Bookbinding E-Book

Kathy Abbott

• Herausgeber: Crowood
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 338

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

The craft of bookbinding has a long history and tradition. It has developed through the ages and is now enjoying a period of renewed popularity and creativity. Whether you are a beginner or an established bookbinder wishing to refresh your memory, this practical book introduces the techniques with step-by-step instructions and photographs. It explains how to transform a few sheets of paper and some thread into a book to be proud of. For the more experienced, the author also covers how to work with leather to create classic, professional bindings.

Leseprobe

Bookbinding

Kathy Abbott

A step-by-step guide

The Crowood Press

First published in 2010 by

The Crowood Press LtdRamsbury, MarlboroughWiltshire SN8 2HR

www.crowood.com

This e-book first published in 2014

© Kathy Abbott 2010

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 84797 784 7

Photography by Jon Cefaiwww.kentlyons.com

Designed by Purpose14a Shouldham St.London W1H 5FGwww.purpose.co.uk

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1: Materials and Tools

The Elements of a Book

Materials

Tools and Equipment

The Importance of Grain Direction

Chapter 2: Single-Section Bindings

Project 1 – Paper-Covered Single-Section Binding

Project 2 – Hard-backed Single-Section Binding

Chapter 3: Multi-Section Bindings

Project 3 – Full Cloth Case-Binding

Project 4 – Photograph Album

Project 5 – A Quarter Leather Binding with Paper/Cloth Covered Sides

Project 6 – The Wrap-around Structure

Chapter 4: Containers

Project 7 – Phase-box

Project 8 – A3 Portfolio Case with Ribbon Ties

Project 9 – A Cloth Covered Slipcase

Appendices

Appendix 1 – Making a pricking cradle

Appendix 2 – Recipes

Glossary of Terms

Further Reading

Suppliers List

Index

How to use this book

This book has been written and designed to be easily understood and followed. The reader is guided through the projects by following numbered step-by-step instructions. Some of the instructions are accompanied by an illustration, these are marked by a red number.

Acknowledgements

This book would not have been possible without the help of the following people: Rob Howsam, Tracey Rowledge, Jon Cefai, Kate Edmondson, Adam Browne, Felix Ackermann, Paul Felton , Louisa Phillips and Matt Welch. I am incredibly grateful to Tracey for proof reading the typescript, for her many suggestions and for being such a wonderful friend. Huge thanks go to Jon for all his hard work on the photography and for his endless patience. I thank Kate for her help with proof reading in the early stages and for her constant support. Grateful thanks go to Adam, Felix, Paul , Louisa and Matt of Purpose for working so hard on the design of this book. I am indebted to all of my bookbinding tutors but particularly Jen Lindsay for teaching me not only how to refine my skills, but a philosophy. I am grateful to all of my students, past and present and to my work colleagues for sharing their ideas and knowledge. Lastly, I would like to thank my husband Rob for his illustration and design skills, for proof reading, and for always supporting me. I couldn’t have done it without you.

Preface

Bookbinding is a wonderful subject, and to me it is like magic: you start with a few sheets of paper and some thread and before you know it, hey presto! You have made a book! I have been teaching bookbinding for over ten years and I never tire of seeing the excitement on a student’s face after creating their first book – or ‘first born’, as I call it. Bookbinding is enjoying a renaissance, and it is a joy to see my classes full of passionate, committed individuals who can’t wait for the next session. It is from my teaching that this book evolved: I wanted to offer a solid foundation in basic bookbinding for those who are unable to attend a bookbinding class.

This is a book that people can work from at home, following clear, step-by-step instructions. It is aimed at complete beginners, but I hope it will also be useful to those of you who wish to improve your knowledge or to refresh your memory. You can work through each project in turn, or dip in and out as you wish. If possible, try to make more than one of each of the projects: you will be amazed at how much you improve if you do.

I have had many years of pleasure while bookbinding, and I only hope that I can pass on some of that enjoyment to you. And bookbinding is completely addictive, so be prepared to get hooked!

The Elements of a Book

Each of the projects in this book is taught to a professional level, using good quality, acid-free materials. My hope is that your bindings will last for a very long time and so it is important that you use the best materials you possibly can, right from the start. To my mind,your first bindings are as important as your last, and if you use inferior materials, the longevity of your books will be compromised.

The Elements of a Book

It is important that you are familiar with the names of each part of a book:

–

The book itself (omitting the covers) is called the book-block.

–

The top part of the book (when it is standing upright) is called the head.

–

The bottom part of the book (when it is standing upright) is called the tail.

–

The back part of the book is called the spine.

–

The open part at the front of the book is called the fore edge (or front edge).

–

The point where the front board and the back board hinge from is called the joint (there is an inner and outer joint).

–

The protrusions of board around the book-block are called the squares.

There are many more ‘book words’, and these are explained throughout the book and are also listed in the glossary at the back of the book; these words are indicated in bold type in the text.

The elements of a book

Materials

Paper and Board

Archival kraft paper

Calcium carbide buffered paper of 120gsm, used to line the spine and boards of books. Never use brown wrapping paper, which is also called ‘kraft’ paper, as it is acidic. Bearing in mind that the kraft paper will always be in very close contact with the book-block, it is foolish to use an acidic variety. Archival kraft comes in three colours: brown, blue-grey and sand.

Archival manilla

Calcium carbide buffered paper of 225gsm; it is used as a spine stiffener in case-bindings, and can also be used when you need card. It looks exactly the same as archival kraft, but is thicker. It too comes in brown, blue-grey and sand.

Card

Use any acid-free card for the pages of photo albums/memory books/scrapbooks; the weight of the card should not exceed 350gsm. Card is also useful for making pricking templates and for filling in.

Decorative paper (see also Paper, below) Any decorative paper can be used for covers or endpapers – printed, marbled, paste papers and so on – but bear in mind that these should not be too thin (the adhesive will strike right the way through) or too thick (it will be difficult to turn in without fracturing the paper). Try to use acid-free papers (if possible) of between 60 and 130gsm.

Japanese tissue

Very fine, strong tissue, used for paper repair and to guard the spine folds of the sections of a book. There are hundreds to choose from. See the ‘Japanese Tissue’ section in the ‘Quarter Leather Binding’ project (seepage 76) for more information.

Millboard

A strong, hard-rolled board, used to make the covers of books. If possible, only acidfree or archival board should be used, for the longevity of your books. Greyboard should not be used, as it has poor strength and is not acid-free. Millboard is available in 1–3mm thicknesses, the most useful being 2mm.

Paper (see also Decorative paper, above) There are thousands of different papers available. Try to use acid-free varieties, so your books have longevity. Use papers of between 80 and 130gsm for the pages of your books; any thicker and the paper will fracture at the flexing points.

Sandpaper

Have a selection of sandpaper of different grit. I prefer to use silicon-carbide or aluminium-oxide sandpaper, as it does not drop particles of grit on to or into your work. It is a good policy to have some coarse (80 grit), medium (120 grit) and fine (200 grit) sandpaper at your disposal.

Wastepaper

This must be unprinted waste, such as ‘newsprint’ paper, and preferably white, in case the dye runs from the paper when it is wet. Never use newspaper or magazines, as the print can offset on to your work.

Papers and board: (left to right) millboard, kraft and manilla, Japanese tissue and decorative cover papers

Fabrics

Book cloth

There are many different types of book cloth on the market; try to use the best quality. Buckram is very tough, durable and waterproof (making it very easy to clean); it is best used for heavy duty work. I like to use the tissue-backed cloths, as they come in many colours and textures. These can be cotton, linen, silk or rayon based, so there are plenty to choose from. If you wish to use fabric, it is likely that it will have to be lined first with thin, pasted paper or Bondaweb/Wonder Under and Vilene. This is because adhesive usually strikes right the way through to the surface of unlined fabric.

Bondina

This is non-woven, polyester support fabric of 30gsm, used in paper repair and in the guarding of the spine folds of the sections of a book. It stops the pasted Japanese tissue from sticking to the blotting paper, but allows the moisture to escape, unlike some other non-stick materials.

Fraynot

A thin, cotton-based fabric used for lining the spines of books. An equivalent fabric can be used, such as cotton, calico, jaconette and suchlike, but not mull as it is too weak.

Scrim

Loosely woven Irish linen, originally used for cleaning windows. It is used to line between the sewing tapes (see below) on the spines of books to make the spine level. It is used predominantly on books that are to have leather bindings.

Fabrics: On the left are different types of book cloth, and on the right are (left to right) scrim, fraynot and bondina

Sewing Materials

Buttonhole silk

Used for endbanding, this silk comes in two thicknesses: 40/3 and 100/3. Start off using the thicker silk (40/3), and when you have more experience, try using the thinner (100/3). 100 per cent polyester thread can also be used for endbanding – and is actually stronger than silk – but it does not have the same lustre.

Endband core

A laminate of thin vellum and leather, used as the central part (core) of an endband, around which the threads are sewn. A core can also be made from rolled hemp cord, leather, lined with vellum; or from rolled paper.

Linen thread

This thread comes either waxed or unwaxed. It is used in bookbinding to sew sections together. It is very strong, and comes in many different gauges, such as 18/3, 16/2 and so on. The first number indicates the gauge of the thread: the higher the number, the thinner the thread. The second number indicates the number of threads in the twist (ply). Ideally it is preferable to use a three-ply thread for strength, but sometimes a twoply thread is more suitable for the book you are sewing. The thinnest thread used for bookbinding is around 40/2 (very thin indeed) and the thickest is 16/4 (like a thin cord). A good general purpose thread is 25/3, but it is advisable to have a range of gauges at your disposal.

Pliester sewing tape

(see also Sewing tape, below) German, diagonally woven sewing tape, used in leather binding to lace on the boards.

Sewing tape

(see also Pliester tape, above) Unbleached Irish linen tape, used to support the sewing of a book and also to help attach the book-block to the case/cover. Sewing tapes come in many different widths; try to use the narrowest ones, so that as much thread as possible is inside the sections of your books.

Sewing materials: (left to right) Pliester tape, sewing tapes, buttonhole silk threads, reel of waxed linen thread and skeins of waxed linen thread

Adhesives

Evacon-R™

(see also Reversible PVA, below) Also known as EVA – Ethyl Vinyl Acetate. This adhesive is very strong and is used widely by book conservators and conservation bookbinders. It has a neutral PH and does not emit vapours, unlike PVA adhesives. It is very strong and flexible.

Methylcellulose

A thick, clear gel, used as an adhesive or to soak off glue residue from the spines of old books.

Reversible PVA

(see also Evacon-R™, above) PVA stands for Polyvinyl Acetate. PVA is very strong and flexible, and comes in a few varieties. I have specified Reversible PVA as it can be reversed with water and is therefore good for conservation purposes, and is also an ideal adhesive for the beginner, because mistakes can be rectified. Ordinary craft PVA is usable for bookbinding but is nonreversible, so is not good for conservation or for the beginner. Wood glue is also PVA but is only suitable for gluing wood.

Wheat-flour paste

A hand-made bookbinding adhesive made from organic flour and water. It is strong, due to the high gluten content, and takes a long time to dry and set hard; this can be used to your advantage when pasting paper, for example. It is a not a flexible adhesive, so should not be used for pasting the spine of a book, as it will become brittle in time and will break down.

Wheat-starch paste

A hand-made adhesive made from pure wheat starch and distilled water. It is used for paper conservation as it dries clear, unlike wheat-flour paste. It has a lower tack than wheat-flour paste, so is not suitable as a bookbinding adhesive.

Tools and Equipment

You can bind books using a minimal number of hand tools, and can adapt many things around the home into bookbinding equipment, so do not be put off by the following long list. It has taken me a long time to build up my collection of tools and equipment, and I have managed to bind some very nice books using substitutes such as a vice instead of a finishing press, my knees to hold a book whilst endbanding, and a Black and Decker® Workmate™ instead of a laying press. Many of the pieces of equipment are made of wood, so if you have basic woodworking skills,you could possibly make your own. Be creative!

Hand Tools

Awl

This is similar to a bodkin/bradawl but with a tapered shaft.

Bodkin/pricker/bradawl

A tool to make holes in the spine folds of sections in order for them to be sewn. The shaft of the bodkin/pricker should be roughly the same size as the needle you intend to use for sewing. You can make a perfect pricking tool from an Excel-lite™ or X-acto™ scalpel handle. Remove the blade and insert a needle instead. Using this tool, you can change the needle to match the one you wish to sew with, for different jobs.

Bone folder

(see also Teflon folder, below) A flat tool made from cow bone, and used for folding, scoring and creasing. Traditionally folders were made of ivory, but now they can be made of bone, plastic or Teflon. Bone folders should be soaked in oil for a few weeks before using them for the first time, to make them non porous and also less brittle. They can be sawn in half with a hacksaw to make individually shaped folders. They need to be sanded to shape – a horribly smelly job – before soaking them in oil. Bone folders are a fundamental piece of bookbinding equipment, and it is good policy to have a few of them, ready rounded and pointed, for specific jobs.

Cutting mats

Ideally self-healing mats should be used, at least A3 in size but A1 would be preferable.

Scissors

A small pair of embroidery scissors is the most useful.

Shears

These are large scissors used for bookbinding. The upper blade has a blunted end, for accurate cutting.

Teflon folder

(see also Bone folder, above) Similar to a bone folder, but made from Teflon. These folders are very useful when making boxes, as you can rub down directly without burnishing the book cloth. Teflon folders must not, however, be sanded down/to shape, as the dust is carcinogenic.

Handtools: (left to right) scissors, shears, two Teflon folders and five different bone folders. Above: tweezers and an awl

Knives

Boot knife/cobbler’s knife/clip-point knife

Traditionally a shoemaker’s knife. It is used in bookbinding predominantly for slitting paper, but it is a good general purpose knife.

Fish knife

A dining knife, but it makes an excellent tool for cleaning off the residue of old glue from the spines of books, as the metal is soft (particularly if you have one made of silver), and the point of the knife fits perfectly between the spine folds of the sections. It is a very gentle way of cleaning the spine without causing damage to the spine folds. These knives can be found for next to nothing in junk shops and the like.

French paring knife

(see also Paring knife, below) The oldest type of paring knife. It has a rounded blade, which is pushed through leather in a sweeping movement to pare/thin it. It is a difficult knife to use correctly unless you have been trained in France or by a French-trained bookbinder, and many bookbinders use a spokeshave to pare leather instead.

Paring knife

(see also French paring knife, above) Either a right- or left-handed, long-bevelled knife, used for paring the edges of leather. Paring knives can be made from hacksaw blades or bought from bookbinding suppliers. The blade is angled at 12–25 degrees on one side, and is completely flat on the other. It is not to be confused with a chef’s paring knife.

Scalpel (and scalpel blades)

A very sharp cutting implement. The best type is by Swann Morton, as the handles are flat and very narrow, enabling accurate trimming. Ideally you should have two handles: a no. 3 and a no. 4, no. 3 being the most useful. You should have an array of blades: 10A, 15 (no. 3 handle) and 24, 25 (no. 4 handle). Other types of scalpel are X-Acto and Excel-lite, but the handles are round and thick, making it difficult to trim right up to an object.

Stanley® knife

A sturdy cutting knife, ideal for cutting through millboard.

Knives: (left to right) scalpel with 15 blade, scalpel with 10A blade, large scalpel with 25 blade, Stanley® knife, fish knife, boot knife

Brushes

Brushes are listed in each project, but it is good policy to have a selection to choose from. For covering large areas I use big paste brushes, and keep one for using Reversible PVA/Evacon-R™ and another for paste. Use different sized hog’s-hair brushes for gluing small areas: hog’s hair is better for this purpose because the bristles are stiff and therefore more controllable than sable or artificial fibre brushes.

Artificial fibre brushes are used for paper repair because the bristles do not tear through the delicate Japanese tissues as would be the case if hog’s-hair brushes were used – but are still firm enough to control when pasting.

Brushes: (left to right) stencil brush, Prolene brush, two hog-hair brushes and three paste brushes

Measuring and Engineering Equipment

Dividers (ideally the spring-loaded variety) A tool used to measure and divide accurately.

Engineer’s square or carpenter’s square

An ‘L’-shaped square set at 90 degrees, used for checking that things are square and for marking right angles.

Non-slip rule or safety rule

A heavy, rubber-backed rule used for cutting against, for instance when cutting millboard to size.

Steel rulers

Used for measuring and for cutting against. It is advisable to have both a 300mm (12in) and a 600mm (24in) ruler.

Measuring and engineering equipment: (left to right) set square, engineer’s squares, dividers, mini spirit level. Above: 300mm/12in steel ruler, 600mm/24in steel ruler, non-slip straight-edge

Weighting and Pressing Equipment

Barrier sheets

Sheets of thin (0.25mm) acetate, styrene or suchlike, used as a barrier to stop the transference of moisture. A4 is a useful size, though the sheets must be larger than the book-block.

Knocking-down iron

A large block of iron of approximately 250x100mm (10x4in). It is used to knock down laced-on tapes, and as a heavy weight.

Pressing boards

Clean, perfectly flat and smooth boards used either side of books/paper/board for pressing and weighting. Ideally these should be made from formaldehyde-free MDF approximately 10mm (⅜ in) deep and at least A4 in size. Melamine-faced boards are not ideal as they trap moisture, nor are wooden boards with obvious grain, as the grain pattern can be pressed into the work.

Tins

These are thin (0.5mm) metal sheets, used for pressing. They can also be made from aluminium or zinc, but tin is preferred as it is a harder metal. The ‘tins’ should be perfectly flat and smooth, and should never be used for cutting on.

Weighting and pressing equipment: (left to right) pressing boards, knocking-down iron, weights, styrene barrier sheets, and metal and aluminium ‘tins’

Miscellaneous Equipment

Backing boards

Wooden wedge-shaped boards, usually made of beech, used for backing books. They should be approximately 300mm (12in) long and 130mm (5in) wide. The top edge of the boards is shaped at an oblique angle (65 degrees). Brass-edged backing boards are also available, but I do not recommend them because they do not seem to give a good enough shoulder, the brass is hard and can cut through the paper when backing, and it also scratches and scrapes your backing hammer, see below.

Backing hammer

A hammer with a domed face and a claw. Originally a shoemaker’s hammer, it is used predominantly for rounding and backing but is also used to hammer down the holes after lacing on.

Chisel

Choose a standard 12mm (½ in) chisel; it is used to make a slot in the portfolio case for the ribbon ties.

Wooden mallet

Used to strike tools that have wooden or plastic handles, such as a chisel, an awl and suchlike. A metal hammer would split these types of handle.

Miscellaneous equipment: (left to right) backing boards, backing hammer, chisel and wooden mallet

Sewing Equipment

Needles

Traditionally size 18 bookbinding needles would be used, but I find these are too thick, and make very big sewing holes. Instead use darning needles between sizes 5 and 9, 7 being the most useful.

Pricking cradle

A hand-made piece of equipment used to hold a section whilst holes are pricked through the spine fold. It ensures perfect positioning of the holes. (See ‘Making a Pricking Cradle’, page 150, for instructions on how to make one.)

Sewing frame

A wooden frame made of a flat bed, two upright turned wooden screw posts and a wooden bar. You should always use a sewing frame for sewing books that are to have leather bindings or for ‘best work’, as it keeps the tension even whilst sewing. If you neither have, nor have access to, a sewing frame, you can make a simplified one following Carmencho Arregui’s instructions on her website www.outofbinding.com.

‘H’ sewing keys

An ‘H’-shaped brass for holding sewing tapes in place, whilst sewing on a sewing frame, see above.

Sewing equipment: (front to back) ‘H’ sewing keys, darning needles, pricker and sewing frame

Paring and Sharpening Equipment

Ceramic stones

(see also Diamond whetstones, below) Bench stones, used to sharpen and ‘finish’ blades, giving a razor-sharp edge. Available in medium (600 grit), fine (1800 grit) and ultra-fine (2000 grit).

Diamond whetstones™

(see also Ceramic stones, above) 150mm (6in) bench stones, used for sharpening blades; these stones are impregnated with small diamond particles, which stops them from becoming worn. They remain completely flat, unlike some other sharpening stones. Available in extra coarse (220 grit), coarse (325 grit), fine (600 grit) and extra fine (1200 grit).

Honing guide

A ‘jig’ to hold a blade at a constant angle whilst sharpening.

Litho stone

Originally used for lithographic printing, this Bavarian limestone is used as a hard base for paring leather on. The stone is soft enough to stop blades becoming dull, but not too soft that it becomes dipped and grooved through paring. Marble must never be used as it will dull your blades. A good alternative to a litho stone is thick glass, but this does create static – a light dusting of talc on the glass helps.

Spokeshave

Originally a tool for planing wooden spokes; it has been adapted for use for paring/thinning leather for nearly 100 years. Only the flat-bottomed type should be used.

Strop

A thick piece of belt leather glued to wood, impregnated with carborundum (valve-grinding) paste or jeweller’s rouge – to act as a mild abrasive – for finishing blades after sharpening.

Paring and sharpening equipment: (left to right) ‘G’-clamp, litho stone, English paring knife, modified hacksaw paring knife, French paring knife, modified hacksaw rounded knife, flat-bottomed spokeshave, toothbrush, coarse diamond whetstone, ceramic stone. Below: strop and honing guide

Large Equipment

Board-cutter/chopper

A manual ‘guillotine’ with a long, curved blade, used to cut down paper and board for bookbinding. It cannot cut through the pages of the book-block to make the book edges smooth: a guillotine or book plough is needed to do this.

Board-cutter

Finishing press

A wooden bench-top press (usually made of beech), traditionally used for gold tooling on the spines of books. It is most commonly used for forwarding jobs such as endbanding, or lining and/or cleaning off the spine.

Finishing press

Laying press (see also Workmate™, below) A large wooden press, usually of beech, that lies down within a tub (see below). Laying presses are used to hold books very firmly whilst you work on them. They are used for rounding and backing, for gilding the edges of a book-block, ploughing, or to hold very large books that would not otherwise fit in a finishing press (see above).

Laying press and tub

Nipping press/book press

A cast-iron press, used to press books for a period of time or to nip (a quick press), to flatten laminated papers and board.

Nipping press

Tub

A large wooden frame to hold a laying press, see above.

Workmate™ (see also Laying press, above) Made by Black and Decker®. If you neither have, nor have access to, a laying press, this is a good alternative. It folds flat so takes up very little space, but is less sturdy than a laying press. It is essential to place the book between thick boards if using a Workmate™ as the jaws can dent the pages.

The Importance of Grain Direction

Before starting any of the projects it is imperative to understand the importance of grain direction in bookbinding materials, as it will affect the success of all bindings.

Grain Direction in Paper

Paper is made from pulp: water mixed with beaten and strained plant/wood/cotton/linen fibres. In high quality paper, pulp can be made from plant fibres or cotton/linen fibres, and for general paper it is usually made from wood fibres. There are three types of paper: machine-made, mould-made (which is machine-assisted) and hand-made paper.

In machine-made paper, the pulp travels along the moving bed of the paper-making machine, and the fibres of the pulp get jostled as they travel so that they end up lying side by side. If you imagine all the fibres as grains of rice, the rice grains would lie parallel to each other, in straight lines. The fibres remain in this position until the paper has dried. These fibres will therefore flex quite easily along their length, but it will be more difficult to flex them across their width. The ‘grain direction’ always runs parallel to the length of the fibres.

A good example of this point is corrugated card, which can be easily flexed alongthe ridges and troughs, but is quite difficult to flex acrossthe ridges.

Hand-made papers can also have a grain direction. Hand-made paper is made sheet by sheet, using a mould. The mould is like a giant flat sieve, and dictates the size of the sheet of paper. The paper-maker scoops up some pulp on to the mould and then, holding the mould in front of them, gently shakes it in two directions, to get the pulp to lie flat and even. It is easier to shake the mould backwards and forwards than side to side. This can affect the way the fibres lie, resulting in a stronger grain direction in the paper, parallel to the backwards and forwards motion – usually the short edge of the mould.

Before starting a bookbinding project it is essential alwaysto determine the grain direction in the paper and board that you wish to use. There are three ways of determining the grain direction in paper: flexing, scoring and wetting.

Flexing paper in the correct grain direction

Flexing

This is the best way to check grain direction, as it is quick and will not damage the paper. Lay a sheet of paper on to your workstation. Gently bend over 75mm (3in) of the paper in one direction, and lightly press the curve to feel the resistance to bending. Now bend the paper over by 75mm (3in) in the other direction, and again, check the resistance to bending. You should be able to feel a difference. The way the paper bends most easily, with the least resistance, indicates the grain direction.

If the paper bends most easily parallel to the short edge, it is known as ‘short grain’ paper; if it bends most easily parallel to the long edge, it is known as ‘long grain’ paper.

Flexing in the wrong grain direction

Scoring

This method will clearly indicate the grain direction, but causes damage to the edge of the paper. Take a sheet of paper and hold it horizontally in one hand, then grip one corner between the thumb and index finger of the other hand. Drag the fingernails of the thumb and index finger across one edge of the paper. Then turn the paper vertically and repeat the process over the same corner.

One edge of the paper will be very rippled, as the paper fibres will have been stretched across their width. The other edge will be relatively flat, as the fibres will have been stretched along their length. The latter indicates the grain direction.

Wetting

As strips must be cut from the sheet of paper, this is my least preferred method of testing; however, you will get a clear result. Tear or cut off a strip from the sheet of paper, and thoroughly wet the strip; it will curl in one direction, and the axis of this curl indicates the grain direction.

Scored paper in the wrong grain direction

Scored paper in the correct grain direction

Grain Direction in Board

In bookbinding it is important that the grain direction of the pages runs parallel to the spine of the book – ‘head to tail’ so that the pages of the book flex well and enable the book to open freely. It is also important to check the grain direction of the millboard cover boards, because the grain of these must also run head to tail on the book. Obviously it wouldn’t be possible to score or wet the millboard, so the flexing method must be used. The grain direction will be very apparent.

Grain Direction in Fabric

Fabric also has grain direction. It consists of ‘warp’ threads – vertical threads that run parallel to the selvedge (the edge) of the fabric – and ‘weft’ threads that run horizontally across the fabric. Fabric flexes most easily parallel to the selvedge – with the warp threads – so this indicates the grain direction.

Wetted paper – the grain direction is running from my thumb to the top edge of the paper

Grain Direction when Using Adhesives

Grain direction is important whatever type of binding you are making, but its relevance becomes critical when adhesives are used on materials such as paper and board. When one material is stuck to another material for example, paper to board – the paper stretches widthways, across the grain, when it is glued. This is because the fibres become wet and then swell, getting fatter, not longer. When the paper is attached to the board, the fibres of the paper shrink back as the paper dries, causing the board to curve and warp. This is known as ‘pull’. The pull/warp should always be towards the book, so that, for example, book covers do not yawn or gape outwards. It is important always to try to glue the thinner material, to attain the right direction of pull. Also, in order to achieve a flat board, paper must be adhered to the other side of the board at some point in the binding process, to counteract the pull. If one material were adhered to another with opposing grain direction, the finished article would buckle and be severely distorted.

Lastly, the most important thing to remember and to keep to is that the grain direction of the materials used must always run from the head to the tail of the book.

Project 1Paper-Covered Single-Section Binding

A quick project, to get you started. This soft-covered, non-adhesive binding requires very little equipment and so is perfect for the complete beginner.

Materials required

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3xA4 sheets of good quality, acid-free paper of 80–130gsm (long grain)

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1xA4 sheet of good quality, acid-free, coloured/decorative paper of 150 – l80gsm (short grain)

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Waxed linen thread of 18/3 gauge

Equipment required

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Boot knife

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Pointed bone folder or Teflon folder

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300mm (12in) steel ruler

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200x300mm (8x12in) set square

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Scalpel with 10A blade or a sharp craft knife

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Bodkin/pricker/bradawl (to make small holes)

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Small pair of scissors

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No. 7 darning needle or equivalent

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HB pencil

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Eraser

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Small weight

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2xclean pressing boards approximately A5 in size

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Pricking cradle (or small piece of corrugated card if you haven’t made the cradle yet)

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Cutting mat

Folding and Slitting the Pages

Method

01/

Take the three sheets of A4 paper. These will form the pages of your book.

02/

Check the grain direction of the paper you are using. It must run with the long edge of the paper (long grain).

03/

Mark an arrow – in pencil – on the corner of the paper, to indicate the grain direction.

04/

Bend the paper in half lengthways, carefully aligning each corner. Using the index finger, press down in the centre of the bend to form a small crease.

04. Creasing the paper with the index finger

05/

Keeping the corners aligned, take the bone folder – holding it at a slight angle – and crease the paper from the centre outwards to each edge of the paper. You should now have a sharp fold across the centre of the paper with the corners still well aligned.

05. Boning the crease

06/

Turn the paper so that the fold you have just made is running horizontally towards you. The fold should be in line with the front edge of your workstation.

07/

Insert the boot knife into the fold from the right-hand side (left-hand side if you are left-handed), placing the palm of your other hand on the top side of the paper, to keep the knife flat and the paper still whilst you are cutting. The knife’s handle should be held off the workstation, otherwise the blade will be slightly tilted, with the result that you will cut in the wrong place.

08/

Gently slit along the fold in the paper, drawing the knife towards you (as you would use a letter opener).

08. Slitting the paper

09/

Take one half of the cut paper and fold it in half as before, but do not cut it. The folded paper, called a ‘folio’, will now be A6 in size, with the arrow that you drew earlier running ‘head to tail’ (top to bottom), indicating the grain direction. Now fold the other half in the same way.

10/

Repeat this process for the other two sheets of the text paper. You should end up with six folds (folios) of paper.

11/

Insert each of these folios one into the other, thus creating a ‘section’.

11. The completed section

12/

Place the folded section between the two pressing boards, and put a weight on top to consolidate the spine fold.

Scoring and Creasing

It is important when scoring and creasing that you use the bone folder from the centre outwards to each edge of the paper. This is done to stop the fibres of the paper from being stretched excessively. If you were to score or crease from one edge of the paper to the other you would stretch the paper fibres, causing your score line or crease to be distorted and slightly curved.

Folding the Cover

Method

01/

Take the piece of coloured/decorative paper, and check that the grain direction is running with the short edge (short grain). This will be your cover.

02/

Take the steel ruler and measure, then draw, a line 25mm in from the long edge of the paper.

03/

Do the same thing at one of the short edges.

04/

Turn the paper so that it is orientated vertically with the long line you have just drawn on your right (or on the left if you are left-handed). Place the steel ruler inside and up to the long line that you have just drawn.

05/

Span your hand along the ruler so that it is held firmly, and take the bone folder, holding it as you would a pencil.

06/

Gently score a line with the point of the bone folder against the steel ruler. Without moving your supporting hand, fold the 25mm of the paper up, against the edge of the ruler, using the bone folder.

06a. Scoring the paper

06b. Folding the paper up, with the bone folder

07/

Remove the ruler from the paper and fold the flap over at the line you have just scored, and then crease from the centre outwards, as you have done before. You have now made a 25mm ‘turn-in’.

08/

Unfold the flap and repeat this process for the short edge of the paper.

09/

Re-fold the long flap so that it lies on top of the short flap.

10/

Take a small pair of scissors and insert them so that one blade of the scissors is lying underneath the long flap, at the corner of the cover. Cut neatly at 45 degrees, towards the cut edge of the short flap, creating a 45-degree mitre at the corner.

10. Cutting off the flap at 45 degrees

11/

Turn the cover paper so that it is orientated horizontally, with the folded flaps uppermost.

12/

Take the folded section from within the pressing boards and place it on to the cover paper, with the head of the section set 2mm back from the folded edge of the long flap. Set the fore edge of the section 3mm back from the folded edge of the short flap.

12. The positioned section

13/

Weight the section in place. Take a sharp pencil and mark against the spine fold of the section, on to the long flap of the cover.

14/

Without moving the section, measure 2mm beyond the tail end of the section and mark this position on the cover, in pencil.

15/

Place the section back between the pressing boards.

16/

You are now ready to fold the tail flap. Measure from the long, folded edge up to the mark that you just drew (2mm from the tail of the section). Repeat this measurement further along the inside of the cover so that you have two marks at each end of the cover.

17/

Turn the cover so that it is lying vertically with the folded long flap to the left (right if you are left-handed) and unfold the short flap. Place the ruler up against each of your pencil marks, towards the inside of the cover.

18/