Beyond Violence+ E-Book

Stephanie S. Covington

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 272

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025

Beschreibung

A gender-responsive, trauma-informed path forward for incarcerated women

Beyond Violence: A Prevention Program for Criminal Justice-Involved Women is a comprehensive, evidence-based program specifically designed to meet the unique needs of women in correctional settings who have committed a violent crime. In 20 carefully designed sessions, it identifies personal factors correlated with violence, examines the importance of relationships, and explores how violence can manifest in various settings. This package includes both a step-by-step Facilitator Guide and a Participant Workbook. Beyond Violence encourages active participation, leading women to a deeper understanding of violence and of themselves.

Author Stephanie Covington is nationally recognized for her expertise in creating, implementing, and facilitating women's treatment programs. In Beyond Violence, she offers counselors, mental health professionals, and program administrators the tools they need to implement this respected program within the criminal justice system. Participants will:

• Understand the relationships between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—with a focus on anger and violence
• Learn new skills, including communication, conflict resolution, decision making, and calming soothing techniques
• Discover the effects of our families, our relationships, communities, and the larger society on our lives
• Become part of a group of women working to create a less violent world.

The Facilitator's Guide contains the theory, structure, and content needed to run effective groups. The Participant's Workbook is designed so that women can process, record, and refer back to their therapeutic experience.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

Other Publications by Stephanie S. Covington

Publicaciones en español

Orientation Session

Introduction to the Program

Overview of the Program

Your Workbook

Group Introductions

Topics Covered in This Program

Group Agreements

Triggers and Coping Tools

Statistics on Violence in the United States

Definition of Violence

The Social‐Ecological Model (People in the Environment)

Creating a Container

Discovering Your Anger Style

Anger Survey

Between‐Sessions Activity

Self‐Soothing Activity: Palms Down, Palms Up

Part A: Self

Session One: Thinking Our Thoughts

The Spirals of Violence and Nonviolence

Thinking, Feeling, and Substance Use

Automatic Thoughts

Cognitive Distortion

My Typical Distorted Thinking

Feelings Inside and Outside

The DVD of

What I Want My Words To Do To You

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Two: Feeling Our Feelings

Identifying Feelings

Beliefs About Feelings

Intensity of Feelings

Emotional Wellness

Feelings and the Body

When Feelings Threaten to Overwhelm You

The Observer Self

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Three: Violence and Trauma in Our Lives

Violence in Relationships

Types of Abuse

1

The Process of Trauma

Calming Strategies

Two Calming Activities

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Four: The Effects of Trauma

Adverse Childhood Experiences Survey

The Effects of Trauma and Substance Use on the Brain

Personal Experiences with Substances

Triggers or Activators and the Body

Yoga Poses and the Mind‐Body Connection

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Five: Anger and Me

Anger

Words for Anger

Meeting a Feeling

The Anger Funnel

Anger Triggers

Anger‐Management Strategies

Anger Dos and Don’ts

Hidden Anger

Self‐Inflicted Violence

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Six: The Risk of Suicide in Prison

DVD of

What I Want My Words To Do To You

The Iceberg

Making Life Livable

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Seven: Fostering Connection, Hope, and Meaning in Prison

My Hope‐Practice Plan

My Safety Plan

Letter to My Future Self

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Eight: Understanding Ourselves

DVD of

What I Want My Words To Do To You

Understanding My Behavior

Becoming Whole

Between‐Sessions Activities

Part B: Relationships

Session Nine: Our Families

Self‐Soothing Activity: Deep Breathing

Risk Factors

Family Sculpture

The Cost of Violence

Feelings and the Family

The Anger Questionnaire

Wheel of Nurturing Children

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Ten: Communication

Communication Styles

Nonverbal Communication

Communicating Emotions

Strategies for Creating Connection Through Communication

Responses to Stress

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Eleven: Power and Control

The Power and Control Wheel

Differences Between Women and Men in the Use of Force in Relationships

Types of Abuse in Relationships

The Violence Continuum

Escalation and De‐escalation

Violence in Prison

Using the Time

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Twelve: Conflict Resolution

Fair Fighting

Words, Words, Words

Impulse Control

The Equality Wheel

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Thirteen: Our Children

Nurturing Children in Our Lives

Messages About Nurturing and Raising Children

Abuse of Children Wheel

Patterns of Abuse with Children

Our Nurturing Legacies and What We Pass Along

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Fourteen: Nurturing in Action

Parenting and Caregiving Triggers

Drawing Our Family Dynamics

Discipline, Consequences, and Punishment

Caregiving Checklist

Creating Connection

Nurturing in Action

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Fifteen: Caregiving over Time and with Others

Parenting from Prison

Our Villages

Caregiver Triggers

Power and Control and Caregivers

Caregivers and Communication

Caregiving Chapters

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Sixteen: Relationships in Prison

Relationship Roles

Sources of Joy, Connection, and Conflict

Power and Control Wheel

Creating a Power and Control Wheel

Equality Wheel

Creating an Equality Wheel

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Seventeen: Everyday Actions in Our Relationships

Common Relationship Situations

Relationship Decisions

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Eighteen: Creating Our Relationships

Falling in Love

Love and Addiction

Contrasting Intimate Relationships and Addictive Relationships

How To End a Relationship

Between‐Sessions Activities

Part C: Community

Session Nineteen: Our Communities

Self‐Soothing Activity: Progressive Muscle Relaxation

Our Communities

Visualization

Friendship

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Twenty: The Importance of Safety

Safety in the Community

The Four Kinds of Safety

Environment and Behavior

Safe and Unsafe Environments

Safety and the Body

Community Maps—Past, Present, and Future

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Twenty‐One: Creating Community

DVD of

What I Want My Words To Do To You

Crossroads

Making Good Decisions

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Twenty‐Two: The Power of Community

DVD of

What I Want My Words To Do To You

Activity: Writing About a Kind Act

Between‐Sessions Activity

Part D: Society

Session Twenty‐Three: Society and Violence

Self‐Soothing Activity: Breathing in the Positive

Reviewing the Risks for Violence

The Culture Wheel

Institutional and Cultural Supports for Domestic Violence

Working To End Violence

Art as an Expression of the Levels of Violence

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Twenty‐Four: Creating Change

Health, Harmony, and Wholeness

The Spirals of Transformation

Between‐Sessions Activity

Session Twenty‐Five: Transforming Our Lives

Visualization

The Role of Remorse in Transformation

The Process of Transformation

Making Amends

Forgiveness

Between‐Sessions Activities

Session Twenty‐Six: Honoring Ourselves and Our Community

The Relational Wheel

Are You Becoming the Person You Want To Be?

ORID

Appreciation

Appendix 1. Yoga Poses1

1. Breath of Joy

2. Seated Pigeon’s Pose

3. Modified Triangle

4. Twisted Branches to Open Wings

Appendix 2. About the Women in the

What I Want My Words To Do To You DVD

About the Author

About the Cover

The Lotus

End User License Agreement

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

Other Publications by Stephanie S. Covington

Publicaciones en español

Begin Reading

Appendix 1. Yoga Poses1

Appendix 2. About the Women in the What I Want My Words To Do To You DVD

About the Author

About the Cover

Wiley End User License Agreement

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PARTICIPANT’S WORKBOOKBeyond Violence+

A Prevention Program for Justice-Involved Women and Gender-Diverse People

Second Edition

Stephanie S. Covington, PhD, LCSW

Copyright © 2025 by Stephanie S. Covington. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Covington, Stephanie, author.Title: Beyond violence+ : a prevention program for justice‐involved women and gender‐diverse people participant's workbook / Stephanie S. Covington, PhD, LCSW.Other titles: Beyond violence plusDescription: Second edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2025]Identifiers: LCCN 2024049315 (print) | LCCN 2024049316 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394230792 (paperback) | ISBN 9781394230815 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394230808 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Women–Violence against–Prevention. | Women–Crimes against–Prevention.Classification: LCC HQ1233 .C648 2025 (print) | LCC HQ1233 (ebook) | DDC 616.85/210651–dc23/eng/20241122LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024049315LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024049316

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Nisathon Studio/Shutterstock

This book is dedicated to the women and gender‐diverse people who are incarcerated for aggressive/violent crimes. Many have courageously shared their life stories with me. Listening to them gave me a greater understanding of the complexities of their lives. They are all survivors of abuse, and they are the inspiration for this work.

Other Publications by Stephanie S. Covington

Awakening Your Sexuality: A Guide for Connection and Pleasure after Addiction and Trauma

Becoming Trauma Informed: A Training for Staff Development

Beyond Anger and Violence: A Program for Women

Beyond Trauma: A Healing Journey for Women

Exploring Trauma+: A Brief Intervention for Men and Gender‐Diverse People with Shane S. Pugh and Roberto A. Rodriguez

Healing Trauma+: A Brief Intervention for Women and Gender‐Diverse People with Eileen M. Russo

Helping Men Recover: A Program for Treating Addiction with Dan Griffin and Rick Dauer

Helping Men Recover: A Program for Treating Addiction (criminal justice edition) with Dan Griffin and Rick Dauer

Helping Women Recover: A Program for Treating Addiction

Helping Women Recover: A Program for Treating Addiction (criminal justice edition)

Hidden Healers: The Unexpected Ways Women in Prison Help Each Other Survive

Leaving the Enchanted Forest: The Path from Relationship Addiction to Intimacy with Liana Beckett

Moving from Trauma‐Informed to Trauma‐Responsive: A Training Program for Organizational Change with Sandra L. Bloom

Voices: A Program of Self‐Discovery and Empowerment for Girls with Kimberley Covington and Madeline Covington

A Woman’s Way through the Twelve Steps Book

A Woman’s Way through the Twelve Steps Facilitator Guide

A Woman’s Way through the Twelve Steps Workbook

Women and Addiction: A Gender‐Responsive Approach

Women in Recovery: Understanding Addiction A Young Man’s Guide to Self‐Mastery with Roberto A. Rodriguez

Publicaciones en español

Ayudar a las mujeres en recuperación: Un programa para tartar las adicciones, Diario de una mujer (Helping Women Recover: A Program for Treating Addiction, A Woman’s Journal)

Ayudar a las mujeres en recuperación: Un programa para tratar las adicciones, Diario de una mujer, Edición especial para uso en el sistema de justicia (Helping Women Recover: A Program for Treating Addiction, A Woman’s Journal, special edition for use in the criminal justice system)

Ayudar a los hombres en su recuperación: Un programa para tartar las adicciones, Cuaderno de trabajo (Helping Men Recover: A Program for Treating Addiction workbook)

Ayudar a los hombres en su recuperación: Un programa para tartar las adicciones, Cuaderno de trabajo, Edición especial para uso en el Sistema de justicia (Helping Men Recover: A Program for Treating Addiction workbook, special edition for use in the justice system)

Construyendo una capacidad de recuperación: Libro de ejercicios para hombres y personas con diversidad de género (Building Resilience: A Workbook for Men and Gender‐Diverse People, part of the Exploring Trauma+ curriculum, on flash drive)

La mujer y su práctica de los Doce Pasos

(A Woman’s Way through the Twelve Steps)

La mujer y su práctica de los Doce Pasos, Libro de ejercicios

(A Woman’s Way through the Twelve Steps Workbook)

Mujeres en recuperación: Entendiendo la adicción

(Women in Recovery: Understanding Addiction)

La sanación del trauma: Libro de ejercicios para mujeres y personas con diversidad de género (Healing Trauma+: A Workbook for Women and Gender‐Diverse People, part of the Healing Trauma+ curriculum, on flash drive)

Voces: Un programa de autodescubrimiento y empoderamiento para chicas, Diario (Voices: A Program of Self‐Discovery and Empowerment for Girls journal)

Orientation Session

Introduction to the Program

Beyond Violence+: A Prevention Program for Justice‐Involved Women and Gender‐Diverse People is designed to help you look at the effects of violence in your life and to create an opportunity for you to make changes to prevent violence in the future. The program is divided into four parts: Self, Relationships, Community, and Society. These four content areas will guide you in understanding important issues relating to violence in the lives of many women and gender‐diverse people both inside and outside your program group.

During this program, you will attend this orientation session and 26 additional sessions with the members of your group. With them, you will have new experiences and learn new ways of looking at the world. The facilitator conducting the sessions has experience working with those who have reacted with force toward others and understands the issues.

Taking part in this group will allow you to explore how seeing and experiencing violence in your life has affected you and the decisions you have made. You will find support from others in your group. As you explore important issues together, you will learn new ways to cope and better ways to make decisions. You will experience a greater sense of power, inner strength, and peace.

Although this program is designed for use in a group, it is also possible to do the work individually if there is not a group available for you. As you begin this session, take a minute or two to give yourself time to unwind, relax, and focus on where you are now. Just get settled in the way that feels best for you. Allow yourself to notice how you’re breathing and then inhale gently and exhale fully. Repeat the breathing exercise two more times.

Please note: There also are yoga poses that you can do on your own. See the pictures and instructions at the back of this workbook. These are very good tools for stress reduction and relaxation. Enjoy!

Overview of the Program

The Beyond Violence+ program aims:

To provide a place for you to reflect and learn more about yourself

To provide information to help you to better understand the relationships between your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

To help you to understand the effects of your family, your relationships, your community, and the larger society on your life

To help you understand more about the roles of anger and violence in your life

To provide an opportunity for you to learn new skills, including skills in communication, conflict resolution, decision‐making, and calming or self‐soothing techniques

To help you become part of a group of people working to create a less violent world

Your Workbook

This workbook is a place for you to record your experiences during the journey that you are about to begin in the Beyond Violence+ program. Using this workbook will help you to remember what you learn, think, and feel. The workbook contains:

Some of the activities you will do during the group sessions

Summaries of information that you will receive in the group sessions

Questions and activities for you to do after each session

The activities will help you to examine many parts of your life. There are no right or wrong answers, and your responses will not be checked. You may be asked to share some of your responses in the group sessions, but this is voluntary, and other group members will be sharing as well. You do not need to worry about your handwriting or spelling. This workbook is a tool to help you with your growth and recovery.

You will keep your workbook to use between sessions. It is your responsibility to remember to bring your workbook to each group session.

If you are concerned about confidentiality by keeping your workbook with you, please discuss this with the group facilitator.

Group Introductions

The following are questions you can answer as a way to introduce yourself to the group. This introduction allows you and the other group members to begin to get to know one another. This program is created for women and gender‐diverse people. We invite you to share your pronouns when you introduce yourselves.

If you are using this workbook on your own, read the questions and think about how you would introduce yourself to others.

My name: ________________________________________________________________

When and where I was born: ________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

How I identify myself (including culture, ethnicity, race, and your pronouns if you want to include them): _____________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

The people in my family (can include a spouse or partner, children, parent(s), sibling(s), or whomever you consider your immediate family): __________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

If you are currently living in prison and have been here for a very long time, you may want to identify which persons you consider your family or best friends in the facility to be: __________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

One thing I like about myself or a special gift that I have: _______________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Topics Covered in This Program

How our thoughts and feelings affect our behaviors

How to better manage our feelings, especially the powerful and painful ones

The effects of families and relationships on our lives

Information about abusive and healthy relationships

The role of anger in our lives

The effects of our communities on our lives, including support for violence in our communities

Making amends and restitution

Envisioning a more peaceful world

Group Agreements

Your facilitator explained the purpose of group agreements. These describe behaviors that will help the group to be a safe, respectful, and supportive space for each group member. Please write down the agreements from your group on the next page. When doing this alone, you may want to think about the kind of agreements you would want in a group. You also can list the goals you have for yourself while working through this program. Or you can skip this section.

Our Group Agreements

There are three agreements that are important to any group:

Confidentiality

. Group members need to honor one another’s confidentiality. What is said in this room stays in this room. No personal information revealed in this room may be repeated outside this room.

Sobriety

. No one may attend a group session while under the influence of alcohol or another drug.

Safety

. There will be no physical or emotional abuse. Part of safety is showing respect for one another and for the uniqueness of each person’s thoughts, feelings, experiences, and responses. We will let people express themselves in their own ways. Being rude or abusive to another group member is

not

okay.

Here are some other typical group agreements:

Timing

. Our sessions will start on time and end on time.

Attendance

. Regular group attendance is important. We all agree to show up at all the sessions.

Eating or smoking

. There will be no eating or smoking during the group sessions. Drinking water may be permitted in some programs.

Sharing

. Everyone in the group should have the time to contribute and share the experience. We will try to let everyone have a chance to talk. We will not interrupt other group members but will let them finish before we respond or add something.

Participation

. We will try to assist one another in feeling safe enough to share and participate. We will ask questions to help us learn and grow. However, everyone is entitled to “pass” when asked a question or when asked to do an activity that requires participation.

Socialization

. Contact with other group members outside the regular group session is permitted.

Triggers and Coping Tools

A “trigger” or “activator” is a reminder of a traumatic event. It can be something you see, hear, smell, or feel. It can be a person, a place, or anything that reminds you of a traumatic event. It is important to have coping or grounding tools to help you stay in the present. The following are two grounding tools introduced in the group session.

Five Senses

Close your eyes or lower your eyelids.

Relax for a few moments. Take a few deep breaths and exhale slowly.

Open your eyes when you are ready.

Silently, identify five things you can see around you.

Now identify four things you could feel or touch.

Identify three things you can hear.

Identify two things you can smell.

Finally, identify what you can taste right now.

Breathing and Exhaling

Stand up. Set your feet a little distance apart so that you feel stable.

Take a few deep breaths.

Relax your shoulders and just drop your hands to your sides. Let your arms and hands just dangle, relaxed. Relax your shoulders and arms.

Take in a long, deep breath through your nose and blow it out through your mouth like a big gust of wind.

Inhale again and then let the air out by blowing it out of your mouth.

Remember to relax your shoulders and arms.

Do the inhaling and exhaling three more times.

Statistics on Violence in the United States

Here are the statistics presented in the group session, for you to think about:

Over 11 million children in the United States are living in poverty

(Shrider, Kollar, Chen, & Semega, 2021; United Way, 2022)

.

Up to 10 million children are exposed to or witness domestic violence each year

(American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2023)

.

Economic disadvantage and stressful living conditions can “overwhelm a child’s stress response systems,” leading to toxic stress. Trauma and toxic stress increase the risk of mental health issues and can lead to chronic illness, substance abuse, and depression

(Francis, DePriest, Wilson, & Gross, 2018)

.

Child maltreatment is prevalent in 30% to 60% of homes in which domestic violence occurs

(Developmental Services Group, Inc. & Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2015)

.

At least 1 in 7 children experienced child abuse and/or neglect in 2019, and this is likely an underestimate

(Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2023)

.

In 2021, Child Protective Services received referrals for roughly 7.1 million children

(Child Welfare League of America, 2023)

.

One in 9 girls and 1 in 53 boys are sexually victimized by adults, and children who live in households with domestic violence and drug abuse are at the greatest risk

(Child Welfare League of America, 2023; Finkelhor, Shattuck, Turner, & Hamby, 2014)

.

Children from violent homes may develop serious emotional and behavioral problems and have a higher tendency to commit suicide, abuse drugs or alcohol, and commit violence against their partners or children

(American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2023)

.

Four out of every 5 victims of intimate partner violence are women

(Catalano, 2015; Reaves, 2017)

.

Approximately 18.3% of women in the U.S. experience sexual violence, 30.6% experience physical violence, 10.4% experience stalking, and 36.4% experience psychological aggression by an intimate partner

(Smith, Zhang, Basile, & Merrick et al., 2018)

.

Approximately 1 in 5 women (a total of 25.5 million) has reported experiencing a completed or attempted rape

(Smith, Zhang, Basile, & Merrick et al., 2018)

.

Victims of domestic violence have a greater risk of depression, substance use, and other chronic health conditions

(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022)

.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and gender‐nonconforming teenagers experience higher rates of bullying, physical and sexual violence, and drug use than do their cisgender, heterosexual peers

(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015)

.

Nearly half of all transgender individuals have been sexually assaulted

(James, Herman, Rankin, & Keisling et al., 2016)

. As of 2022, transgender individuals were victimized at 2.5 times the rate of cisgender individuals

(Truman & Morgan, 2022)

.

Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2019–2023). Homicide counts and rates. Vienna: Austria, Author. Available at: https://dataunodc.un.org/dp‐intentional‐homicide‐victims.

Definition of Violence

Violence is “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation” (World Health Organization, 2023). There are three types of violence, depending on how it is committed:

Self‐directed violence

is violence in which the perpetrator and the victim are the same person. It includes self‐harm and suicide.

Interpersonal violence

is violence between individuals. It includes family and intimate partner violence and community violence.

Family and intimate partner violence

includes child abuse, domestic violence, and elder abuse.

Community violence

includes violence to an acquaintance and violence to a stranger. It can be gang violence, assault, violence related to property crimes, and violence in workplaces and other institutions.

Collective violence

is violence committed by larger groups. It includes social, political, and economic violence. Examples are war and genocide.

Within each type, violence can be inflicted in four ways: by physical, sexual, or psychological attack, and by deprivation. Deprivation means taking away something that is a basic necessity, such as sleep, food, shelter, and even love.

Here are some definitions of abusive behaviors that can happen in a relationship:

“Use of force” refers to physically, verbally, and emotionally damaging behaviors used by one person toward another to gain short‐term control of relationship dynamics.

“Violence” refers to any force used with the intention of causing injury.

“Abuse” refers to cruel or harmful behavior used by one person to acquire and maintain control of another. There are many types of abuse, including emotional, psychological, physical, sexual, financial, and discriminatory.

“Battering” refers to a specific pattern of violence, the threat of violence, and/or coercively controlling behaviors used with the intention of exerting power, creating fear, and/or controlling another person over a relationship’s long term. Coercive control is the basis of battering, so battering does not need to include physical violence to be harmful.

The Social‐Ecological Model (People in the Environment)

To try to understand violence, we look at all the things that put people at risk for experiencing or perpetrating violence. The Beyond Violence+ program is based on a social‐ecological model. It considers people, relationships, communities, and society. This includes cultural factors.

Reprinted with permission from L. L. Dahlberg, & E. G. Krug (2002). Violence—A global health problem. In E. G. Krug, L. L. Dahlberg, J. A. Mercy, A. B. Zwi, & R. Lorenzo (Eds.), World Report on Violence and Health (pp. 1–56). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

The first layer, “Individual,” is a person’s biological history (for example, a history of mental health or substance use issues in the family) and the person’s history, including life experiences and important events. It is important to think about how these influences increase our chances of becoming victims of violence or increase our chances of committing violence against others

The second layer of the model, “Relationship,” covers our relationships with friends, family members, and intimate partners. Some of these may increase our risk of becoming victims of violence or of committing violence against others.

The third layer, “Community,” is where we live and work—the neighborhood, schools, workplaces, and available services—and how these places and the relationships within them affect our chances of becoming victims of violence or of committing violence.

The fourth layer, “Societal,” is the society in which we live. It includes social and cultural norms, such as whether the environment encourages or discourages violence. Economic, educational, and class factors also are in this layer.

For each of these levels, the risk factors for being abused are the same as the risk factors for being a person who abuses.

Individual

The risk of having mental health issues greatly increases if a person has experienced multiple traumatic events in childhood

(Messina & Grella, 2006; Nelson, Scott, Bhutta, & Burke Harris et al., 2020)

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