the grinding effect of mastication.

Wattles: Many goat breeds have ‘wattles’ found in the throat area. These have no known function, and consist of a central cartilage core, smooth muscle, connective tissue, a blood and nerve supply, and covering skin.

Body condition: Up to 25 per cent of a goat’s bodyweight can be attributed to the weight of food in its rumen; it is also recognized that a 5–10 per cent fluctuation in bodyweight can take place in a three-day period because of variation in feed intake alone! Although weighing is a useful means of assessing body condition (particularly when administering medication), readers should familiarize themselves with the concept of ‘body-condition scoring’ (seeChapter 2).

GOAT HANDLING

Goats need to be handled to move them from one location to another, or for managemental procedures such as worming, vaccination, foot trimming and other clinical procedures. Understanding goat behaviour enables us to ensure that any such procedure can be undertaken in a manner that will keep stress levels to an absolute minimum.

There are a number of generic factors to consider when handling ruminants:

•They have excellent peripheral (wide angle) vision.

•They prefer to move towards light, and do not like to enter dark buildings.

•They have a natural herding instinct and can become distressed and agitated if they are separated from the rest of their group.

•They like to follow a leader.

•If a handling procedure is stressful or frightening, this unpleasant experience may well make any future similar experience even more stressful, so it is important to get it right first time round!

However, as a further insight into handling goats, be aware that their natural inquisitiveness for anything they encounter, together with their friendly disposition, can ‘slow things up’. As with other ruminants, they will tend to want to move as a group, but there are often complex ‘mini/family groups’ that may lead to increased hesitancy when driven. Also, never forget their ability to escape – gates and other barriers will need to be higher than those used for sheep, and any potential escape hole or gap will be explored. It has also been reported that when stressed some goats will simply lie down and can become trampled and suffocated, so for this reason always keep the groups to be handled small and manageable.

Catch individual goats by firmly placing an arm around their neck or torso, or by grabbing at a collar or their horns. The latter should be used as a last resort, as goats resent being pulled by their horns, even though it is tempting to use these as ‘handles’. Once caught, tame goats will usually remain calm, and can be trained to be haltered and led around. A struggling goat is best backed into a corner and may be ‘straddled’ for procedures such as drenching.

Foot examination and trimming is best carried out in the standing position, although there are handling crates designed to hold a goat firm if large numbers are to be examined. Goats can be ‘tipped up’ in the same way as sheep, but unlike sheep, they rarely become passive in this position, and will often continue to struggle; however, this approach may be useful when examining the penis and prepuce of a male.

Care should be taken at all times that the handler is protected from injury, particularly when working closely with horned goats where there is a potential risk of injury to the face and eyes: safety goggles may be a worthwhile investment.

2The Normal Goat – Feeding and Management

BASIC NUTRITION

Goats have evolved into very efficient browsing animals, whereas cattle and sheep by comparison are grazers. Goats will readily eat grass, thistles and other weeds, hedgerow plants, and leaves and branches from overhanging trees, often standing on their hind legs to achieve this. When other sources of ‘browsing’ feed are in short supply, they will eat the bark from around the tree base, and given the opportunity will also climb up into trees to continue their search for food. When kept in confinement they are often very wasteful of their feed, and will sort through and discard even good-quality forage. They are extremely fussy about feed quality, readily refusing to eat spoiled or contaminated feed, thus completely dispelling the commonly held belief that ‘goats will eat anything’.

It is, however, important to ensure that all goats receive a balanced diet that provides an adequate daily input of nutrients to fulfil basic maintenance requirements (that is, to maintain bodyweight and function). There may be additional requirements for pregnancy and lactation in adult does during the breeding season, for breeding bucks prior to and during the breeding season, and for body growth in young stock. Any ration fed should recognize this.

Food should be of good nutritional quality and should be palatable and in a form the goat will eat. If feeding a rationed diet, then care should be taken to ensure that all goats can eat together – there should be enough trough or feeder space, otherwise dominant goats will eat more, leaving less for subordinate (shy) goats.

Like cattle and sheep, goats are ruminants, and it is important for the goat keeper to understand the ruminant digestive system so as to ensure that a suitable ration is fed, and thus avoid digestive upsets such as diarrhoea or bloat.

Goats are inquisitive – could they reach something they shouldn’t?

RUMINANT DIGESTION

The ruminant gut has evolved to enable ruminants to consume large quantities of plant material relatively quickly. It is thought that the process of ‘rumination’ (or ‘cudding’), whereby food is regurgitated and chewed later (usually during a quiet time of the day or night) and then swallowed again, evolved to enable them to take in large quantities of food quickly, then regurgitate it and chew it properly when they are in a safer environment and not out in the open. It is suggested that in a single group of goats, at least two-thirds of their number should be cudding at any one time, and if this drops to a half or less, there might be a problem with, for example, acidosis (seeChapter 9).

The goat has four stomach compartments, the largest one being the rumen or first stomach. It is in the rumen that a large population of micro-organisms aid the breakdown and digestion of plant cell-wall material (mainly cellulose), thus releasing the available nutrients: it has a constant movement, effectively mixing the food and saliva together. Any disruption of this microbial population of the rumen can have serious consequences. Any sharp fragments in the diet, such as stones, pieces of wire or nails and screws, will drop into the reticulum (the second stomach), thus protecting the more delicate fourth stomach (or abomasum) from damage.

The third stomach, or omasum, effectively dries the rumen content by absorbing moisture via its leaf-like structure. The abomasum is the equivalent of the stomach of a singlestomach animal (for example man), and allows food material already broken down in the forestomachs to be acted on by gastric enzymes. Further passage of the food through the gut stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juices and bile, both aiding digestion; and following absorptive processes in the gut, faeces will appear (normally pelleted).

Any abnormality in the procedures outlined above will result in an inadequate uptake of nutrients from the ration (so-called ‘malabsorption’) and loss of weight, which may be accompanied by changes in faecal consistency.

During rumen digestion, volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and methane gas are produced. VFAs are absorbed through the rumen wall and are the main source of energy: these are predominantly acetic and propionic acid, with a smaller quantity of butyric acid (these will vary depending on the diet fed). An excessive intake of readily digestible material such as barley can result in excessive production of lactic acid, and the resulting acidosis can be fatal.

Any methane is removed by regular eructation (belching) of gas, but an excess accumulation can be fatal, causing bloat to develop, followed rapidly by death.

A diagram of the ruminant digestive system.

NUTRITIONAL PRINCIPLES

It is beyond the remit of this book to discuss feeding in detail, and the reader requiring further information is advised to consult other sources.

Dry matter intake (DMI): Goats can only eat a certain amount of food each day, referred to as their ‘dry matter intake’ or ‘DMI’. The water content or ‘fresh weight’ of a dietary component (for example grass) can vary greatly, and by referring to its DMI when working out a suitable ration, this can be overridden. As an example, 21kg(4.5lb) of fresh grass would be different to 2kg of hay, and different again to 2kg of barley. There are tables available giving the dry matter content of different feeds, and an example is given below (see Glossary for an explanation of the terms used).

The dry matter intake itself will vary from goat to goat depending mainly on its weight, but it is generally considered to be approximately 3.5 per cent of its bodyweight per day: that is, a 50kg (110lb) goat is capable of consuming approximately 1.75kg (3.75lb) DMI per day. This will rise, particularly in high-yielding milking goats, but it can be reduced in the latter stages of pregnancy, particularly when a doe is carrying multiple kids, which reduces the available rumen volume within the abdominal cavity.

SOME TYPICAL NUTRITIONAL VALUES OF A RANGE OF FEEDSTUFFS USED FOR FEEDING GOATS

Energy: In most feeding guides the term ‘metabolizable energy’ (ME) is used to assess energy intake, usually in megajoules (MJ). The energy demands of goats will vary depending on their physical and physiological demands and level of production; however, the following is a rough guide:

•Maintenance: 0.5 MJ ME/kg0.75 of metabolic bodyweight (liveweight in kg to the power of 0.75)

•Pregnancy: 0.5 MJ ME/kg0.75 rising to 0.7 MJ ME/kg0.75 for the last month

•Lactation: maintenance needs + 5 MJ ME/kg milk produced (assuming 3.5 per cent butterfat)

Physical factors also affect energy demands – for instance, environment (demands are higher in cold weather), or exercise (demands are higher at grass than housed).

Protein: Two sources of protein are available for the ruminant to use: protein from feed, and microbial protein from the microbial population that inhabits its rumen. A ruminant is unique in that it has a symbiotic relationship with these microbes. Like other living creatures, these microbes have requirements for protein and energy to facilitate growth and reproduction. During digestive contractions, some of these micro-organisms are ‘washed out’ of the rumen into the abomasum, where they are digested like other proteins, thereby creating a source of protein for the animal.

All crude protein (CP) that the animal ingests as feed is divided into two fractions: degradable intake protein (DIP), and undegradable intake protein (UIP, also called ‘rumen bypass protein’). Each feedstuff has different proportions of each protein type. Rumen microbes break down the DIP into ammonia (NH3) amino acids, and peptides, which are used by the microbes along with energy from carbohydrate digestion for growth and reproduction.

Excess ammonia is absorbed via the rumen wall and converted into urea in the liver, where it returns in the blood to the saliva or is excreted by the body. Urea toxicity comes from overfeeding urea to ruminants. Ingested urea is immediately degraded to ammonia in the rumen.

Minerals and trace elements: Although some specific health problems related to deficiency are referred to elsewhere in this book, it is fair to say that specific mineral and trace element deficiencies are not as common as in either cattle or sheep. Hypocalcaemia (milk fever) and hypomagnesaemia (grass staggers) are both comparatively rare compared to their occurrence in dairy cows, even in high-yielding Saanen milking goats. Copper deficiency can be a specific problem, particularly in its association with ‘swayback’ in newborn kids.

It seems likely that the selective feeding behaviour of the goat allows it to choose feed materials it may need. Given the opportunity, goats at grass will selectively graze weeds, branches or scrub and suchlike, which are much more mature than, say, fresh herbage. It follows, therefore, that if this natural browsing behaviour is overridden by, for example, housing, then a good, well-balanced diet must be provided by the goat keeper, and many owners will bring in hedgerow cuttings or branches (browsings) – if these are suitable, and not poisonous!

Care should always be taken that a deficiency is not converted to toxicity by oversupplementation – for example, feeding too much copper.

Feeding browsings.

Water: A goat may drink up to 18ltr of water (4gal) each day, depending on climate, the ambient temperature, the type of diet fed, and the goat’s milk yield. A lactating goat requires 1.43ltr (0.3gal) of water for every 1ltr (1kg) milk produced.

Water must always be kept clean; most goats are fairly fastidious and will not drink from dirty or contaminated water troughs or buckets.

Forage feeding: Most small-scale goat keepers will feed hay as their main source of forage. Late-cut seed hay is generally preferred to soft meadow hay, and hay with a variety of plants such as docks, clovers and vetches is particularly good for goats. However, their natural browsing nature will cause them to pull at hay from racks to select the best bits, and unless suitable racks or nets are used, there can be considerable wastage. Nevertheless hay feeding can be made fun and provide a behavioural challenge.

Larger commercial units normally feed silage, and maize silage has proved to be a particularly good forage source and can be balanced and fed as a TMR (total mixed ration). One problem with silage feeding, however, is the potential for listeria organisms to multiply in spoiled or poorly made silage, or in silage left uneaten after twenty-four to forty-eight hours: this should be discarded (seeChapter 12).

Some figures for feed trough/face spacing adopted in the commercial dairy sector are given in the table on the next page:

The feed table should ideally be raised so that the goats can reach further forwards, and with large herds a separate feed station for offering concentrates should be considered. Feed troughs, hayracks or haynets should all be raised off the floor to facilitate feeding.

Hay feeding made fun!

Maize silage on a large commercial dairy goat unit.

Feeding a total mixed ration (TMR).

FEED TROUGH/FACE SPACING ADOPTED IN THE COMMERCIAL DAIRY SECTOR

Feed stance – depth

2.5m (8.2ft)

Feed stance – width

0.2–0.45m (0.65–1.48ft)

Feed stance – linear per adult goat

0.75–0.95m (2.5–3ft)

Raising the feed table helps.

Concentrate feeding: Concentrate feeds have a high starch content and are rapidly digested; the two main choices if concentrate is fed (as opposed to a total mixed ration) are a pellet or a coarse mix. The latter can be a problem if large numbers of goats are fed together, since early feeders will select the ‘best bits’, thus potentially leaving poorer-quality feed constituents for those who feed later; this is particularly true if there is insufficient feeding space available for all goats to eat together. The recommended linear trough space for adult goats is 0.75–0.95m (2.5–3ft) per goat. By feeding a pellet, this problem is avoided.

Concentrate feeds generally provide much of the protein of the ration as well as the energy. Concentrates should be fed ‘little and often’ – twice a day at the very least, but ideally three to four times daily. The maximum daily concentrate intake should equate to only 1 per cent of bodyweight (on a dry-matter basis). Because many concentrate feeds have a high dry-matter content (more than 80 per cent), an average 50kg (110lb) goat should not be having more than 0.5–0.6kg (1.1–1.3lb) of goat mix daily – this is frequently exceeded in practice.

Note: As with any ruminant feeding programme, it is important to ensure that any dietary change is made gradually to mitigate against any potential dietary disorders. The pet goat keeper should also be strongly discouraged from providing regular ‘treats’, as these can make a goat fat without any normal feed added! If a pet owner wants to give their goat a ‘treat’, a piece of dry pasta now and again is a better alternative.

What can happen if nutrition goes wrong? The list below gives some examples of the range of conditions that can be a direct or indirect result of dietary disorders (each condition is covered in the relevant chapter):

•Acidosis/laminitis: acute, subacute and chronic

•Urolithiasis: especially in young, fat, male castrated goats

•Ruminal bloat: free gas (choke) and frothy bloat

•Abomasal disorders: displacement and ulceration (more likely in production animals)

•Listeriosis: commonly associated with feeding big bale silage, although haylage can be a risk if the bag has sustained a tear

•Pregnancy toxaemia/ketosis: negative energy balance

•Coccidiosis: faecal/oral transmission – therefore the method of feeding can increase the risk (for example, feeding at ground level)

•Plant poisoning

Feed storage: It is important to remember some fundamental principles relating to the safe storage and use of any composite feed or feed constituents, which can pose a potential risk to goat health if they are not followed. Owners and stock-keepers should be encouraged to observe the following criteria:

•Obtain feed from safe and reliable sources.

•Store feed securely to prevent access (where possible) by rodents and wild birds.

•Learn to recognize unexpected changes in colour, odour, texture or appearance, and avoid such affected feeds if you are concerned.

•In any rearing or production system, know where there may be a potential for unacceptable feed risks to occur – such as a change in dietary constituents/feeding programmes (for example, at kidding).

•Ensure that feed labels are kept, and notes made of dietary constituents contained therein.

•Ensure that all those involved in feeding goats have clear and concise feeding instructions.

BODY-CONDITION SCORING

Systems are well established for cattle and sheep, with scores attributed in ascending order from 0 to 5, equivalent to a subjective scale from emaciation to grossly over-fat. Such a system relies on the palpation of animals in a standing position and assessing the degree of fat cover over the ribs in the lumbar area. Unlike the commonly farmed species of cattle and sheep that have a variable covering of subcutaneous fat depending on nutritional intake and production demands, the bulk of the fat stores in the goat are intra-abdominal; thus a body-condition score is based on an assessment of the lumbar spine at two points, namely the lumbar area and the brisket, and an average figure – or dual assessment figure – can then be applied to each goat. This is shown in the accompanying diagrams.

Goat condition scoring – lumbar.

Goat condition scoring – sternal.

In a commercial herd it would be advisable to condition score all, or a proportion of goats at the following times:

•When they are drying off

•In the last two weeks of gestation

•Six weeks into lactation

•When they are turned out on to pasture (if grazing)

•At the beginning of the breeding season

Suggested target condition scores might be as follows:

•At kidding: 3–3.5

•At weaning: as low as 2, but not below 2

•At service: 3–3.5

•During pregnancy: 3

GRAZING OUTDOORS

One of the most important criteria when establishing a grazing programme for goats is adequate fencing around fields and paddocks, and this is particularly true when they are kept near a road, to avoid potential accident/injury. It is often said that no fence is ever ‘100 per cent goat proof’, as goats will always attempt to get to that elusive and tempting plant or branch that is tantalizingly out of reach, causing fencing to be bent or broken as a result. Mesh fencing is particularly vulnerable to damage, as goats will stand with their feet on the top; this can be partly offset by running a bar along the top of the fence. Some goat keepers will run electric wires or fencing along the perimeter of a field to protect the fencing.

You might expect 1ha (2.5 acres) of grass to provide sufficient grazing for five to seven goats, depending on grass quality, though ensure that some form of browsing or hay is available as a supplement to fresh grass.

Parasite control when goats are at grass is vital – seeChapter 9 – and most larger commercial goat farms house their stock all year round because of the difficulty in providing adequate worm control.

Shelter should be provided but can be temporary in nature. Purpose-made field shelters should be so designed and positioned that they can be easily moved if the ground around them becomes muddy. It may be preferable to have a few smaller shelters rather than one big one, so that goats at all levels of the hierarchy are protected. Bossy goats may keep more nervous goats from seeking shelter in a single building, particularly if the entrance is narrow.

HOUSING

The ideal housing environment for goats is very similar to that required for other livestock. As a bare minimum it should provide the following:

•Adequate ventilation free of draughts in the winter, and not too hot in the summer

•Plenty of light (including artificial lighting for the hours of darkness where possible)

•Enough room to be able to move around freely – a minimum of 2.0–2.5sq m (21.5– 27sq ft) of floor space per goat. If housed in individual pens (although try and ensure that goats are always kept within sight, sound and smell of companion goats), an area of at least 1.5 × 2.5m (9.9 × 8.2ft) is required per pen

•Good access to food and water

•A dry bed to lie on

Effective ventilation removes heat, water vapour, micro-organisms, dust and gases. It distributes air evenly and prevents draughts. These factors combine in reducing stress in housed goats, a reduction in the amount of bedding required, an improved environment leading to an improvement in productivity, and a potential reduction in respiratory problems, and improvement in overall goat welfare.

Never house horned and hornless goats together, as the horned ones will invariably be the dominant ones, creating potential conflict and injury; they may also prevent shyer goats from accessing feed and water supplies. Where possible consider having two openings to any building, as this will stop any dominant goat from preventing others entering or leaving the building!

Goats are undoubtedly more inquisitive than other species of farm livestock, and unfortunately explore new and unusual things with their mouth, teeth and tongue. Remember also that on their hind legs they can reach to a height of 2m (6.5ft), and younger goats will also readily climb on to feed troughs or window ledges to get better access to what interests them. Pay particular attention to electric cables and switches, water pipes, taps, lagging material, putty, old paint and so on. Putty and old paint (particularly in older buildings, or on items such as old doors or windows used as barriers) can be high in lead, and lead poisoning is a possible sequel. Look at the environment in a building as a goat would, and prevent mishaps occurring.

As with any farm building, try to minimize the risk of injury; you should therefore look out for the following hazards:

•Projecting sharp objects such as screws and nails that could cause deep puncture wounds, lacerations or eye injuries.

•Broken or torn wire netting; again, lesions can result from sharp, penetrating fragments of wire, and goats will also readily get their heads caught, particularly if horned. This also applies with fencing when they are at grass.

•Galvanized metal sheets can be particularly hazardous when bent or distorted, when the edges can be sharp. Be aware of the danger to goats’ feet if bedding rises above the level of the lower edge of the galvanized sheet walls, as goats can inadvertently push their foot down the edge of the bedding, and tear off a claw when it is pulled back.

Beware jagged edges – potential injury points.

TETHERING

Goats are occasionally kept on tethers when outdoors, and specifically when kept in areas that are difficult to fence around. However, it is vitally important to ensure that adequate care is provided at all times, as tethered goats are particularly vulnerable to attack by dogs, to getting caught up in the tether, to knocking over feed and water supplies, and to any extremes of weather from which they cannot escape.

Particular care should be taken to provide food, water and shelter, especially during the winter months and in periods of inclement weather, when goats may not have anywhere to shelter. The site of the tether also needs to be carefully thought out; the author has seen a severe outbreak of liver fluke when goats were tethered around the margin of a duck pond (seeChapter 9).

GENOMICS

The goat genome was the first reference genome for small ruminant animals to be defined. This has led to an increased interest in harnessing these techniques to improve goat health and productivity, focusing on identifying desirable and undesirable traits. Using commercial milk production as an example, it is recognized that there are considerable differences between the performances of daughters from different sires in their milk yield, milk quality, conformation, disease resistance, liveweight, feed intake and more. By selecting goats that are genetically more productive by using, for example, estimated breeding values (EBVs) as an aid to selection, cumulative benefits can be realized.

It is important, however, to ensure that these top-performing goats also have high functional fitness. By using conformation assessment and the scoring of relevant physical attributes (such as legs, feet, udder and teat conformation), EBVs can be developed. Combining these with production trait EBVs should ensure that high productivity is achieved without compromising overall robustness.

This is an evolving process and will undoubtedly become more widely available and technologically advanced.

3How to Recognize Signs of Ill Health

The background knowledge given in the first two chapters – on the normal goat, its behaviour, structure, function and management – will now enable the reader to begin to recognize signs of ill health, and to decide whether veterinary help is needed.

A good stockperson with a sound knowledge of their goats will develop a sixth sense, thus enabling them to recognize a sick goat by the signs exhibited, many of which can be very subtle. This skill is important, however, because the earlier that illness in a goat is recognized, the more likely that treatment will successfully stem its course.

Many minor illnesses and injuries will heal naturally; others may require some form of medical intervention by the owner (for instance, worms). It follows, however, that the goat keeper should also quickly recognize their own limitations and know when to call the veterinary surgeon for help. In some diseases goats can deteriorate rapidly, and veterinary attention may still fail to save a very sick goat.

BASIC OBSERVATIONS

•Has the goat suddenly become ill, or has it been getting worse over a few days or weeks?

•Is more than one goat affected?

•What is the age of the goat(s) affected: is the problem present in goats of different ages?

•Is it male/female – if a female, is it pregnant, if a male, is it castrated?

•Is it still eating, and what is it being fed? Have there been any recent diet changes?

•If milking, has its milk yield reduced in quantity, or has the milk changed in appearance?

CONTACTING YOUR VETERINARY SURGEON

When phoning your vet, get a clear idea in your mind of what the main problem is, and also whether it is a real emergency. A goat with a skin problem that is getting worse can wait for a day or so, but a goat with a severely distended abdomen (bloat) will die very quickly and is a genuine emergency. By gathering together some basic information on what is wrong, your veterinary surgeon will be able to decide how urgent the case may be. Have a notebook with you, and jot down your observations, and any other information that will help your vet. Make sure you give clear advice on the exact location of the goat, particularly if it is not at your main address, and give a contact or mobile phone number in case your vet is delayed by another emergency, or gets lost! Find out the GPS coordinates, as this may be a useful piece of information if the property is isolated.

SIGNS OF ILLNESS

The following alphabetical list of symptoms should give the reader a quick indication of what may be wrong, and how severe the problem may be. Further information on specific conditions described can be found in the relevant chapters of this book. However, if you have any doubts or concerns, you must always consult your own vet.

Abdomen – enlargement

•The abdomen will naturally enlarge during pregnancy, particularly if the goat is carrying multiple kids; this is quite natural and should not give cause for concern unless the goat is showing obvious signs of discomfort: this may indicate that kidding is starting, the doe is aborting, or that there are other complications such as a uterine torsion. If you have an accurate service date, then you will know when kidding should occur.

•Does are quite susceptible to false pregnancy, or pseudopregnancy (often referred to as ‘cloudburst’): the goat will show abdominal enlargement as if pregnant, but the uterus will be full of fluid.

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