Chemical Process Design and Integration E-Book

Robin Smith

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2393

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Written by a highly regarded author with industrial and academic experience, this new edition of an established bestselling book provides practical guidance for students, researchers, and those in chemical engineering. The book includes a new section on sustainable energy, with sections on carbon capture and sequestration, as a result of increasing environmental awareness; and a companion website that includes problems, worked solutions, and Excel spreadsheets to enable students to carry out complex calculations.

Leseprobe

CONTENTS

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface to the Second Edition

Acknowledgements

Nomenclature

Chapter 1: The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration

1.1 Chemical Products

1.2 Formulation of Design Problems

1.3 Synthesis and Simulation

1.4 The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design and Integration

1.5 Continuous and Batch Processes

1.6 New Design and Retrofit

1.7 Reliability, Availability and Maintainability

1.8 Process Control

1.9 Approaches to Chemical Process Design and Integration

1.10 The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration – Summary

References

Chapter 2: Process Economics

2.1 The Role of Process Economics

2.2 Capital Cost for New Design

2.3 Capital Cost for Retrofit

2.4 Annualized Capital Cost

2.5 Operating Cost

2.6 Simple Economic Criteria

2.7 Project Cash Flow and Economic Evaluation

2.8 Investment Criteria

2.9 Process Economics — Summary

2.10 Exercises

References

Chapter 3: Optimization

3.1 Objective Functions

3.2 Single-Variable Optimization

3.3 Multivariable Optimization

3.4 Constrained Optimization

3.5 Linear Programming

3.6 Nonlinear Programming

3.7 Structural Optimization

3.8 Solution of Equations Using Optimization

3.9 The Search for Global Optimality

3.10 Optimization – Summary

3.11 Exercises

References

Chapter 4: Chemical Reactors I – Reactor Performance

4.1 Reaction Path

4.2 Types of Reaction Systems

4.3 Measures of Reactor Performance

4.4 Rate of Reaction

4.5 Idealized Reactor Models

4.6 Choice of Idealized Reactor Model

4.7 Choice of Reactor Performance

4.8 Reactor Performance – Summary

4.9 Exercises

References

Chapter 5: Chemical Reactors II – Reactor Conditions

5.1 Reaction Equilibrium

5.2 Reactor Temperature

5.3 Reactor Pressure

5.4 Reactor Phase

5.5 Reactor Concentration

5.6 Biochemical Reactions

5.7 Catalysts

5.8 Reactor Conditions – Summary

5.9 Exercises

References

Chapter 6: Chemical Reactors III – Reactor Configuration

6.1 Temperature Control

6.2 Catalyst Degradation

6.3 Gas–Liquid and Liquid–Liquid Reactors

6.4 Reactor Configuration

6.5 Reactor Configuration For Heterogeneous Solid-Catalyzed Reactions

6.6 Reactor Configuration – Summary

6.7 Exercises

References

Chapter 7: Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures

7.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Separation

7.2 Settling and Sedimentation

7.3 Inertial and Centrifugal Separation

7.4 Electrostatic Precipitation

7.5 Filtration

7.6 Scrubbing

7.7 Flotation

7.8 Drying

7.9 Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures – Summary

7.10 Exercises

References

Chapter 8: Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures I – Distillation

8.1 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium

8.2 Calculation of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium

8.3 Single-Stage Separation

8.4 Distillation

8.5 Binary Distillation

8.6 Total and Minimum Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures

8.7 Finite Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures

8.8 Column Dimensions

8.9 Conceptual Design of Distillation

8.10 Detailed Design of Distillation

8.11 Limitations of Distillation

8.12 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Distillation – Summary

8.13 Exercises

References

Chapter 9: Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures II – Other Methods

9.1 Absorption and Stripping

9.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction

9.3 Adsorption

9.4 Membranes

9.5 Crystallization

9.6 Evaporation

9.7 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Other Methods – Summary

Exercises

References

Chapter 10: Distillation Sequencing

10.1 Distillation Sequencing using Simple Columns

10.2 Practical Constraints Restricting Options

10.3 Choice of Sequence for Simple Nonintegrated Distillation Columns

10.4 Distillation Sequencing using Columns With More Than Two Products

10.5 Distillation Sequencing using Thermal Coupling

10.6 Retrofit of Distillation Sequences

10.7 Crude Oil Distillation

10.8 Structural Optimization of Distillation Sequences

10.9 Distillation Sequencing – Summary

Exercises

References

Chapter 11: Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation

11.1 Azeotropic Systems

11.2 Change in Pressure

11.3 Representation of Azeotropic Distillation

11.4 Distillation at Total Reflux Conditions

11.5 Distillation at Minimum Reflux Conditions

11.6 Distillation at Finite Reflux Conditions

11.7 Distillation Sequencing Using an Entrainer

11.8 Heterogeneous Azeotropic Distillation

11.9 Entrainer Selection

11.10 Multicomponent Systems

11.11 Trade-Offs in Azeotropic Distillation

11.12 Membrane Separation

11.13 Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation – Summary

Exercises

References

Chapter 12: Heat Exchange

12.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients

12.2 Heat Exchanger Fouling

12.3 Temperature Differences in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

12.4 Heat Exchanger Geometry

12.5 Allocation of Fluids in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

12.6 Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drops in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

12.7 Rating and Simulation of Heat Exchangers

12.8 Heat Transfer Enhancement

12.9 Retrofit of Heat Exchangers

12.10 Condensers

12.11 Reboilers and Vaporizers

12.12 Other Types of Heat Exchangers

12.13 Fired Heaters

12.14 Heat Exchange – Summary

Exercises

References

Chapter 13: Pumping and Compression

13.1 Pressure Drops in Process Operations

13.2 Pressure Drops in Piping Systems

13.3 Pump Types

13.4 Centrifugal Pump Performance

13.5 Compressor Types

13.6 Reciprocating Compressors

13.7 Dynamic Compressors

13.8 Staged Compression

13.9 Compressor Performance

13.10 Process Expanders

13.11 Pumping and Compression – Summary

13.12 Exercises

References

Chapter 14: Continuous Process Recycle Structure

14.1 The Function of Process Recycles

14.2 Recycles with Purges

14.3 Hybrid Reaction and Separation

14.4 The Process Yield

14.5 Feed, Product and Intermediate Storage

14.6 Continuous Process Recycle Structure – Summary

14.7 Exercises

References

Chapter 15: Continuous Process Simulation and Optimization

15.1 Physical Property Models for Process Simulation

15.2 Unit Models for Process Simulation

15.3 Flowsheet Models

15.4 Simulation of Recycles

15.5 Convergence of Recycles

15.6 Design Specifications

15.7 Flowsheet Sequencing

15.8 Model Validation

15.9 Process Optimization

15.10 Continuous Process Simulation and Optimization – Summary

Exercises

References

Chapter 16: Batch Processes

16.1 Characteristics of Batch Processes

16.2 Batch Reactors

16.3 Batch Distillation

16.4 Batch Crystallization

16.5 Batch Filtration

16.6 Batch Heating and Cooling

16.7 Optimization of Batch Operations

16.8 Gantt Charts

16.9 Production Schedules for Single Products

16.10 Production Schedules for Multiple Products

16.11 Equipment Cleaning and Material Transfer

16.12 Synthesis of Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes

16.13 Storage in Batch Processes

16.14 Batch Processes – Summary

16.15 Exercises

References

Chapter 17: Heat Exchanger Networks I – Network Targets

17.1 Composite Curves

17.2 The Heat Recovery Pinch

17.3 Threshold Problems

17.4 The Problem Table Algorithm

17.5 Non-Global Minimum Temperature Differences

17.6 Process Constraints

17.7 Utility Selection

17.8 Furnaces

17.9 Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power Generation)

17.10 Integration of Heat Pumps

17.11 Number of Heat Exchange Units

17.12 Heat Exchange Area Targets

17.13 Sensitivity of Targets

17.14 Capital and Total Cost Targets

17.15 Heat Exchanger Network Targets – Summary

17.16 Exercises

References

Chapter 18: Heat Exchanger Networks II – Network Design

18.1 The Pinch Design Method

18.2 Design for Threshold Problems

18.3 Stream Splitting

18.4 Design for Multiple Pinches

18.5 Remaining Problem Analysis

18.6 Simulation of Heat Exchanger Networks

18.7 Optimization of a Fixed Network Structure

18.8 Automated Methods of Heat Exchanger Network Design

18.9 Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit with a Fixed Network Structure

18.10 Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit through Structural Changes

18.11 Automated Methods of Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit

18.12 Heat Exchanger Network Design – Summary

Exercises

References

Chapter 19: Heat Exchanger Networks III – Stream Data

19.1 Process Changes for Heat Integration

19.2 The Trade-Offs Between Process Changes, Utility Selection, Energy Cost and Capital Cost

19.3 Data Extraction

19.4 Heat Exchanger Network Stream Data – Summary

19.5 Exercises

References

Chapter 20: Heat Integration of Reactors

20.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Reactors

20.2 Appropriate Placement of Reactors

20.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Reactors

20.4 Evolving Reactor Design to Improve Heat Integration

20.5 Heat Integration of Reactors – Summary

20.6 Exercises

Reference

Chapter 21: Heat Integration of Distillation

21.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation

21.2 The Appropriate Placement of Distillation

21.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Distillation

21.4 Evolving the Design of Simple Distillation Columns to Improve Heat Integration

21.5 Heat Pumping in Distillation

21.6 Capital Cost Considerations for the Integration of Distillation

21.7 Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation Sequences

21.8 Design of Heat Integrated Distillation Sequences

21.9 Heat Integration of Distillation – Summary

Exercises

References

Chapter 22: Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers

22.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Evaporators

22.2 Appropriate Placement of Evaporators

22.3 Evolving Evaporator Design to Improve Heat Integration

22.4 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Dryers

22.5 Evolving Dryer Design to Improve Heat Integration

22.6 A Case Study

22.7 Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers – Summary

Exercises

References

Chapter 23: Steam Systems and Cogeneration

23.1 Boiler Feedwater Treatment

23.2 Steam Boilers

23.3 Gas Turbines

23.4 Steam Turbines

23.5 Steam Distribution

23.6 Site Composite Curves

23.7 Cogeneration Targets

23.8 Power Generation and Machine Drives

23.9 Utility Simulation

23.10 Optimizing Steam Systems

23.11 Steam Costs

23.12 Steam Systems and Cogeneration – Summary

23.13 Exercises

References

Chapter 24: Cooling and Refrigeration Systems

24.1 Cooling Systems

24.2 Once-Through Water Cooling

24.3 Recirculating Cooling Water Systems

24.4 Air Coolers

24.5 Refrigeration

24.6 Choice of a Single-Component Refrigerant for Compression Refrigeration

24.7 Targeting Refrigeration Power for Pure Component Compression Refrigeration

24.8 Heat Integration of Pure Component Compression Refrigeration Processes

24.9 Mixed Refrigerants for Compression Refrigeration

24.10 Expanders

24.11 Absorption Refrigeration

24.12 Indirect Refrigeration

24.13 Cooling Water and Refrigeration Systems – Summary

24.14 Exercises

References

Chapter 25: Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions

25.1 Atmospheric Pollution

25.2 Sources of Atmospheric Pollution

25.3 Control of Solid Particulate Emissions to Atmosphere

25.4 Control of VOC Emissions

25.5 Control of Sulfur Emissions

25.6 Control of Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions

25.7 Control of Combustion Emissions

25.8 Atmospheric Dispersion

25.9 Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions – Summary

25.10 Exercises

References

Chapter 26: Water System Design

26.1 Aqueous Contamination

26.2 Primary Treatment Processes

26.3 Biological Treatment Processes

26.4 Tertiary Treatment Processes

26.5 Water Use

26.6 Targeting for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Mass Loads

26.7 Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Mass Loads

26.8 Targeting for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Flowrates

26.9 Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Flowrates

26.10 Targeting and Design for Maximum Water Reuse Based on Optimization of a Superstructure

26.11 Process Changes for Reduced Water Consumption

26.12 Targeting for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants

26.13 Design for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants

26.14 Regeneration of Wastewater

26.15 Targeting and Design for Effluent Treatment and Regeneration Based on Optimization of a Superstructure

26.16 Data Extraction

26.17 Water System Design – Summary

26.18 Exercises

References

Chapter 27: Environmental Sustainability in Chemical Production

27.1 Life Cycle Assessment

27.2 Efficient Use of Raw Materials Within Processes

27.3 Efficient Use of Raw Materials Between Processes

27.4 Exploitation of Renewable Raw Materials

27.5 Efficient Use of Energy

27.6 Integration of Waste Treatment and Energy Sytems

27.7 Renewable Energy

27.8 Efficient Use of Water

27.9 Sustainability in Chemical Production – Summary

27.10 Exercises

References

Chapter 28: Process Safety

28.1 Fire

28.2 Explosion

28.3 Toxic Release

28.4 Hazard Identification

28.5 The Hierarchy of Safety Management

28.6 Inherently Safer Design

28.7 Layers of Protection

28.8 Hazard and Operability Studies

28.9 Layer of Protection Analysis

28.10 Process Safety – Summary

28.11 Exercises

References

Appendix A: Physical Properties in Process Design

A.1 Equations of State

A.2 Phase Equilibrium for Single Components

A.3 Fugacity and Phase Equilibrium

A.4 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium

A.5 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Activity Coefficient Models

A.6 Group Contribution Methods for Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium

A.7 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Equations of State

A.8 Calculation of Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium

A.9 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium

A.10 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium Activity Coefficient Models

A.11 Calculation of Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium

A.12 Choice of Method for Equilibrium Calculations

A.13 Calculation of Enthalpy

A.14 Calculation of Entropy

A.15 Other Physical Properties

A.16 Physical Properties in Process Design – Summary

A.17 Exercises

References

Appendix B: Materials of Construction

B.1 Mechanical Properties

B.2 Corrosion

B.3 Corrosion Allowance

B.4 Commonly used Materials of Construction

B.5 Criteria for Selection

B.6 Materials of Construction – Summary

References

Appendix C: Annualization of Capital Cost

Reference

Appendix D: The Maximum Thermal Effectiveness for 1–2 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

References

Appendix E: Expression for the Minimum Number of 1–2 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers for a Given Unit

References

Appendix F: Heat Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

F.1 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations for the Tube Side

F.2 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations for the Shell Side

References

Appendix G: Gas Compression Theory

G.1 Modeling Reciprocating Compressors

G.2 Modeling Dynamic Compressors

G.3 Staged Compression

References

Appendix H: Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Area Target

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Table 2.6

Table 2.7

Table 2.8

Table 2.9

Table 2.10

Table 2.11

Table 2.12

Table 2.13

Table 2.14

Table 2.15

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

Table 3.4

Table 3.5

Table 3.6

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Table 4.10

Table 4.11

Table 4.12

Table 4.13

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

Table 5.5

Table 5.6

Table 5.7

Table 5.8

Table 5.9

Table 5.10

Table 5.11

Table 5.12

Table 5.13

Table 5.14

Table 5.15

Table 5.16

Table 5.17

Table 5.18

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 7.3

Table 7.4

Table 7.5

Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Table 8.3

Table 8.4

Table 8.5

Table 8.6

Table 8.7

Table 8.8

Table 8.9

Table 8.10

Table 8.11

Table 8.12

Table 8.13

Table 8.14

Table 8.15

Table 8.16

Table 8.17

Table 8.18

Table 8.19

Table 8.20

Table 8.21

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 9.3

Table 9.4

Table 9.5

Table 9.6

Table 9.7

Table 9.8

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 10.3

Table 10.4

Table 10.5

Table 10.6

Table 10.7

Table 10.8

Table 10.9

Table 10.10

Table 10.11

Table 10.12

Table 11.1

Table 11.2

Table 12.1

Table 12.2

Table 12.3

Table 12.4

Table 12.5

Table 12.6

Table 12.7

Table 12.8

Table 12.9

Table 12.10

Table 12.11

Table 12.12

Table 12.13

Table 12.14

Table 12.15

Table 12.16

Table 12.17

Table 12.18

Table 12.19

Table 12.20

Table 12.21

Table 12.22

Table 12.23

Table 12.24

Table 12.25

Table 13.1

Table 13.2

Table 13.3

Table 13.4

Table 13.5

Table 13.6

Table 13.7

Table 13.8

Table 14.1

Table 14.2

Table 14.3

Table 14.4

Table 15.1

Table 15.2

Table 15.3

Table 15.4

Table 15.5

Table 16.1

Table 16.2

Table 16.3

Table 16.4

Table 16.5

Table 16.6

Table 16.7

Table 16.8

Table 16.9

Table 16.10

Table 16.11

Table 16.12

Table 16.13

Table 16.14

Table 16.15

Table 16.16

Table 17.1

Table 17.2

Table 17.3

Table 17.4

Table 17.5

Table 17.6

Table 17.7

Table 17.8

Table 17.9

Table 17.10

Table 17.11

Table 17.12

Table 17.13

Table 17.14

Table 17.15

Table 17.16

Table 17.17

Table 17.18

Table 17.19

Table 17.20

Table 17.21

Table 18.1

Table 18.2

Table 18.3

Table 18.4

Table 18.5

Table 18.6

Table 18.7

Table 18.8

Table 18.9

Table 18.10

Table 18.11

Table 18.12

Table 18.13

Table 18.14

Table 18.15

Table 18.16

Table 18.17

Table 18.18

Table 18.19

Table 18.20

Table 18.21

Table 19.1

Table 20.1

Table 21.1

Table 21.2

Table 21.3

Table 21.4

Table 21.5

Table 21.6

Table 21.7

Table 21.8

Table 21.9

Table 21.10

Table 21.11

Table 21.12

Table 22.1

Table 23.1

Table 23.2

Table 23.3

Table 23.4

Table 23.5

Table 23.6

Table 23.7

Table 23.8

Table 23.9

Table 23.10

Table 23.11

Table 23.12

Table 23.13

Table 23.14

Table 23.15

Table 23.16

Table 23.17

Table 23.18

Table 24.1

Table 24.2

Table 24.3

Table 24.4

Table 24.5

Table 24.6

Table 24.7

Table 24.8

Table 24.9

Table 25.1

Table 25.2

Table 25.3

Table 25.4

Table 25.5

Table 25.6

Table 25.7

Table 26.1

Table 26.2

Table 26.3

Table 26.4

Table 26.5

Table 26.6

Table 26.7

Table 26.8

Table 26.9

Table 26.10

Table 26.11

Table 26.12

Table 26.13

Table 26.14

Table 26.15

Table 26.16

Table 26.17

Table 26.18

Table 26.19

Table 26.20

Table 26.21

Table 26.22

Table 27.1

Table 27.2

Table 27.3

Table 27.4

Table 28.1

Table 28.2

Table 28.3

Table A.1

Table A.2

Table A.3

Table A.4

Table A.5

Table A.6

Table A.7

Table A.8

Table A.9

Table A.10

Table A.11

Table A.12

Table A.13

Table A.14

Table A.15

Table A.16

Table A.17

Table A.18

Table A.19

Table A.20

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

Figure 1.8

Figure 1.9

Figure 1.10

Figure 1.11

Figure 1.12

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11

Figure 3.12

Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14

Figure 3.15

Figure 3.16

Figure 3.17

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

Figure 4.6

Figure 4.7

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.7

Figure 5.8

Figure 5.9

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.5

Figure 7.6

Figure 7.8

Figure 7.7

Figure 7.9

Figure 7.10

Figure 7.11

Figure 7.12

Figure 7.13

Figure 7.14

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4

Figure 8.5

Figure 8.6

Figure 8.7

Figure 8.8

Figure 8.9

Figure 8.10

Figure 8.11

Figure 8.12

Figure 8.13

Figure 8.14

Figure 8.15

Figure 8.16

Figure 8.17

Figure 8.18

Figure 8.19

Figure 8.20

Figure 8.21

Figure 8.22

Figure 8.23

Figure 8.24

Figure 8.25

Figure 8.26

Figure 8.27

Figure 8.28

Figure 8.29

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2

Figure 9.3

Figure 9.4

Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6

Figure 9.7

Figure 9.8

Figure 9.9

Figure 9.10

Figure 9.11

Figure 9.12

Figure 9.13

Figure 9.14

Figure 9.15

Figure 9.16

Figure 9.17

Figure 9.18

Figure 9.19

Figure 9.20

Figure 9.21

Figure 9.22

Figure 9.23

Figure 9.24

Figure 10.1

Figure 10.2

Figure 10.3

Figure 10.4

Figure 10.5

Figure 10.6

Figure 10.7

Figure 10.8

Figure 10.9

Figure 10.10

Figure 10.11

Figure 10.12

Figure 10.13

Figure 10.14

Figure 10.15

Figure 10.16

Figure 10.17

Figure 10.18

Figure 10.19

Figure 10.20

Figure 10.21

Figure 10.22

Figure 10.23

Figure 10.24

Figure 11.1

Figure 11.2

Figure 11.3

Figure 11.4

Figure 11.5

Figure 11.6

Figure 11.7

Figure 11.8

Figure 11.9

Figure 11.10

Figure 11.11

Figure 11.12

Figure 11.13

Figure 11.14

Figure 11.15

Figure 11.16

Figure 11.17

Figure 11.18

Figure 11.19

Figure 11.20

Figure 11.21

Figure 11.22

Figure 11.23

Figure 11.24

Figure 11.25

Figure 11.26

Figure 11.27

Figure 11.28

Figure 11.29

Figure 11.30

Figure 11.31

Figure 11.32

Figure 11.33

Figure 11.34

Figure 11.35

Figure 11.36

Figure 11.37

Figure 11.38

Figure 11.39

Figure 12.1

Figure 12.2

Figure 12.3

Figure 12.4

Figure 12.5

Figure 12.6

Figure 12.7

Figure 12.8

Figure 12.9

Figure 12.10

Figure 12.11

Figure 12.12

Figure 12.13

Figure 12.14

Figure 12.15

Figure 12.16

Figure 12.17

Figure 12.18

Figure 12.19

Figure 12.20

Figure 12.21

Figure 12.22

Figure 12.23

Figure 12.24

Figure 12.25

Figure 12.26

Figure 12.27

Figure 12.28

Figure 12.29

Figure 12.30

Figure 12.31

Figure 12.32

Figure 12.33

Figure 13.1

Figure 13.2

Figure 13.3

Figure 13.4

Figure 13.5

Figure 13.6

Figure 13.7

Figure 13.8

Figure 13.9

Figure 13.10

Figure 13.11

Figure 13.12

Figure 13.13

Figure 13.14

Figure 13.15

Figure 13.16

Figure 13.17

Figure 13.18

Figure 13.19

Figure 13.20

Figure 13.21

Figure 14.1

Figure 14.2

Figure 14.3

Figure 14.4

Figure 14.5

Figure 14.6

Figure 14.8

Figure 14.9

Figure 14.11

Figure 14.12

Figure 14.13

Figure 15.1

Figure 15.2

Figure 15.3

Figure 15.4

Figure 15.5

Figure 15.6

Figure 15.7

Figure 15.8

Figure 15.9

Figure 15.10

Figure 15.11

Figure 15.12

Figure 15.13

Figure 15.14

Figure 15.15

Figure 15.16

Figure 15.17

Figure 15.18

Figure 16.1

Figure 16.2

Figure 16.3

Figure 16.4

Figure 16.5

Figure 16.6

Figure 16.7

Figure 16.8

Figure 16.9

Figure 16.10

Figure 16.11

Figure 16.12

Figure 16.13

Figure 16.14

Figure 16.15

Figure 16.16

Figure 16.17

Figure 16.18

Figure 16.19

Figure 16.20

Figure 16.21

Figure 16.22

Figure 16.23

Figure 16.24

Figure 16.25

Figure 16.26

Figure 16.27

Figure 16.28

Figure 16.29

Figure 17.1

Figure 17.2

Figure 17.3

Figure 17.4

Figure 17.5

Figure 17.6

Figure 17.7

Figure 17.8

Figure 17.9

Figure 17.10

Figure 17.11

Figure 17.12

Figure 17.13

Figure 17.14

Figure 17.15

Figure 17.16

Figure 17.17

Figure 17.18

Figure 17.19

Figure 17.20

Figure 17.21

Figure 17.22

Figure 17.23

Figure 17.24

Figure 17.25

Figure 17.26

Figure 17.27

Figure 17.28

Figure 17.29

Figure 17.30

Figure 17.31

Figure 17.32

Figure 17.33

Figure 17.34

Figure 17.35

Figure 17.36

Figure 17.37

Figure 17.38

Figure 17.39

Figure 17.40

Figure 17.41

Figure 17.42

Figure 17.43

Figure 17.44

Figure 17.45

Figure 17.46

Figure 17.47

Figure 18.1

Figure 18.2

Figure 18.3

Figure 18.4

Figure 18.5

Figure 18.6

Figure 18.7

Figure 18.8

Figure 18.9

Figure 18.10

Figure 18.11

Figure 18.12

Figure 18.13

Figure 18.14

Figure 18.15

Figure 18.16

Figure 18.17

Figure 18.18

Figure 18.19

Figure 18.20

Figure 18.21

Figure 18.22

Figure 18.23

Figure 18.24

Figure 18.25

Figure 18.26

Figure 18.27

Figure 18.28

Figure 18.29

Figure 18.30

Figure 18.31

Figure 18.32

Figure 18.33

Figure 18.34

Figure 18.35

Figure 18.36

Figure 18.37

Figure 18.38

Figure 18.39

Figure 18.40

Figure 18.41

Figure 18.42

Figure 18.43

Figure 18.44

Figure 19.1

Figure 19.2

Figure 19.3

Figure 19.4

Figure 19.5

Figure 19.6

Figure 19.7

Figure 19.8

Figure 19.9

Figure 19.10

Figure 19.11

Figure 19.12

Figure 19.13

Figure 20.1

Figure 20.2

Figure 20.3

Figure 20.4

Figure 20.5

Figure 20.6

Figure 21.1

Figure 21.2

Figure 21.3

Figure 21.4

Figure 21.5

Figure 21.6

Figure 21.7

Figure 21.8

Figure 21.9

Figure 21.10

Figure 22.1

Figure 22.2

Figure 22.3

Figure 22.4

Figure 22.5

Figure 22.6

Figure 22.7

Figure 23.1

Figure 23.2

Figure 23.3

Figure 23.4

Figure 23.5

Figure 23.6

Figure 23.7

Figure 23.8

Figure 23.9

Figure 23.10

Figure 23.11

Figure 23.12

Figure 23.13

Figure 23.14

Figure 23.15

Figure 23.16

Figure 23.17

Figure 23.18

Figure 23.19

Figure 23.20

Figure 23.21

Figure 23.22

Figure 23.23

Figure 23.24

Figure 23.25

Figure 23.26

Figure 23.27

Figure 23.28

Figure 23.29

Figure 23.30

Figure 23.31

Figure 23.32

Figure 23.33

Figure 23.34

Figure 23.35

Figure 23.36

Figure 23.37

Figure 23.38

Figure 23.39

Figure 23.40

Figure 23.41

Figure 23.42

Figure 23.43

Figure 23.44

Figure 23.45

Figure 23.46

Figure 23.47

Figure 23.48

Figure 23.49

Figure 23.50

Figure 23.51

Figure 23.52

Figure 23.53

Figure 23.54

Figure 23.55

Figure 23.56

Figure 23.57

Figure 23.58

Figure 23.59

Figure 23.60

Figure 23.61

Figure 23.62

Figure 23.63

Figure 23.64

Figure 23.65

Figure 24.1

Figure 24.2

Figure 24.3

Figure 24.4

Figure 24.5

Figure 24.6

Figure 24.7

Figure 24.8

Figure 24.9

Figure 24.10

Figure 24.11

Figure 24.12

Figure 24.13

Figure 24.14

Figure 24.15

Figure 24.16

Figure 24.17

Figure 24.18

Figure 24.19

Figure 24.20

Figure 24.21

Figure 24.22

Figure 24.23

Figure 24.24

Figure 24.25

Figure 24.26

Figure 24.27

Figure 24.28

Figure 24.29

Figure 24.30

Figure 24.31

Figure 24.32

Figure 24.33

Figure 24.34

Figure 24.35

Figure 24.36

Figure 24.37

Figure 24.38

Figure 25.1

Figure 25.2

Figure 25.3

Figure 25.4

Figure 25.5

Figure 25.6

Figure 25.7

Figure 25.8

Figure 25.9

Figure 25.10

Figure 25.11

Figure 25.12

Figure 25.13

Figure 25.14

Figure 25.15

Figure 25.16

Figure 25.17

Figure 25.18

Figure 25.19

Figure 25.20

Figure 25.21

Figure 25.22

Figure 25.23

Figure 25.24

Figure 25.25

Figure 25.26

Figure 25.27

Figure 25.28

Figure 25.29

Figure 25.30

Figure 25.31

Figure 25.32

Figure 25.33

Figure 25.34

Figure 25.35

Figure 25.36

Figure 25.37

Figure 26.1

Figure 26.2

Figure 26.3

Figure 26.4

Figure 26.5

Figure 26.6

Figure 26.7

Figure 26.8

Figure 26.9

Figure 26.10

Figure 26.11

Figure 26.12

Figure 26.13

Figure 26.14

Figure 26.15

Figure 26.16

Figure 26.17

Figure 26.18

Figure 26.19

Figure 26.20

Figure 26.21

Figure 26.22

Figure 26.23

Figure 26.24

Figure 26.25

Figure 26.26

Figure 26.27

Figure 26.28

Figure 26.29

Figure 26.30

Figure 26.31

Figure 26.32

Figure 26.33

Figure 26.34

Figure 26.35

Figure 26.36

Figure 26.37

Figure 26.38

Figure 26.39

Figure 26.40

Figure 26.41

Figure 26.42

Figure 26.43

Figure 26.44

Figure 26.45

Figure 26.46

Figure 26.47

Figure 26.48

Figure 26.49

Figure 26.50

Figure 26.51

Figure 26.52

Figure 26.53

Figure 26.54

Figure 26.55

Figure 26.56

Figure 26.57

Figure 26.58

Figure 26.59

Figure 26.60

Figure 26.61

Figure 26.62

Figure 26.63

Figure 26.64

Figure 26.65

Figure 26.66

Figure 26.67

Figure 26.68

Figure 26.69

Figure 26.70

Figure 26.71

Figure 26.72

Figure 26.73

Figure 26.74

Figure 26.75

Figure 27.1

Figure 27.2

Figure 27.3

Figure 27.4

Figure 27.5

Figure 27.6

Figure 27.7

Figure 27.8

Figure 27.9

Figure 27.10

Figure 27.11

Figure 27.12

Figure 27.13

Figure 27.13

Figure 27.14

Figure 28.1

Figure 28.2

Figure 28.3

Figure 28.4

Figure 28.5

Figure 28.6

Figure A.1

Figure A.2

Figure A.3

Figure A.4

Figure A.5

Figure A.6

Figure A.8

Figure A.7

Figure A.9

Figure A.10

Figure B.1

Figure F.1

Figure F.2

Figure G.1

Figure G.2

Figure H.1

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Chapter 1

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Chemical Process Design and Integration

Second Edition

Robin Smith

School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, UK

This edition first published 2016© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered officeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Smith, Robin (Chemical engineer)

Title: Chemical process design and integration / Robin Smith.

Description: Second edition. | Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016. | Includes index. | Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.

Identifiers: LCCN 2015034820 (print) | LCCN 2015032671 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118699089 (ePub) | ISBN 9781118699096 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119990147 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119990130 (paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Chemical processes. | BISAC: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Chemical & Biochemical.

Classification: LCC TP155.7 (print) | LCC TP155.7 .S573 2016 (ebook) | DDC 660/.28–dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015034820

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 9781119990147

Dedication

To the next generationGeorge, Oliver, Ava and Freya

Preface to the Second Edition

This book deals with the design and integration of chemical processes. The Second Edition has been rewritten, restructured and updated throughout from the First Edition. At the heart of the book are the conceptual issues that are fundamental to the creation of chemical processes and their integration to form complete manufacturing systems. Compared with the First Edition, this edition includes much greater consideration of equipment and equipment design, including materials of construction, whilst not sacrificing understanding of the overall conceptual design. Greater emphasis has also been placed on physical properties, process simulation and batch processing. Increasing environmental awareness has dictated the necessity of a greater emphasis on environmental sustainability throughout. The main implication of this for process design is greater efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy and water and a greater emphasis on process safety. Consideration of integration has not been restricted to individual processes, but integration across processes has also been emphasized to create environmentally sustainable integrated manufacturing systems. Thus, the text integrates equipment, process and manufacturing system design. This edition has been rewritten to make it more accessible to undergraduate students of chemical engineering than the First Edition, as well as maintaining its usefulness to postgraduate students of chemical engineering and to practicing chemical engineers.

As with the first edition, this edition as much as possible emphasizes understanding of process design methods, as well as their application. Where practical, the derivation of design equations has been included, as this is the best way to understand the limitations of those equations and to ensure their wise application.

The book is intended to provide a practical guide to chemical process design and integration for students of chemical engineering at all levels, practicing process designers and chemical engineers and applied chemists working in process development. For undergraduate studies, the text assumes basic knowledge of material and energy balances and thermodynamics, together with basic spreadsheeting skills. Worked examples have been included throughout the text. Most of these examples do not require specialist software and can be solved either by hand or using spreadsheet software. A suite of Excel spreadsheets has also been made available to allow some of the more complex example calculations to be performed more conveniently. Finally, a number of exercises has been added at the end of each chapter to allow the reader to practice the calculation procedures. A solutions manual is available.

Robin Smith

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express gratitude to a number of people who have helped in the preparation of the Second Edition.

From the University of Manchester: Mary Akpomiemie, Adisa Azapagic, Stephen Doyle, Victor Manuel Enriquez Gutierrez, Oluwagbemisola Oluleye, Kok Siew Ng, Li Sun and Colin Webb

Interns at the University of Manchester: Rabia Amaaouch, Béatrice Bouchon, Aymeric Cambrillat, Leo Gandrille, Kathrin Holzwarth, Guillemette Nicolas and Matthias Schmid

From National Technical University of Athens: Antonis Kokossis

From the University of Huddersfield: Grant Campbell

From Nova Process Ltd: Stephen Hall

From Norwegian University of Science and Technology: Truls Gundersen

From BP: Paul Oram

Gratitude is also expressed to Lucy Adams, Ellen Gleeson and Tim Mummery for help in the preparation of the figures and the text.

Finally, gratitude is expressed to all of the member companies of the Process Integration Research Consortium, both past and present. Their support has made a considerable contribution to research in the area, and hence to this text.

Nomenclature

a

Activity (−), or

constant in cubic equation of state (N·m

4

·kmol

−2

), or

correlating coefficient (units depend on application), or

cost law coefficient ($), or

order of reaction (−)

a

mn

Group interaction parameter in the UNIFAC Model (K)

a

1

,

a

2

Profile control parameters in optimization (−)

A

Absorption factor in absorption (−), or

annual cash flow ($), or

constant in vapor pressure correlation (N·m

−2

, bar), or

heat exchanger area (m

2

)

A

C

Cross-sectional area of column (m

2

)

A

CF

Annual cash flow ($·y

−1

)

A

D

Area occupied by distillation downcomer (m

2

)

A

DCF

Annual discounted cash flow ($·y

−1

)

A

FIN

Area of fins (m)

A

I

Heat transfer area on the inside of tubes (m

2

), or

interfacial area (m

2

, m

2

·m

−3

)

A

M

Membrane area (m

2

)

A

NETWORK

Heat exchanger network area (m

2

)

A

O

Heat transfer area on the outside of tubes (m

2

)

A

ROOT

Exposed outside root area of a finned tube (m)

A

SHELL

Heat exchanger area for an individual shell (m

2

)

AF

Annualization factor for capital cost (−)

capital cost law coefficient (units depend on cost law), or

constant in cubic equation of state (m

3

·kmol

−1

), or

correlating coefficient (units depend on application), or

order of reaction (−)

b

i

Bottoms flowrate of Component

i

(kmol·s

−1

, kmol·h

−1

)

B

Baffle spacing in shell-and-tube heat exchangers (m), or

Bottoms flowrate in distillation (kg·s

−1

, kg·h

−1

, kmol·s

−1

, kmol·h

−1

), or

breadth of device (m), or

constant in vapor pressure correlation (N·K·m

−2

, bar·K), or

moles remaining in batch distillation (kmol)

B

C

Baffle cut for shell-and-tube heat exchangers (−)

BOD

Biological oxygen demand (kg·m

−3

, mg·l

−1

)

c

Capital cost law coefficient (−), or

correlating coefficient (units depend on application), or

order of reaction (−)

c

D

Drag coefficient (−)

c

f

Fanning friction factor (−)

c

fS

Smooth tube Fanning friction factor (−)

c

L

Loss coefficient for pipe or pipe fitting (−)

C

Concentration (kg·m

−3

, kmol·m

−3

, ppm), or

constant in vapor pressure correlation (K), or

number of components (separate systems) in network design (−)

C

B

Base capital cost of equipment ($)

Ce

Environmental discharge concentration (ppm)

C

E

Equipment capital cost ($), or

unit cost of energy ($·kW

−1

, $·MW

−1

)

C

F

Fixed capital cost of complete installation ($)

C

P

Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (kJ·kg

−1

·K

−1

, kJ·kmol

−1

·K

−1

)

Mean heat capacity at constant pressure (kJ·kg

−1

·K

−1

, kJ·kmol

−1

·K

−1

)

C

S

Corrected superficial velocity in distillation (m·s

−1

)

C

V

Specific heat capacity at constant volume (kJ·kg

−1

·K

−1

, kJ·kmol

−1

·K

−1

)

C

*

Solubility of solute in solvent (kg·kg solvent

−1

)

CC

Cycles of concentration for a cooling tower (−)

CC

STEAM

Cumulative cost ($·t

−1

)

COD

Chemical oxygen demand (kg·m

−3

, mg·l

−1

)

COP

Coefficient of performance (−)

COP

AHP

Coefficient of performance of an absorption heat pump (−)

COP

AHT

Coefficient of performance of an absorption heat transformer (−)

COP

AR

Coefficient of performance of absorption refrigeration (−)

COP

CHP

Coefficient of performance of a compression heat pump (−)

COP

HP

Coefficient of performance of a heat pump (−)

COP

REF

Coefficient of performance of a refrigeration system (−)

CP

Capacity parameter in distillation (m·s

−1

) or

heat capacity flowrate (kW·K

−1

, MW·K

−1

)

CP

EX

Heat capacity flowrate of heat engine exhaust (kW·K

−1

, MW·K

−1

)

CW

Cooling water

d

Diameter (μm, m), or

correlating coefficient (units depend on application)

d

C

Column inside diameter (m)

d

i

Distillate flowrate of Component

i

(kmol·s

−1

, kmol·h

−1

)

d

I

Inside diameter of pipe or tube (m)

d

P

Distillation and absorption packing size (m)

d

R

Outside tube diameter for a finned tube at the root of fins (m)

D

Distillate flowrate (kg·s

−1

, kg·h

−1

, kmol·s

−1

, kmol·h

−1

)

D

B

Tube bundle diameter for shell-and-tube heat exchangers (m)

D

S

Inside shell diameter for shell-and-tube heat exchangers (m)

DCFRR

Discounted cash flowrate of return (%)

e

Wire diameter (m)

E

Activation energy of reaction (kJ·kmol

−1

), or

entrainer flowrate in azeotropic and extractive distillation (kg·s

−1

, kmol·s

−1

), or

exchange factor in radiant heat transfer (−), or

extract flowrate in liquid–liquid extraction (kg·s

−1

, kmol·s

−1

), or

stage efficiency in separation (−)

E

O

Overall stage efficiency in distillation and absorption (−)

EP

Economic potential ($·y

−1

)

f

Fuel-to-air ratio for gas turbine (−)

f

i

Capital cost installation factor for Equipment

i

(−), or

feed flowrate of Component

i

(kmol·s

−1

, kmol·h

−1

), or

fugacity of Component

i

(N·m

−2

, bar)

f

P

Capital cost factor to allow for design pressure (−)

f

T

Capital cost factor to allow for design temperature (−)

F

Feed flowrate (kg·s

−1

, kg·h

−1

, kmol·s

−1

, kmol·h

−1

), or

future worth a sum of money allowing for interest rates ($), or

number of degrees of freedom (−), orvolumetric flowrate (m

3

·s

−1

, m

3

·h

−1

)

F

FOAM

Foaming factor in distillation (−)

F

LV

Liquid–vapor flow parameter in distillation (−)

F

RAD

Fraction of heat absorbed in fired heater radiant section (−)

F

SC

Correction factor for shell construction in shell-and-tube heat exchangers (−)

F

T

Correction factor for noncountercurrent flow in shell-and-tube heat exchangers (−)

F

TC

Correction factor for tube count in shell-and-tube heat exchangers (−)

F

Tmin

Minimum acceptable

F

T

for noncountercurrent heat exchangers (−)

F

XY

Factor to allow for inclination in structured packing (−)

F

σ

Factor to allow for inadequate wetting of packing (−)

g

Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m·s

−2

)

g

ij

Energy of interaction between Molecules

i

and

j

in the NRTL equation (kJ·kmol

−1

)

G

Free energy (kJ), or

gas flowrate (kg·s

−1

, kmol·s

−1

)

Partial molar free energy of Component

i

(kJ·kmol

−1

)

Standard partial molar free energy of Component

i

(kJ·kmol

−1

)

GCV

Gross calorific value of fuel (J·m

−3

, kJ·m

−3

, J·kg

−1

, kJ·kg

−1

)

h

Settling distance of particles (m)

h

B

Boiling heat transfer coefficient for the tube bundle (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

h

C

Condensing film heat transfer coefficient (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

h

I

Film heat transfer coefficient for the inside (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

h

IF

Fouling heat transfer coefficient for the inside (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

h

L

Head loss in a pipe or pipe fitting (m)

h

NB

Nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

h

O

Film heat transfer coefficient for the outside (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

h

OF

Fouling heat transfer coefficient for the outside (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

h

RAD

Radiant heat transfer coefficient (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

h

W

Heat transfer coefficient for the tube wall (W·m

−2

·K

−1

, kW·m

−2

·K

−1

)

H

Enthalpy (kJ, kJ·kg

−1

, kJ·kmol

−1

), or

height (m), or

Henry's Law Constant (N·m

−2

, bar, atm), or

stream enthalpy (kJ·s

−1

, MJ·s

−1

)

H

F

Height of fin (m)

H

T

Tray spacing (m)

Standard heat of formation of Component

i

(kJ·kmol

−1

)

Δ

H

O

Standard heat of reaction (J, kJ)

Δ

H

COMB

Heat of combustion (J·kmol

−1

, kJ·kmol

−1

)

Standard heat of combustion at 298 K (J·kmol

−1

, kJ·kmol

−1

)

Δ

H

FUEL

Heat to bring fuel to standard temperature (J·kmol

−1

, kJ·kg

−1

)

Δ

H

IS

Isentropic enthalpy change of an expansion (J·kmol

−1

, kJ·kg

−1

)

Δ

H

P

Heat to bring products from standard temperature to the final temperature (J·kmol

−1

, kJ·kg

−1

)

Δ

H

R

Heat to bring reactants from their initial temperature to standard temperature (J·kmol

−1

, kJ·kmol

−1

)

Δ

H

STEAM

Enthalpy difference between generated steam and boiler feedwater (kW, MW)

Δ

H

VAP

Latent heat of vaporization (kJ·kg

−1

, kJ·kmol

−1

)

HETP

Height equivalent of a theoretical plate (m)

HP

High pressure

HR

Heat rate for gas turbine (kJ·kWh

−1

)

i

Fractional rate of interest on money (−), or

number of ions (−)

I

Total number of hot streams (−)

J

Total number of cold streams (−)

k

Reaction rate constant (units depend on order of reaction), or

step number in a numerical calculation (−), or

thermal conductivity (W·m

−1

·K

−1

, kW·m

−1

·K

−1

)

k

F

Fin thermal conductivity (W·m

−1

·K

−1

, kW·m

−1

·K

−1

)

k

G

,

i

Mass transfer coefficient in the gas phase (kmol·m

−2

·Pa

−1

·s

−1

)

k

ij

Interaction parameter between Components

i

and

j

in an equation of state (−)

k

L

,

i

Mass transfer coefficient of Component

i

in the liquid phase (m·s

−1

)

k

0

Frequency factor for heat of reaction (units depend on order of reaction)

k

W

Wall thermal conductivity (W·m

−1

·K

−1

, kW·m

−1

·K

−1

)

K

Overall mass transfer coefficient (kmol·Pa

−1

·m

−2

·s

−1

), or

rate constant for fouling (m

2

·K ·W

−1

·day

−1

), or

total number of enthalpy intervals in heat exchanger networks (−)

K

a

Equilibrium constant of reaction based on activity (−)

K

i

Ratio of vapor-to-liquid composition at equilibrium for Component

i

(−)

K

M

,

i

Equilibrium partition coefficient of membrane for Component

i

(−)

K

p

Equilibrium constant of reaction based on partial pressure in the vapor phase (−)

K

T

Parameter for terminal settling velocity (m·s

−1

)

K

x

Equilibrium constant of reaction based on mole fraction in the liquid phase (−)

K

y

Equilibrium constant of reaction based on mole fraction in vapor phase (−)

L

length (m), or

liquid flowrate (kg·s

−1

, kmol·s

−1

), or

number of independent loops in a network (−)

L

W

Distillation tray weir length (m)

LP

Low pressure

m

Mass flowrate (kg·s

−1

), or

molar flowrate (kmol·s

−1

), or

number of items (−)

m

C

Mass flowrate of water contaminant (g·h

−1

, g·d

−1

)

m

COND

Mass of condensate (kg)

m

EX

Mass flowrate of exhaust (kg·s

−1

)

m

FUEL

Mass of fuel (kg)

m

max

Maximum mass flowrate (kg·s

−1

)

m

STEAM

Mass flowrate of steam (kg·s

−1

)

m

W

Mass flowrate of pure water (t·h

−1

, t·d

−1

)

m

WL

Limiting mass flowrate of pure water (t·h

−1

, t·d

−1

)

m

Wmin

Minimum mass flowrate of fresh water (t·h

−1

, t·d

−1

)

m

WT

Target mass flowrate of fresh water (t·h

−1

, t·d

−1

)

m

WTLOSS

Target mass flowrate of fresh water involving a water loss (t·h

−1

, t·d

−1

)

M

Constant in capital cost correlations (−), or

molar mass (kg·kmol

−1

), or

number of variables (−)

MP

Medium pressure

MC