Works and Customs in Palestine Volume II E-Book

Gustaf Dalman

• Herausgeber: Al Nasher Technical Services
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Anthropology
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 828

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Volume II follows daily agricultural work step by step, from the preparation of the field to the green cut preceding the harvest, with descriptions of the geological evolution of the Palestinian agricultural land, its different kinds of soil, various methods of artificial irrigation, methods of land division, measurement and demarcation and much more. Volume II also includes a comprehensive list and description of all field and garden plants, of when and how they are planted, as well as their culinary and medicinal uses and cooking methods.

Leseprobe

G. Dalman . Work and Customs in Palestine

II

Gustaf Dalman

Work and Customs in Palestine

Volume II

Agriculture

Translated from the German

by

Robert Schick

Revised and edited by

Nadia Abdulhadi-Sukhtian

2020

Originally published by C. Bertelsmann, Gütersloh, 1932

Re-published by Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim, Zürich, New York, 1987

English translation based on the 1987 Georg Olms Verlag edition

Translation copyright © Nadia Abdulhadi-Sukhtian 2020

This Dalman translation project is supported by the

Ghiath and Nadia Sukhtian Foundation

ISBN: 978_9950_385_84_9

Published by Dar Al Nasher

Tel.[phone]

[email protected]

www.enasher.com

Printed in Ramallah, Palestine

Distributed by

Al Ahlieh

Tel. [phone]

[email protected]

Preface to the English Edition of Volume II

of

Work and Customs in Palestine

When the English translation of Parts 1 and 2 of Volume I appeared in 2013, it was well received, showing that there would be an interest in reading Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina in English. The positive reception validated the main reason for producing an English translation of Work and Customs in Palestine, which is to make this encyclopedic work of an outstanding German scholar, theologian, linguist and ethnologist accessible to a much wider non-German-speaking public. His work is an important reference for students and scholars interested in understanding the biblical and post-biblical past of Palestine as well as for those interested in researching the life and culture of the Palestinian population in modern times. But it is of particular interest for today’s Palestinian readers because for them it preserves for posterity a valuable treasure of their folkloric heritage, which their ancestors recorded and passed on from generation to generation. (The volumes have not yet been translated into Arabic).

A quick glance at the following numbers reveals the scope of Dalman’s magnum opus: its eight volumes hold over 3000 pages, with nearly 800 photographs, and a bibliography that runs over 88 pages, found in Volume VIII, the posthumous volume edited by Dr. Julia Maennchen. This bibliography on its own is a valuable academic resource, not only displaying the state of knowledge and research on Palestine during Dalman’s lifetime, but also showing his ability to draw on a vast array of sources in multiple languages and disciplines.

Volume I guides the reader through the cycle of the day and the seasons of the year, covering such topics as the time and quantity of rain, the influence of the climate on the land, vegetation, prayers for rain, religious feasts and customs, harvest songs and much more, touching on agricultural activities in autumn, winter, spring and summer, because – as Dalman points out in his preface to Volume II – the seasons could not be described without the work on the fields.

Volume II is an agricultural handbook of Palestine, past and present. It deals with agriculture in the narrow sense of the word and describes its purely technical and organizational aspects, following the agricultural steps from the preparation of the fields to the green cut preceding the harvest. Volume III continues from the harvest through threshing to milling and baking, and Volume IV focuses on bread, wine and oil.

Also included in Volume II are descriptions of the geological evolution of the Palestinian agricultural land, its different kinds of soil, various methods of artificial irrigation, the sequence of agricultural tasks, including precise recommendations like using the right amount of seeds in relation to the size of the land, descriptions of property rights and ownership, and methods of land division, measurement and demarcation. Volume II includes a comprehensive list and description of all field and garden plants, divided into their botanical sub-groups of cereals, legumes, tuberous vegetables, fruit, leafy vegetables and spice vegetables, as well as oil, dye and stimulant plants, with descriptions of when and how they are planted and cultivated, as well as their culinary and medicinal uses, and how they are cooked and eaten.

There is also a comprehensive list of the various kinds of agricultural tools. The plough and yoke here serve as examples for giving the reader a taste of Dalman’s methodology. In the case of the plough, he enumerates the North Palestinian and the South Palestinian plough, the Circassian plough, the ancient and new Egyptian plough, the Israelite and the Greek plough, comparing and describing them in great detail with exact measurements and drawings, which can be found at the end of this volume. He also compares the different kinds of yokes used in Jerusalem and Galilee, Merj ‘Ayūn (Lebanon), Aleppo, Belqa, Hauran, Damascus and Egypt, highlighting their regional differences. As if that were not enough, Dalman gives us the designations for nearly every item he describes throughout all the volumes in Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, Latin (in the case of the scientific names of plants) and often in Greek, next to their names in German, making Work and Customs also a reference for linguists and lexicographers. This translation naturally added the English names, which sometimes called for extended research.

As in all the volumes, Dalman uses this methodology with nearly all of his findings, most of which he was able to observe and study directly on the ground mostly during his stay in Palestine from 1902 to 1914. He intertwines his own findings with comparative descriptions he found in earlier accounts. For Palestine’s biblical past he draws from the texts of the Mishna and the Palestinian Talmud and their tenth-century translations into Arabic by the Jewish philosopher and lexicographer of the Abbasid period, Sa‘adiah ben Yousef el-Fayyumi; Dalman also quotes, amongst many others, from the texts of the tenth-century Greek/Byzantine Geoponica (Agricultural Pursuits), a 20-book collection of agricultural lore covering the eastern Mediterranean, which in turn draws on Pliny and various lost Hellenistic and Roman-period Greek agricultural and veterinarian authors and which was translated into Syriac, Persian, Arabic and Armenian in its time.

For Palestine’s Arab past Dalman relies to a great extent on Kitab ‘aja’ib al makhluqat (The Wonders of Creation) by the medieval Arab physician, astronomer and geographer Zakaria Muhammad al-Qazwini, drawing from his detailed accounts and descriptions of thirteenth-century Palestine and the region beyond, which he knew intimately through his extensive travels.

For modern-day Palestine, Dalman consulted, amongst many others whom he met during his stay in Palestine, Tawfiq Cana‘an. A well-known pioneering Palestinian physician, medical researcher and prolific author, Cana‘an was one of the foremost researchers of Palestinian popular heritage. The book Agriculture in Palestine (1909) is one amongst many of Cana‘an’s vast collection of publications on Palestinian rural life and popular culture.

The same team who worked on the translation of Volume I, Parts 1 and 2, continued to work on the translation of Volume II, with Robert and me switching roles as translators and editors/reviewers.

For Volume I, Parts 1 and 2, I prepared the draft translation which Robert edited, meticulously revising the text and carefully checking the transliterations and Bible quotations, while for Volume II it was Robert who prepared the draft translation, which I revised and edited, by carefully reading the translated text against the German original.

As was the case in Volume I, Parts 1 and 2, Isabelle Ruben edited the translation for English style, bringing her expert knowledge of matters floral and faunal to bear. Anna Silkatcheva prepared the indices and the internal page references and added the index of place names, which is not in the German original. All four of us helped with proofreading.

As with Volume I, the photographs for this volume were provided by the Gustaf Dalman Institute in Greifswald, in the form of high-resolution scans of Dalman’s vast collection of over 10 000 photographs of Palestine, which can be viewed athttp://wissenschaftliche-sammlungen.uni-greifswald.de/objektsuche selecting “Collection” and then “Gustaf-Dalman-Sammlung”.

Amman, October 2019

Nadia Abdulhadi-Sukhtian

Preface to the English edition of Volume II

of

Work and Customs in Palestine

Notes on the Translation and Transliterations

by Robert Schick

As Nadia Sukhtian has mentioned in her preface, the same team who worked on Volume I, Parts 1 and 2, continued to work on Volume II. Nadia and I worked on the translation, reversing our roles for this volume. In Volume I, Parts 1 and 2 she had prepared the draft translation, which I revised, while for Volume II, I prepared the draft translation, which she revised. As was also the case with Volume I, Parts 1 and 2, Isabelle Ruben edited the translation for English style and helped with proofreading, and Ana Silkatcheva prepared the indices and the internal page references and helped with proofreading.

The general format of Volume II closely follows that of Volume I, Parts 1 and 2. The indices, including the topical index, reproduce the original indices, with a few additions. The scientific Latin names for plant species have been included in the topical index. An index of place names, which the original German edition does not have, has also been added.

The English translations of Arabic sayings and verses of poetry follow Dalman’s German translations; translations more exactly matching the Arabic versions are occasionally noted in a translator’s footnote. A few other explanatory footnotes have been added as translator’s footnotes.

At the end of Volume II, as well as Volume III, Dalman included several pages of addenda. These have been placed in the text in footnotes marked as addenda. Typographical errors listed in the addenda have been silently corrected in the text.

Dalman cites verses from the Old Testament according to the verse numbering of the Hebrew Masoretic text, which occasionally differs from the verse numbering of modern Christian versions, such as the Revised Standard Version (RSV). For the Wisdom of Ben Sirach, where there are alternative orderings of chapters 30 to 36, Dalman cites a numbering system that differs from that used in the RSV and Septuagint versions. As a help to the reader, in those cases where the chapter and verse numberings diverge, a translator’s note identifies the RSV and/or Septuagint numbers matching Dalman’s verse numbers; the Septuagint numbers cite Albert Pietersma and Benjamin Wright, eds., A New English Translation of the Septuagint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

The technical vocabulary that Dalman used sometimes proves a tough nut to crack. I want to thank Annette Hansen at Groningen University for her help in disentangling the technical terms related to parts of grain plants that he used, and for providing us with a valuable article that in part deals with Dalman’s terminology: Annette M. Hansen, Bethany J. Walker and Frits Heinrich, ‘Impressions’ of the Mamluk agricultural economy. Archaeobotanical evidence from clay ovens (ṭābūn) at Tall Ḥisbān (Jordan). Tijdschrift voor Mediterrane Archeologie 56 (2017), pp. 58-69.

Several conventions that Dalman adopted have been kept, such as distinguishing Hebrew and Aramaic names of the months from Arabic ones, by having the Hebrew and Aramaic month names capitalized and the Arabic names in lower case and in italics. Arabic place names are transliterated and in italics, other than those commonly known by their English versions, e.g. Jerusalem and Hebron.

Dalman’s transliterations of Hebrew and Aramaic words are also reproduced here, but with sh for Dalman’s š; q for Dalman’s k; and y for Dalman’s j.

For Arabic words, the standard Library of Congress English transliteration system is adopted here, which differs in some cases from the German system that Dalman used:

Preface

Volume I already had occasion to deal with agriculture, because the seasons could not be described without the work connected with them. Agriculture in autumn, winter, spring, and summer was briefly discussed there on p. 164ff., 269ff., 412ff., and566ff. andtherebybroughtintoconnectiononp. 586ff. withtheassociated religious customs. What was missing there was the technology of agriculture, which is to be treated in future volumes. With this in mind, the second volume, presented here, is concerned only with agriculture in the narrow sense of the word. It is followed from the preparation of the field to the green cut preceding the harvest, not without consideration of its requirements in organization, form, and ownership of the field. The third volume will then continue from the harvest through threshing to milling and baking.

Also here the objective behind treating this technical material, proceeding from the Orient of today, is to shed light on the history of Israel in a significant area and to explain the Bible, which always only briefly mentions the things relevant to this subject, whether it concerns the economy of Israel placed under divine order in earlier or later times, or whether the economic proceedings are used as a metaphor for proceedings in the area of ethical and religious life, as occurred in the Prophets, the Psalms, and Proverbs, as well as in the parables of Jesus. Also the practical interpretation and application of such types of biblical words should not be done without knowledge of their factual background. Only in this way can they hit the meaning that they originally had for speaker and hearer, author, and reader. Historically, it also remains significant that Israel was a people practicing agriculture, after they had acquired a suitable land. Israel’s experience of divine giving and taking cannot be separated from the form and culture of its popular life.

Applying the relevant rabbinic material means, initially, clarifying the period of the New Testament existing under Hellenistic and Roman influence, for which I regret not having compared in detail the NaturalHistory of Pliny and the EnquiryintoPlantsof Theophrastus, because they are noticeably similar to the culture of rabbinic Palestine. But naturally the rabbinic literature also contains things that were already present in Israelite antiquity and for that reason were not mentioned in the Old Testament only because there was no occasion to describe in detail the economy of the period it spanned. Rabbinic law, which always went into the details of legal practice, had an entirely different reason for that, although it should not be forgotten that the reports occasioned in this way are always one-sided.

I regret that my work also on this volume could not take place in constant contact with the Arab people working in Palestine today according to ancient custom. Even detailed observations and notes contain gaps that become clear only when a related presentation is worked out. That is why it was important that the questions I encountered were not sent to Palestine in vain. For friendly inquiries I thank Father Sonnen and Father Müller and teacher Bauer in Jerusalem, Pastor Jentzsch and Pastor Sa‘īd ‘Abbūd[1] in Bethlehem, Dr. J. Reichert in Tel-Aviv, Dr. J. Künzler in Beirut, Mr. Morris Sigel in Damascus, to whom I remain obliged. That I constantly took account of the printed works of Dr. T. Canaan, teacher Bauer, and Father Sonnen, among many others, is self-evident.

Mr. Lic. Sander in Greifswald, now Halle, and missionary L. Marx in Herrnhut, gave me friendly support with proofreading; the latter also through the preparation of the index of Bible passages.

Also regarding the illustrations, which I could share in large numbers, I am thankful for the manifold friendly permissions for use. I name here the companies of Vester & Co. (American Colony), and C. Raad in Jerusalem, Bruno Hentschel in Leipzig, and Ludwig Preiß in Munich, all outstanding because of their rich archives of photographs of Palestine. But also all the other copyright holders of illustrations are named below them and are requested to consider this as an expression of my heartfelt thanks.

Consideration of the “Corrections and Additions” provided at the end is recommended.[2]

Greifswald, Palästinainstitut, 13 June 1932

G. Dalman

List of Illustrations

1. CultivablebasinintheSenonianregion.

2. AnencrustedheightintheSenonianregion.

3. Precipitation-poorSenonianland.

4. PlainintheTuronian-Cenomanianregion.

5. NaturalterracingintheTuronian-Cenomanianregion.

6. StonyagriculturallandintheTuronian-Cenomanianregion.

7. BasalticlandatLakeTiberias.

8. AlluvialagriculturallandintheJezreelplain.

9. Diluvialagriculturallandinthecoastalplain.

10. AlluvialirrigatedlandinthediluvialregionoftheJordanValleynearJericho.

11. Watchman’splaceinanolivetreeinasorghumfield.

12. Watchman’sframeinabarleyfield.

13. Watchman’sframewitharborinasorghumfield.

14. Watchman’shutinacucumberfield.

15. Watchman’shutinazucchinifield.

16. Watchtowerwitharborinanorchard.

17. Hedgesofpricklypearcactus.

18. Palestinianplow-shareI.

19. Palestinianplow-shareII.

20. TheMabic (Jebalitic) plowshare.

21a. ThesouthPalestinianplowwithshare.

21b. ThesouthPalestinianyoke.

22. ThenorthandeastPalestinianplowwithshare.

23. Sowingonunplowedland.

24. Sowingonsowingrowswithplowingunder.

25. Plowingunderthewintersowing.

26. Plowingofthesummersowingwithaseedhopper.

27. NorthPalestinianplowonthewaytothefield.

28. NorthPalestinianplowduringthesummersowing.

29. NorthPalestinianyokewithharnessing.

30. Mabic (Jebalitic) plowwithyoke.

31. Mabic (Jebalitic) plowwithhorseanddonkey.

32. Circassianplow.

33. Circassianyokewithplow.

34. Egyptianplow.

35. Oxanddonkeyundertheyoke.

36. Mulebeforetheplow.

37. Camelbeforetheplow.

38. Camelanddonkeyundertheyoke.

39. Twoplowsduringsummersowing.

40. Circassianwagon.

41. Circassianyokeinfrontofthewagon.

42. Circassianwagonhitchwithyoke.

43. AgriculturalhoesnearJerusalem.

44. GardentoolsnearAleppo.

45. Hoeingoutonions.

46. WaterscoopingdeviceusingaswingbarinEgypt.

47. Waterscoopingdevicewithanelevatedscoopwheel.

48. Waterscoopingdevicewithalowscoopwheel.

49. Waterscoopwheelpoweredbytheriver.

50. Waterscoopingdevicewithoutawheelbutwithapullingpath.

51. IrrigatedlandofSilwān.

52. IrrigatedvegetablebedsaroundSilwān.

53. UnirrigatedvegetablelandaroundLydda.

54. Wheatandbarleyheads.

55. Smallwheatheadsandbarleycornswithhullsandbeards.

55a. Palestinianmiraclewheat.

55b. WildemmerandeinkornfromPalestine.

56. Wheatanddarnel.

57. Ripewheat.

58. Ripebarley.

59. Wheatfieldonthecoastalplain.

60. Wheatonrockyground.

61. Wheatonafieldpath.

62. Wheatongoodland.

63. Sorghumbetweenrockybanks.

64. Arabbeansinthefield.

64a. Chickpea.

65. Watermelonwith zucchini andtomatoes.

66. Caulifloweronthewaytomarket.

67. Weedsinwheat.

68. Thistles (Silybummarianum) onafallowfield.

69. High-grownthistle (Notobasissyriaca).

70. Thistle (Carthamusglaucus) inbloom.

71. Fieldwithbloomingammi (Ammivisnaga).

72. Christthorn (Ziziphusspina-christi).

73. Weedingingrain.

74. Hoeingofthornsinafallowfield.

75. Unwingedlocust.

76. Wingedlocust.

77. Locustscrawlingonafieldwall.

Table of Contents

Preface to the English Edition by Nadia Abdulhadi-Sukhtian v

Preface to the English Edition by Robert Schick xi

Preface V

I. TheFormationandExtentofthePalestinianAgriculturalLand1

The Geological and Mineralogical Character of the Soil, Limestone,

Basalt, Diluvium, Alluvium 2

The Influence of Climate 3

The Location of Palestine, Desert 4

Temperature, Zones of Moisture 7

Cultivable Land, Yields 9

II. Types of Agricultural Land16

Rocky and Stony Land 16

Sand, Salt 22

Level and Unlevel Land, Construction of Terraces 24

Fertile and Infertile Soil 28

The Colors of the Soil 29

Analyses of Different Types of Soil 32

III. Watering the Cultivable Land34

Precipitation, Springs, Pools, Jordan, GroundWater, Land

WateredfromtheAtmosphere, ArtificiallyWateredLand 34

IV. Land Property Rights42

Private Ownership, Government Land, Endowment Property,

Dead Land, LandDivision, Lots, Tenth 46

InAntiquity 48

V.MeasurementandDemarcationoftheAgriculturalField54

MeasurementAccordingtotheWorkPerformanceofthePlow

Strength, and totheAmountofSeed, BorderDesignation,

MeasuringRope 54

InAntiquity 57

VI.ProtectionoftheAgriculturalField62

BorderWalls, Hedges, Watchmen, WatchPlaces, Weapons 62

In Antiquity 68

VII. AgriculturalTools74

A. ThePlow. Designations, Manufacturers, Origin 74

1. ThePlowshare 79

a) TheFarmer’sPlowshare 79

b) TheDamascenePlowshare 81

c) TheGalileanPlowshare 82

d) TheMabic (Jebalitic) Plowshare 84

e) ThePlowshareofAntiquity 86

2. ThePlowFrame 89

a) TheSouthPalestinianPlowFrame 89

b) ThePlowFrameofNorthSyria 94

c) TheNorthandEastPalestinianPlowFrame 95

d) TheMabic (Jebalitic) PlowFrame 97

e) TheCircassianPlow 98

f) TheEgyptianPlow 99

g) ThePlowoftheIsraelites 101

3. TheSeedHopper 103

InAntiquity 104

4. TheYoke 107

a) TheYokeofToday 107

b) TheYokeofAntiquity (onthePlowandWagon)114

5. HarnessingPlowAnimals 121

InAntiquity (onthePlowandWagon)128

6. TheOxGoad 133

InAntiquity 135

B. Hoe, Spade, andHatchet 139

1. InthePresent 139

a) TheSimpleHoe 139

α) Thenarrowplanthoe 139

β) Thewidefieldhoe 139

γ) Theweedinghoe 140

δ) Thenarrowhoe 140

b) TheDoubleHoe 140

α) Theindigenousform 140

β) TheEuropeanform 141

c) TheDiggingSpade 142

d) AxandHatchet 142

α) Theax 142

β) Thehatchet 142

2. InAntiquity 143

C. TheHarrow 147

VIII. FieldPreparation150

A. TheGeneralTemporalSequence 150

WinterandSummerSowing, PlowLandandWasteland 150

InAntiquity 157

B. Fertilization 161

Dung, Pressing, BurningOff 161

InAntiquity 164

C. ThePlower 169

Owner, Worker, Wages, Tenants, Day’sWork, Clothes, Food169

InAntiquity 177

D. ThePlowAnimals 184

Oxen, Buffalos, Donkeys, Mules, Horses, Camels, Fodder 184

InAntiquity 189

E. TheDivisionoftheFields 194

PlowPieces, SeedPieces 194

InAntiquity (alsoBeds,Plots) 198

F. TheTimeofFieldPreparation 202

RainPeriods, RainPauses, Early, LateWinterSowing 202

InAntiquity 204

G. TheWinterCropsandTheirPlowing 207

GrainSpecies, Pre-Plowing, Seeds, PlowingUnder (Harrowing ?)VegetableLand (Beds)207

InAntiquity 219

H. NewGrowthoftheGrain 237

InAntiquity 238

J. TheSummerSowing 239

GrainSpecies, Pre-Plowing, Seeds, Vegetableland 239

InAntiquity 247

K. OverviewoftheTimeoftheAnnualAgriculturalWork 252

IX. ArtificialIrrigation 257

A. Generalities 257

OriginoftheWater 257

B. TheDrawingEquipment 260

1. TheDrawingBucket 260

2. TheDrawingBeam 261

3. TheDrawingWheel, DrawingWorksWithoutaWheel 264

InAntiquity 270

C. TheArrangementoftheIrrigatedLand 273

IrrigationSystem, Canals, FurrowsandDams, Basin-ShapedBeds273

InAntiquity 279

X. FieldandGardenPlants 284

PreliminaryNoteandGroupClassification284

A. GrainPlants 285

1. Wheat, Ar. ḥinṭa, Hebr. ḥiṭṭā 285

2. WildEmmer (emmer, spelt), Ar. alas, Hebr. kussémet 288

3. Darnel, Ar. zuwwān, lateHebr. zōnīn 292

4. Rye 294

5. Barley, Ar. sha‘īr, Hebr. se‘ōra 294

6. WildBarleySpecies, Ar. sha‘irberri, lateHebr. shibbolethshū‘āl300

7. Oats, Ar. šūfān, lateHebr. šiphōn 301

8. Sorghum, Ar. dhurabēḍa 303

9. Maize, Ar. dhuraṣafra 305

10. CommonMillet, Ar. dukhn, dhuraḥamra, Hebr. dōḥan 306

11. FoxtailMillet, dukhn, lateHebr. perāgīm 307

12. Rice, Ar. ruzz, lateHebr. ōrez 308

13. SugarCane, Ar. qasabmuṣṣ 308

14. Iceplant, Ar. samḥ 309

B. Legumes 310

1. Lentil, Ar. ‘adas, Hebr. ‘adāshā 310

2. BroadBean, Ar. fūl, Hebr. pōl 312

3. ArabBean, Ar. lūbie, lateHebr. pōlmiṣri 314

4. EgyptianBean, Ar. māsh 315

5. EuropeanBean, Ar. faṣūlya 316

6. NarbonBean, Ar. na‘māni, lateHebr. sappīr 316

7. CommonVetch, Ar. bāqia, lateHebr. baqyā, bīqyā 317

8. BitterVetch, Ar. kirsenne, lateHebr. karshinnā 317

9. WhitePea, Ar. jilbān, lateHebr. purqedān 318

10. RedPea, s‘ēs‘a, lateHebr. she‘ō‘īt 318

11. Chickpea, Ar. ḥummuṣ, Hebr. āphūn 319

12. EuropeanPea, Ar. bāzella 321

13. Lupin, Ar. turmus, lateHebr. turmōs 321

14. Fenugreek, Ar. ḥelbe, lateHebr. tiltān 322

C. TuberousVegetables 323

1. Radish, Ar. fijl, lateHebr. ṣenōn 323

2. Horse-radish, Ar. shakhkhākha 323

3. Turnip, Ar. liftabyaḍ, rutabaga, Ar. liftaṣfar, lateHebr. nāphūs324

4. Kohlrabi, Ar. kerunb324

5. Celery, Ar. kerafs, lateHebr. karpas 324

6. Carrot, Ar. jezer, lateHebr. tamkā (?) 325

7. Beet, Ar. banjar 325

8. Onion, Ar. baṣal, Hebr. bāṣāl 326

9. Leek, Ar. barāsia, Hebr. ḥāṣīr 327

10. Garlic, Ar. thūm, Hebr. shūm 328

11. Potato, Ar. baṭāṭa 328

12. SweetPotato, Ar. baṭāṭaḥelwe 328

13. Taro, Ar. andlateHebr. qolqās 328

14. PalestineArum, Ar. lūf, lateHebr. lūph 329

D. FruitVegetables 329

1. Okra, Ar. bāmie329

2. Eggplant, Ar. betinjān330

3. Tomato, Ar. banādūra330

4. Paprika, Ar. flēfle, IndianPepper, Ar. filfil, lateHebr. pilpēl331

5. Squash, Ar. qar‘, lateHebr. dallá‘at331

6. Calabash, Ar. yaqṭīn332

7. Zucchini, Ar. kūsa332

8. Watermelon, Ar. baṭṭīkhakhḍar, Hebr. abaṭṭīaḥ333

9. Melon, Ar. baṭṭīkhaṣfar, shemmām, lateHebr. melōphephōn334

10. Cucumber, Ar. khiyār334

11. HairyCucumber, Ar. faqqūs, quththa, Hebr. qishshūt335

E. LeafyVegetables 336

1. Chard, Ar. silq, lateHebr. terād 336

2. Lettuce, Ar. khass, lateHebr. ḥazéret 336

3. Endive, Ar. sikōria, hindebe, lateHebr‘ulshīn, tamkā (?)337

4. Parsley, Ar. baqdūnislateHebr. peṭrōselīnon 338

5. Spinach, Ar. sabānekh 339

6. Sorrel, Ar. ḥamṣīṣ, ḥummēd, lateHebr. le‘ūnīm 339

7. Jew’sMallow, Ar. melūkhīye 340

8. Purslane, Ar. baqle, farfaḥīne, rijle, lateHebr. regīlā 340

9. Cauliflower, Ar. qarnabīṭ, lateHebr. terabtōr (?)340

10. Cabbage, Ar. malfūf, Kohlrabi, Ar. kerunb, lateHebr. kerūb341

11. Artichoke, Ar. arḍishauke, lateHebr. qināras 341

12. Mallow, Ar. khubbēze, lateHebr. ḥelmīt (?)342

13. Asparagus, Ar. ḥalyūn 343

14. Watercress, Ar. jerjīr 343

F. SpiceVegetables 343

1. Anise, Ar. yānsūn343

2. Dill, Ar. bisbāsa, lateHebr. shébet344

3. Cumin, Ar. kammūn, Hebr. kammōn344

4. Caraway, Ar. karawiya, lateHebr. qerābīm344

5. BlackCumin, Ar. qezḥa, Hebr. qéṣaḥ344

6. Coriander, Ar. kuzbara, Hebr. gad, lateHebr. kusbār345

7. Mint, Ar. na‘na‘, Pal.-Aram. na‘nā‘346

8. Rue, Ar. fējam, lateHebr. pēgam347

9. Mustard, Ar. khardal, lateHebr. ḥardal347

10. Oregano, Ar. za‘tar, Hebr. ēzōb348

11. Marjoram, Ar. sumsuq, Babyl.-Aram. shumshūq349

12/13. Thyme, Ar. za‘tar, Savory, za‘tareḥmar, lateHebr. sē’ā, qōrnīt349

14. Fennel, Ar. shōmar, lateHebr. guphnān350

15. Cress, Ar. reshād, lateHebr. sheḥālīm351

16. Rocket, Ar. ḥardan, lateHebr. gargīr351

17. Basil, Ar. ḥabaq351

G. OilPlants 351

1. Sesame, Ar. simsim, lateHebr. shumshōm351

2. Castor-OilPlant (WonderTree), Ar. kherwa‘, lateHebr. qīqāyōn352

H. GreenFeedPlants 353

1. WhiteClover, Ar. bersīm, lateHebr. gargerānīyōt353

2. Lucerne, Ar. fuṣṣ, Bab.-Aram. perhapshandeqūqē, mādā’ē353

J. FiberPlants 354

1. Flax, Ar. kittān, Hebr. pishtā, lateHebr. pishtān355

2. CottonShrub, Ar. qoṭn, lateHebr. ṣémergéphen355

3. Hemp, Ar. qumbuz, lateHebr. qanbas355

K. DyePlants 356

1. Safflower, ‘uṣfur, lateHebr. qōṣā 356

2. Indigo, nīle 357

3. Woad, wasme, lateHebr. isāṭīs 357

4. Madder, fuwwa, lateHebr. pū’ā 357

5. Weld, baqqam, lateHebr. rakkhpā 357

6. HennaShrub, ḥenna, Hebr. kōpher 358

7. CochinealCactus, Ar. ṣabr 358

8. Saffron, Ar. za‘farān, lateHebr. karkōm 358

L. StimulantPlants 359

1. Tobacco, Ar. titun 359

2. Poppy, Ar. khishkhāsh, Hebr. rōsh (?)360

3. Hemp, seeJ3360

XI. TheGrainPlantWhileGrowing 361

A. TheGrowthoftheGrain 361

InAntiquity362

B. PartsoftheGrainPlant 363

XII. Weeds 366

A. Generalities 366

B. WeedPlants 369

InAntiquity375

HebrewNamesofWeedsandThornyPlants375

1. qōṣ, 2. dardār, 3. ‘akkābīt, 4.yerōqatḥamōr, 5. qimmesōnim, 6. ḥārūl, 7. sīaḥ, 8. ḥōaḥ, 9. sīrīm, 10. āṭād, 11. shāmir, 12. shayit, 13. ḥédeq, 14. na‘aṣūṣ, 15. nahalōlīm.

C. Weeding 385

InAntiquity390

XIII. TheInfluenceoftheWeatherandGrainDiseases 394

LackofRain, EastWind, FormationofWorms, BrownRust, Smut

InAntiquity400

XIV. DamagetotheGrainbyPeopleandAnimals402

PastureAnimals, People, Fire402

Jackals, FieldMice, Ants, Birds405

Locusts410

InAntiquity412

XV. GreenCut415

InAntiquity417

Indexes

I. Index of Hebrew and Aramaic Words419

II. Index of Arabic Words 425

III. Index of Subjects 436

IV. Index of Place Names 451

V. Index of Bible Passages 458

Photographs and Illustrations461

II. Types of Agricultural Land

The arid character of the land, which is not clear in Reifenberg’s figures (p. 7) because they are only relative values, explains that, together with its karstification, there is no lack of rocky ground on heights and slopes throughout the hill country. It can happen that bare rock forms the surface of the ground, not only in the region of the Senonian limestone with its pebbly upper layer (Ar. nāri[44]), but also of the Turonian and Cenomanian, especially common in southern Judaea. But it also happens that rock ledges (Ar. qala‘a, plur. qala‘), pressed close together, hang over the earth leaving only narrow strips of weak soil in between, on which agriculture cannot be envisaged.[45] The general designation for such land is wa‘r, wi‘re, which in the history of language is connected with the Hebrew ya‘ar, which presumes that forest or macchia belong to rocky and uncultivable ground. The tradition mentioned on page 10 of the change of hills at the time of Enosh assumes that rocky ground is frequent in the hills. Amos (6:12) asks, “Do the horses run on rocks or does one plow (there) with oxen?”[46] and thereby takes for granted what actual experience continually teaches the Palestinian, who will avoid riding over bare or craggy rock or letting plowing cattle go there. Even immediately before Jerusalem there are examples of such ground,[47]