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- Herausgeber: The History Press
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
Everyone remembers the Queen's 'Annus Horribilis', but what do 'quid pro quo' and 'habeas corpus' mean? Why do plants have Latin names? Why do families, towns, countries and even football teams have Latin mottoes? What do the Latin epitaphs in churches say? What are the words of Mozart's Requiem? These are just a few of the topics covered in this book. As Mark Walker makes clear, present-day English is still steeped in its Roman and Latin origins. As a result English still has many thousands of Latin words in everyday use. Caveat emptor!
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2010
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CONTENTS
Introduction
Chapter 1: A Brief History of Latin
Chapter 2: Conversational Latin
Chapter 3: Familiar Latin Phrases
Chapter 4: Acronyms & Abbreviations
Chapter 5: Roman Names, Numerals, Dates & Days
Chapter 6: Latin for Gardeners
Chapter 7: Mottoes
Chapter 8: Latin for Doctors & Lawyers
Chapter 9: Church Latin
Chapter 10: The Latin Mass
Chapter 11: The Requiem Mass
Chapter 12: Latin Christmas Carols & Hymns
Chapter 13: Carmina Burana & Secular Latin
Chapter 14: Roman Inscriptions
Chapter 15: Latin Epitaphs
English Translations
Appendix: A brief guide to Latin (and English!) grammar
About the Author
Copyright
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank all the authors of the books mentioned in the Recommended reading boxes at the end of each chapter, as well as the writers of innumerable articles and web pages that I have also consulted concerning points of grammar or interpretation. Any errors are solely mine.
INTRODUCTION
Why study Latin?
It is often said that Latin is a dead language. But reports of its death have been wildly exaggerated. Latin is alive and well and thriving all around us. It is still widely used in
Latin is also useful for:
Historians and genealogistsGardenersStudents of other European languagesWriters who wish to improve their English grammar and vocabularyReaders of English literatureMusic loversClassicists and all those fascinated by the Ancient World, naturallyto name just a few areas of our professional and personal lives where we routinely find Latin. Indeed, though estimates vary, it is generally reckoned that some 60 per cent of our day-to-day English vocabulary is derived either directly or indirectly from Latin. We also use many Latin words and phrases unaltered and untranslated in everyday life (e.g.ad hoc, quidpro quo, caveat emptor, ad nauseam etc.), not to mention Latin abbreviations (e.g. e.g., q.v., i.e., etc., etc.). Latin is to be found everywhere in everyday life, from football team mottoes to rock bands (Status Quo, Procul Harum) to political parties (Veritas).
Anyone interested in good English – both spoken and written – will find Latin invaluable as a reference source for grammatical correctness in our own language. Learn a little Latin and you’ll never get your possessives and plurals mixed up, you’ll never confuse ‘who’ with ‘whom’, and you’ll never boldly go to split an infinitive again!
The Classical Latin authors exercised a formative influence on English writers, and hence on the development of English literature generally. Ovid’s Metamorphoses was Shakespeare’s favourite book; Milton wrote Paradise Lost as a Christian epic in the manner of Virgil’s Aeneid. The King James Bible itself, one of the pillars of the English language, is based on the Latin Vulgate of St Jerome. Latinity, the style and mannerisms of Latin authors, runs deep in our literature.
Latin is also the basis of the Romance languages – French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian (also Romanian) – so-called since they are all direct descendants of Latin, the ‘Roman’ language, and share much similar grammar and vocabulary both with their parent and among themselves. Hence, knowing some Latin makes learning modern languages easier.
About this book
This book came about as a result of my teaching an evening class in Latin for adult beginners. It was apparent to me that the traditional Latin courses on offer were not ideally suited to the needs of my mature students. So I decided to create a new one just for them.
Most Latin textbooks are for school use and even the few intended for adults focus almost exclusively on the art of reading literary Latin texts from the Classical age. Of course, there’s nothing at all wrong with reading Latin literature; quite the contrary, it’s an immensely rewarding experience. However, it takes years of hard work before a student can begin to appreciate the Aeneid or the poems of Horace or any of the other wonderful literary relics of Ancient Rome.
Between work and family and sundry other commitments, the adults who attend my evening classes simply don’t have the time for such studying; nor do they necessarily have the desire either. Annus Horribilis:Latin for Everyday Life is designed specifically for such people. It’s not a shortcut to proficiency in the language but its professed goal throughout is to apply this ‘theoretical’ knowledge to the Latin we all encounter ‘out there’ in the world rather than just in books. In other words, this is a course in Applied Latin.
Used in conjunction with a good dictionary, this book will provide even Latin beginners with a firm basis for further study. Once you get bitten by the Latin bug, it’s hard to stop. From successfully translating epitaphs and inscriptions it’s only a short step to reading real Latin authors – a worthwhile and worthy goal for all Latinists. If you have absorbed all the lessons in this book, the transition should be a painless one.
How to use this book
In the first eight chapters only single words or very short sentences – familiar phrases, abbreviations, mottoes etc. – are under consideration. Readers who are just starting their Latin studies should naturally begin at the beginning. Thereafter, from Chapter 9 onwards, the Latin becomes more ambitious as we turn our attention to full-length texts: from the complete Latin Mass to Roman Inscriptions and Latin Epitaphs.
Latin novices should turn to the Appendix at the end of this book for a very brief introduction to Latin grammar: the Glossary especially is designed to be consulted whenever an unfamiliar term crops up in the main chapters. Thereafter, a good dictionary, such as one of those recommended below, and a more thorough guide to Latin grammar will be invaluable for all and any wishing to have a go at making their own translations of the texts.
To help you along with your own translating attempts, I provide full grammatical notes for each passage. At the end of the book you will find my own English versions of all the texts encountered in Chapters 9 to 15.
Recommended reference books:
Latin-English, English-Latin Dictionary (Cassell) comes in either a Standard or Concise edition, both excellent.
Lewis & Short’s Latin Dictionary (OUP)the heavyweight (literally!) among Latin dictionaries.
501 Latin Verbs (Barron’s) an invaluable study aid.
J. Morwood Latin Grammar (OUP) a handy paperback companion.
Kennedy’s Revised Latin Primer (Longman) a more detailed survey of grammar.
CHAPTER 1
A BRIEF HISTORY OF LATIN
Have you ever done something ad hoc or on a quid pro quo basis? Do you get paid per annum or pro rata? Have you ever been caught inflagrante and been in need of an alibi, an alias or an alter ego?
If you think you don’t know any Latin, think again. In fact, though you might not realise it yet, you already know thousands of Latin words. Here are just a few them:
These are all real Latin words that any ancient Roman would recognise. And you thought learning Latin was going to be tough!
The reason this book is subtitled Latin for Everyday Life – with the emphasis on Everyday – is because there really is that much Latin in modern English. But why should our language, so remote in time from that of Ancient Rome, contain great chunks of Latin? In order to answer that question a quick sketch of Latin history is called for. That’s the purpose of this chapter, before we move on to Chapter 2 and actually start learning some Latin. So here goes.
A VERY BRIEF HISTORY OF LATIN
Virgil (70-19 B.C.) ;
Publius Vergilius Maro was arguably the finest exponent of the Latin language. His most famous work is The Aeneid, a national Roman epic modelled on both Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, and rivalling both.
Latin was originally the dialect of the region of Italy called Latium (modern Lazio), but as a result of the military and political dominance of Rome it soon spread throughout Italy and then to all the provinces of the Roman Empire, right round the Mediterranean into the Middle East and Africa and as far north as Hadrian’s Wall. Throughout this vast geographical area, Latin was the language of law, administration, commerce and literature.
Although in the East it didn’t entirely displace Greek, which was already well established as the lingua franca (literally ‘Frankish language’) of that region, in the Western Empire Latin was rapidly adopted as the principal language of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and Gaul (France and Belgium). This is the origin of the so-called ‘Romance’ languages as we know them today: ‘Roman’ was what people in these territories called their spoken tongue, whereas ‘Latin’ gradually came to be reserved for the more formal written language – though no distinction was made between the two for many centuries.
To illustrate the process of change from Latin to the Romance languages, just take a look at the most common verb in any language, ‘to be’ – esse in Latin. This is essere in Italian, ser in Spanish, and être in French. In the table below it is conjugated in Latin then Italian, Spanish and French:
The family resemblance is clear at a glance. (It’s worth noting in passing that both Italian and Spanish can dispense with the personal pronouns ‘I’, ‘You’ etc. just as Latin does.)
By contrast, ‘to be’ in English conjugates like this:
I am
you are
he/she/it is
we are
you are
they are
As we’ve already noted, the Romance languages developed from the spoken form of Latin – the sermo cotidianus or daily speech – which was not necessarily the same as the written form that has come down to us in the remnants of Latin literature. Take, for example, the Latin word for horse: this is equus in literary Latin. Compare this with the Romance language words for ‘horse’:
Clearly, equus is not the source word. But Latin has another word for ‘horse’, a slang word meaning ‘pack-horse’ or ‘nag’: caballus. This slang word was presumably the one in common use on the streets of Rome, hence the one that found its way into the spoken Romance languages, while equus only survived in polite literature. English gets ‘chivalry’, ‘cavalry’ and ‘cavalier’ from caballus, via French, but ‘equine’ and ‘equestrian’ from Latin.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Latin continued to be the official language of the Catholic Church (in the Byzantine territories of the East, Greek was still used). Christian Latin thus spread into Germany and Scandinavia and was reintroduced to the British Isles where it had all but disappeared following the withdrawal of Roman forces. This Church Latin, exemplified by Jerome’s Vulgate Bible (Chapter 9), had a somewhat different syntax and vocabulary to Classical Latin, although Christian scholars still studied pagan authors such as Virgil.
Erasmus (c.1469-1536)
Dutch Latin scholar Gerhard Gerhards (Erasmus) not only produced editions of numerous Classical Latin texts by Pliny and Seneca among others, he also wrote copiously in Latin about Latin. His most famous work is Moriae Encomium (‘In Praise of Folly’), published in 1511.
Classical Latin itself was rediscovered by secular Europe during the Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when the writings of Roman authors such as Cicero and Seneca began to be widely circulated and proved highly influential in the new climate of open-minded intellectual curiosity. Throughout Europe, Latin became the language of science and scholarship, a fact that greatly facilitated the dissemination of learning. For example, Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) used Latin for his system of biological classification (Chapter 6); because all his scientific peers understood Latin, his system was quickly taken up by botanists and biologists everywhere, regardless of their native tongue.
Thus Latin in its spoken form has evolved into the Romance languages of today; in its written form, however, it was preserved largely unchanged by the Church and was then taken up by secular scholars during and after the Renaissance.
LATIN IN ENGLISH
Although Latin was introduced to Britain by the Roman conquest in the mid-first century A.D., it did not long survive the collapse of the Western Empire in the fifth century: an indication that it had failed to displace the native languages in the British Isles, as had happened elsewhere. In the centuries that followed, the Church and its missionaries gradually reintroduced Latin to Britain. But in the meantime a native literary tradition had begun to flourish, most famously exemplified by the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf which was probably composed in the eighth century, a time when, according to the Venerable Bede, there were five languages spoken in Britain …
… Anglorum videlicet, Brettonum, Scottorum, Pictorum et Latinorum,quae meditatione Scripturarum ceteris omnibus est facta communis
… namely those of the Angles, the Bretons, the Scots [i.e. the Irish], the Picts and the Latins, which latter language is shared among all the other races for contemplation of the Scriptures
Bede (c.672/3–735)
The Venerable Bede was a Northumbrian monk and scholar who wrote elegant, precise Latin in a simpler, more direct style than his Classical predecessors. His Historia Ecclesiastica earned him the title ‘Father of English History’, since it recounts the major events in British history from the Roman occupation to his own time. The book is also full of vivid and dramatic stories, making it an excellent if overlooked example of Latin prose.
Later, King Alfred (871–899) strived to establish a distinctly English literary culture after the depredations of the Vikings had all but wiped out scholarly communities in many regions. But the arrival of William the Conqueror in 1066 achieved what the Vikings had failed to do: native British literature was exterminated.
As a result of the Norman conquest, the nascent English language was forced to abandon its literary pretensions, becoming nothing but a poor spoken relation to French, the language of the conquering dynasty for centuries afterwards. Naturally all official business in Norman England was now conducted in Latin.
Gradually as the conquerors became naturalised English reemerged, only now in a much altered form. Thanks to the Normans and their mix of spoken French and written Latin, English had absorbed a huge influx of Latin and Latin-derived words, a process that was greatly to its benefit. This revitalised English showed its new expressive power in the works of Chaucer and Spenser and, ultimately, of Shakespeare.
After the Renaissance, English also took in many words directly from Latin as deliberate borrowings when new terms were needed for technical and scientific developments. This process is still ongoing: recent examples include ‘satellite’, from the word satelles (satellitis in the genitive case) meaning ‘attendant’ or ‘bodyguard’ and the ubiquitous ‘video’, which is simply ‘I see’, the first person singular of the Latin verb videre.
Partly as a result of historical accident and partly by design, then, modern English is a distinct oddity among European languages: it belongs to the same Germanic family as those of Scandinavia and Germany, but it has far more Latin-derived words than German-derived ones. This mixed heritage provides English with a fertile source of synonyms: for example, we can choose between the Germanic ‘come’ and the Latin-derived ‘arrive’; or we can say ‘brotherly’, from the Germanic ‘brother’ (German brüder), but we can also say ‘fraternal’, from the Latin frater. Modern English owes much of its worldwide success to its Latin inheritance.
Recommended reading:
An accessible survey of the development of Latin from its earliest times to the present day.
For those with enough Latin, F.W. Garforth’s selection from Bede includes historical background, illustrations and explanatory notes on the text.
CHAPTER 2
CONVERSATIONAL LATIN
Cicero (106–43 B.C.)
Marcus Tullius Cicero was one of the greatest Roman orators and statesmen. Many of his speeches for the law courts and the Senate have been preserved. These are in the grandest style of Latin oratory, a far cry from the sermo cotidianus, the daily speech of everyday Romans. But he also left many letters, addressed to his friend Atticus or to members of his family (including his freedman Tiro). These are far more chatty in tone, giving us a unique portrait of Cicero the man rather than the statesman of his speeches.
When inspecting inscriptions in stone or reading literary quotations it’s easy to forget that Latin was once a vehicle for conversation – just like any modern language. All the written remains of old Latin added together represent only a fraction of that ‘real’ Latin, the language now lost to us because it is no longer spoken. True, there is the Latin of the Catholic Church which, even in the twenty-first century, occasionally gets a public airing when Popes are inaugurated or laid to rest, but such Church Latin (Chapter 9) has both a distinct pronunciation and a distinct vocabulary – when we think of ‘proper’ Latin, we naturally think of how Cicero or Julius Caesar might have talked.
Classical Latin, then, means the language spoken from, roughly, the beginning of the first century B.C. through to the end of the first century A.D. This was the period of Latin’s literary greatness, from the comedies of Plautus and Terence to the late, great work of the historian Tacitus.
PRONOUNCING THE LATIN ALPHABET
A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V (X Y Z)
I and V (i and v) serve both as vowels and consonants. They are consonants when they appear before a vowel, otherwise they are vowelsJ/j is unknown in Classical Latin, it was invented later to represent consonantal–i (a ‘j’ is just ‘i’ with a curl at the base)K is only found in Kalendae and a few archaic words, otherwise C is usedV is consonantal–u, not a separate consonantW does not exist (sounds the same as consonantal–u)X, Y, Z were only used in words borrowed from Greek (e.g. Xenophon, Zeno)It’s cheering to note that most letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced in much the same way as English – we did inherit our alphabet from the Romans after all. Sadly Julius Caesar didn’t leave behind any recordings of his speeches, so how do we know how he spoke? Evidence comes from a variety of sources. Classical Latin writers on language and grammar such as Varro and Quintillian discuss the subject in their books. Furthermore, analysis of Latin poetry, with its emphasis on long or short vowels and heavy or light syllable quantities, reveals much about how Roman writers expected their words to sound when read aloud. The main points to note are:
1. Consonants
c is always hard as in cat, never soft as in cider. Hence, Caesar would have been pronounced Kaesar, whence German Kaiser and Russian Tsarg is always hard as in get, never soft as in gentleconsonantal–i sounds like y as in yetn before c, g, or qu is like ng in singr is always rolledt is always hard as in ten, never soft sh as in potionv is consonantal–u and is always w as in wall, not v as in very. Hence, Caesar’s famous saying Veni, vidi, vici (‘I came, I saw, I conquered’) is pronounced Wayny, weedy, weekyDoubled consonants are pronounced separately, as strictly speaking should ch, th, ph:
(in practice it sounds odd to say p-hil-oso-p-hia, so the normal English pronunciation is acceptable for such familiar words)
2. Diphthongs (two vowels pronounced as one
3. Vowels
Vowels can either be short or long depending on certain conventions and context, for example femina (nominative case) has a short ‘a’ as in ‘cat’, but femina (ablative case) has a long ‘a’ as in ‘father’. Thus the difference between the nominative and ablative form of the word would have been clear to a Roman thanks to this distinct pronunciation, though we who usually deal only with written Latin are easily confused!
CONVERSATIONAL LATIN
In case you meet an ancient Roman, a Pope, or a fellow Latin student:
1. Saying ‘Hello’
salve! (if addressing just one person)
salvete! (if addressing more than one person)
or
ave! (singular)
avete! (plural)
This means ‘Hail!’ as in:
ave atque vale, ‘Hail and farewell’ (from a poem by Catullus)ave Caesar! morituri te salutant, ‘Hail, Caesar, those about to die salute you’ (gladiators’ salute)Ave Maria gratia plena, ‘Hail Mary full of grace’ (hymn)ave and avete are the imperative forms of the verb aveo, avere, ‘fare well’or
salvus sis (addressing a man)
salva sis (addressing a woman)
2. Asking & Saying Your Name
Q: quid nomen est tibi?
A: nomen est mihi …
‘What’s your name?’
‘My name is …’
3. Saying ‘Goodbye’
vale! (singular)
valete! (plural)
4. Asking ‘How are you?
Possible replies:
5. ‘Thanks’
6. ‘Yes’ and ‘No’
Oddly, the Romans didn’t have words exactly corresponding to our ‘yes’ and ‘no’. Here are some they used instead:
Expressions meaning ‘yes’
Expressions meaning ‘no’:
Frequently, Romans would simply affirm or negate the question by repetition, e.g.
7. Exclamations!
Finally, when you need to give vent to your feelings, try a few of these:
Recommended reading:
