20,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
This bold and passionate textbook has become a go-to introduction to current and emerging thinking on the social dimensions of climate change, presenting key concepts and frameworks for understanding the multifaceted connections between climate and society.
Using clear language and powerful examples, Robin Leichenko and Karen O'Brien explore the varied social drivers, impacts, and responses to climate change. They highlight the important roles that worldviews, values, and – especially in this updated edition – emotions play in shaping interpretations of climate challenges. They include additional material on climate justice and equity, eco-centric discourses, paradigm shifts, and other topics. Situating climate change within the context of a rapidly changing world, the book demonstrates how dynamic political, economic, and environmental contexts amplify risks, often unequally for different groups based on race, gender, wealth, and location. Yet these shifting conditions also present opportunities for transformative responses: the new edition strengthens its emphasis on individuals’ power to influence systems, structures, and cultures.
With updated references, examples, and data, and expanded pedagogical features, this informative and engaging new edition empowers undergraduates across the social sciences and other disciplines with a broader and deeper understanding of climate change and the potential for equitable and sustainable responses.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 592
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Acknowledgments
1 The Social Challenge of Climate Change
Setting the stage
Why does climate change matter?
Equity and climate justice
The climate of the Anthropocene
Openings and opportunities
Climate change as transformation
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: why climate change matters
Further reading
2 Scientific Evidence of Climate Change
The scientific consensus
Evidence of climate change
Documenting a changing climate
Extreme weather
Other evidence of climate change
Linking climate change to greenhouse gas emissions and human activities
Projecting climate futures
Is science enough?
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: documenting evidence of climate change
Further reading
3 Climate Change Discourses
What kind of a problem is climate change?
The power of discourses
The biophysical discourse
The critical discourse
The eco-centric discourse
The dismissive discourse
An integrative approach
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: identifying climate change discourses in the media
Further reading
4 Worldviews, Beliefs, and Emotions
How do you see the world?
What is a worldview?
Beliefs
Values
Worldviews and climate change
Worldview categories
Changing worldviews
Climate change and emotions
Connecting with climate change through film, fiction, and art
Imagining the future through film and fiction
Climate change in visual and participatory arts
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: exploring climate change art
Further reading
5 The Social Drivers of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The elephant in the room
National emissions patterns
National emissions
National emissions and development
Globalization and the spatial displacement of emissions
The culture of consumption
The rise of consumer culture
Carbon footprints and social practices
Where we live: cities and urbanization
What we eat: food and agricultural systems
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: experimenting with change for 30 days
Further reading
6 A World of Energy
Let’s talk about energy
Energy and emissions
Fossil fuel energy sources
Low-carbon energy sources
The technical and economic logic of fossil fuels
Geopolitics and national energy security
The political economy of fossil fuels
Energy solutions and just energy futures
Emissions reduction strategies
Low-carbon energy transitions and energy justice
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: creating an energy profile
Further reading
7 Climate Change Impacts and Vulnerabilities
Experiencing a changing climate
Changing climate baselines
Climate impact assessments
Intangible impacts of a changing climate
Extreme climate events
Impacts of extreme events
Extreme events and mental health
Vulnerability to climate change
Defining and assessing vulnerability
Intersecting vulnerabilities
Multiple stressors
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: identifying climate change impacts
Further reading
8 Climate Change as a Security Threat
Living with climate threats
Food security
Water security
Health security
Housing security
Housing access
Displacement and migration
Climate change, conflict, and collaboration
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: responding to climate change insecurities
Further reading
9 Adapting to Climate Change
Adapting to change
What is adaptation?
Adaptation in practice
Adaptation strategies
Risk management
Cultural adaptation
Building climate resilience
Challenges to adaptation
Adaptation barriers and limits
Loss, damages, and compensation
Maladaptation
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: identifying adaptation actions
Further reading
10 Transforming the Future
Imagining the future
Defining transformation
The practical sphere: promoting green transitions
The political sphere: climate change activism and social movements
The personal sphere: transforming paradigms
Scaling transformations
Summary
Reflection questions
Active learning: taking action
Further reading
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1
Five Types of Climate Change Discourses
Chapter 6
Table 6.1
Ten Largest Firms Globally in 2023
Chapter 8
Table 8.1
Prevalence of Undernourishment, 2005–2021
Chapter 9
Table 9.1
Dimensions of Climate Justice
Table 9.2
Uninsured Disaster Losses by Region, 2013–2022
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
IPCC reasons for concern.
Figure 1.2
Documenting the Great Acceleration.
Figure 1.3
Planetary boundaries.
Figure 1.4
The fraction of time that the Holocene represents in Earth’s history.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Global mean temperatures over time.
Figure 2.2
Global temperature map: 2022 compared with 1951–1980.
Figure 2.3
Annual temperature deviations from normal for Australia.
Figure 2.4
The greenhouse effect.
Figure 2.5
The Keeling Curve: CO
2
concentration at Mauna Loa Observatory.
Figure 2.6
Changes in global surface temperature relative to 1850–1900.
Figure 2.7
Radiative forcing of CO
2
and other gases.
Figure 2.8
Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) analysis reveals that total warming is domina...
Figure 2.9
Remaining carbon budget at different levels of warming.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
A simplified version of the Bretherton diagram.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
Earthrise (Apollo 8), December 24, 1968.
Figure 4.2
Four views of nature and their relationship to cultural worldviews.
Figure 4.3
Global warming’s six Americas over the last decade.
Figure 4.4
Schwartz’s theory of basic human values.
Figure 4.5
Five levels of social consciousness.
Figure 4.6
The politics of snow.
Figure 4.7
Rising sea levels: one prediction of where rising sea levels will end up at Cott...
Figure 4.8
Dear Climate posters.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1
Annual CO
2
emissions by country, 2021, in million tonnes (Mt).
Figure 5.2
Annual CO
2
emissions per capita by country, 2021, in tonnes (t).
Figure 5.3
The environmental Kuznets curve.
Figure 5.4
Percentage of CO
2
emissions by global income level.
Figure 5.5
Emissions up to and beyond the farm gate.
Figure 5.6
Carbon intensity of eating and footprint estimates (per year) by diet type.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1
Energy sources over time.
Figure 6.2
Global emissions by sector in 2019 (direct emissions).
Figure 6.3
Decreasing costs of solar and wind energy production.
Figure 6.4
Consumption of lighting.
Figure 6.5
Arctic oil and natural gas resources.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1
Potential climate change impacts.
Figure 7.2
Number of weather- and climate-related disaster events by year (flood, extreme w...
Figure 7.3
Tree-cover loss by climate domain, 2001–2021.
Figure 7.4
Vulnerability diagram.
Figure 7.5
National vulnerability map.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
Shares of total employment in agriculture by country.
Figure 8.2
Food security.
Figure 8.3
Water stress by country (freshwater withdrawals as a share of internal resources...
Figure 8.4
Climate change and health.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
Flexible adaptation pathways.
Figure 9.2
Air-conditioning rates.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1
Non-linear change.
Figure 10.2
Three spheres of transformation.
Figure 10.3
Renewable energy employment estimates between 2012 and 2021.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Pages
iii
iv
vi
vii
viii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
Climate and Society
Transforming the Future
Second Edition
Robin Leichenko and Karen O’Brien
polity
Copyright Page
Copyright © Robin Leichenko & Karen O’Brien 2024
The right of Robin Leichenko & Karen O’Brien to be identified as Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First edition published in 2019 by Polity Press
This second edition first published in 2024 by Polity Press
Polity Press
65 Bridge Street
Cambridge CB2 1UR, UK
Polity Press
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
ISBN-13: 978-1-5095-5928-2
ISBN-13: 978-1-5095-5929-9(pb)
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2023948759
by Fakenham Prepress Solutions, Fakenham, Norfolk NR21 8NL
The publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that the URLs for external websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press. However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate.
Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been overlooked the publisher will be pleased to include any necessary credits in any subsequent reprint or edition.
For further information on Polity, visit our website: politybooks.com
Acknowledgments
We are pleased to offer a second edition of this book. Research and knowledge about climate change has expanded dramatically over the past five years, and this new edition incorporates many emerging themes and topics that advance our understanding of the human and social dimensions of climate change. We hope that this new edition continues to engage and empower readers, inspiring hope, critical reflection, and transformative action.
In writing both the original and second editions, we received tremendous support from students, collaborators, family, friends, and colleagues. We especially wish to thank the undergraduate students in Robin Leichenko’s Climate Change and Society course at Rutgers University and Karen O’Brien’s Environment and Society course at the University of Oslo. Their patience, enthusiasm, good humor, and suggestions were welcomed as we tested and revised different topics and ideas in our lectures and seminars. They helped us to discover what resonated with them, challenged them, frustrated them, and inspired them. We also thank them for their recommendations on how to make the material more accessible, relevant, and meaningful from a student’s perspective.
We are grateful to Emma Longstaff at Polity for her early encouragement and support of the original project and to Jonathan Skerrett at Polity and Gail Ferguson for supporting us in the completion of both the first and second editions. We thank Coleen Vogel, as well as numerous anonymous reviewers who were generous with their time, for valuable comments and suggestions on draft manuscripts of both editions. We also thank Neil Adger, Hannah Gosnell, Diana Liverman, Anna Pigott, and others who participated in an American Association of Geographer’s Author Meets Critics Session in 2022 for their advice and suggestions on material to include in the second edition.
At Rutgers, Khai Hoan Nguyen gave valuable feedback on both the original and second editions, including pilot testing of many of the book’s illustrative examples, when she served as a teaching assistant in the course. Katherine Cann assisted with compiling new information and references for the second edition. Former PhD students Mark Barnes, Ally Sobey, Adelle Thomas, and Peter Vancura helped with development of the course syllabus and lecture materials. At the University of Oslo, Linda Sygna, Leonie Goodwin, and Ann Kristin Schorre provided research assistance and support, and seminar leaders Irmelin Gram-Hanssen, Gail Hochachka, Milda Nordbø Rosenberg, and Sadik Qaka contributed ideas, feedback, and suggestions on the course material and text. Karen is also grateful to researchers Kirsten Ulsrud and Morgan Scoville-Simonds for chapter comments and to Dan Jesper Lagerman and Sasha Stoliarenko for valuable feedback on the manuscript for the first edition. She is grateful to Rosario Carmona for research assistance for the second edition, and to Manjana Milkoreit for valuable feedback.
Finally, we thank our colleagues in the Department of Geography at Rutgers University, the Rutgers Climate and Energy Institute, and the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo for their commitment to creating and maintaining positive and supportive environments for learning, where new ideas and approaches can thrive. As always, we thank our families, Charles and Henry Strehlo and William Solecki, and Annika, Espen, Jens Erik, and Kristian Stokke, for their infinite patience, love, inspiration, and support throughout this long-running project.
1The Social Challenge of Climate Change
Setting the stage
Climate change is transforming the world as we know it. In many places, extreme or unusual weather events are raising awareness that climate change is happening now. In some places, longer-term shifts such as increasing temperatures, melting glaciers, and rising sea levels are leading to existential questions about how climate change may affect future livability and survival. After more than three decades of efforts to address climate change, greenhouse gas emissions today are 60% higher than in 1990 (Stoddard et al. 2021). Along with increasing concerns about climate change, there is growing recognition that the sooner we act, the lower the risks of severe, widespread, and irreversible global impacts (IPCC 2014a, 2023a). But how should we respond? What can we do? Answering these questions begins with seeing climate change as more than an environmental problem. We need to look more broadly at social, economic, political, and cultural processes that are both driving climate change and influencing responses. We also need to look more deeply at how we see ourselves in the world, how we relate to each other and nature, and how our individual and collective decisions and actions are shaping the future for generations to come.
This book explores social causes, consequences, and responses to climate change. Our point of departure is that there are many different perspectives on the problem and diverse approaches to solutions. When climate change is viewed as an environmental problem, the solutions are usually technical or behavioral, such as managing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting environmentally friendly lifestyles. When climate change is viewed as a social problem, the solutions broaden to include economic, political, cultural, and institutional changes. When it is viewed as a human problem, the solutions deepen to include reflections on individual and shared beliefs, values, and worldviews. As we discuss throughout this book, climate change shows that the environment is directly influenced by human activities and that our actions can and do have impacts on larger systems. This implies that humans collectively have the potential to generate positive changes that contribute to a more equitable and sustainable future.
Taking a broader and deeper view of climate change also opens new entry points for solutions, some with the potential for transforming society in ways that address multiple global challenges, including poverty and inequality, food insecurity, biodiversity loss, health crises, and social injustices. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for 2030 recognize that all of these challenges are linked, including SDG Goal 13: “Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts” (United Nations 2015). Highlighting the social and human dimensions of climate change, we emphasize that future impacts and risks are not predetermined but conditional. There are enormous differences between a world that is 1.5°C (2.7°F) warmer and a world that is 2°C (3.6°F) warmer or more (IPCC 2018, 2023a), and there are many openings and opportunities to create an equitable and sustainable future.
Sustainable Development Goals are 17 global goals adopted by the United Nations as part of the 2015 resolution “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”
This introductory chapter sets the stage for our investigation of the social and human dimensions of climate change. We begin by exploring the question of why climate change matters and its implications for equity and justice. We then consider climate change within the context of the Anthropocene, a new geologic epoch characterized by the influence of humans on Earth system processes. We situate climate change in geological, historical, and future time frames and connect it to long-term and ongoing processes of social, economic, and environmental change. We then explore openings and opportunities for reducing climate change risks and vulnerabilities and engaging with broader transformations. We conclude by making the case that climate change is a fundamentally transformative process; it is transforming not only Earth systems but also how we think about ourselves and our capacity to create change.
The Anthropocene is a proposed geologic epoch beginning in roughly the mid-twentieth century, which is distinguished by the pervasiveness of human influences on Earth system processes
Why does climate change matter?
Climate change is often described as an urgent challenge that poses critical risks to social, ecological, and economic systems (see Box 1.1). The growing use of phrases such as “climate crisis,” “climate disruption,” “climate emergency,” and “climate breakdown” reflects growing concerns about the threats posed by climate change. Although we use the phrase “climate change” throughout the book, we consider it to be interchangeable with any of these other phrases. Despite widespread awareness of climate change, many people struggle to articulate precisely why it matters. Some feel that climate change is too abstract to really grasp, or that it “doesn’t really affect me,” and “isn’t something that I need to worry about.” Others see climate change as just one of many pressing social concerns, including global poverty, unemployment, homelessness, pandemics, addictions, terrorism, and military conflicts. With so many competing issues, it can be easy to downplay the significance of climate change or assume that technological innovations will eventually solve the problem. Some are still convinced that climate change is merely a “hoax” and that humans cannot influence the climate system. In contrast, a growing number of people recognize the significance of climate change, yet feel overwhelmed or paralyzed by its widespread implications, convinced that it is too big an issue to address and unsure of what role they can play to address it. However, more and more people are indeed both worried about climate change and committed to taking action. In light of the numerous interpretations of climate change, let’s consider some of the many reasons why climate change matters.
Box 1.1 “Reasons for concern” about climate change
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has identified the following five key reasons for concern associated with the risks of climate change:
Risks to unique and threatened systemsRisks associated with extreme weather eventsRisks associated with the distribution of impactsRisks associated with global aggregate impactsRisks associated with large-scale singular eventsThese risks are continuously evaluated by the IPCC based on projections of future global temperature change (see Figure 1.1). In general, they show that the higher the temperature, the greater the risks (IPCC 2023b). O’Neill et al. (2017) identify three additional metrics that can inform debates about long-term mitigation targets: rate of change; ocean acidification; and sea-level rise. The authors point out that these global reasons for concern do not explicitly account for differences in the exposure and vulnerability of socio-ecological systems over time and how they are influenced by societal conditions.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is an international body established in 1988 to regularly assess the state of scientific knowledge related to climate change
mitigation is an action taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with human activities in order to limit the rate and magnitude of climate change
ocean acidification is the increasing acidity (decreasing pH) of ocean waters worldwide as a result of the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
vulnerability is a predisposition or susceptibility to being harmed by a climatic event or circumstance
Figure 1.1IPCC reasons for concern.
Source: IPCC 2014b
Climate change matters for very practical reasons; weather and climate are foundational to the management of our everyday lives. When the weather becomes less predictable, people have to live with greater uncertainties and new risks. This can involve anything from mundane questions about whether to wear a jacket or carry an umbrella to questions about the timing and location of outdoor excursions, festivals, sports events, and even weddings. It may involve adjusting routines, such as reducing daily water usage in response to long-term drought, or it may mean adapting to higher summer temperatures by shifting outdoor work hours to avoid the hottest part of the day. For some, the everyday experience of climate change means new inconveniences, such as navigating roads that are subject to more frequent flooding. For many, climate change already presents immediate threats to livelihoods, health, and well-being via impacts on food production, water supplies, and housing security. At the same time, increasing exposure to extreme weather events, such as floods, forest fires, or heat waves, is having devastating consequences for many communities. Ultimately, if climate change continues unabated, it will have potentially catastrophic outcomes for human and natural systems (IPCC 2023b). This can threaten security and social stability in many countries, whether due to the disappearance of coastlines, stresses on agricultural and water resources, or population displacement and migration.
Climate change affects the functioning of economic sectors and infrastructure systems, which are generally designed for stability and predictability. Importantly, climate change means that the past can no longer serve as a reliable guide for the future. In sectors such as logistics, engineering, and construction, decisions ranging from where to site new warehouse facilities and how to plan new roads, bridges, and other major infrastructure projects are complicated by uncertainties about future temperatures, rainfall, flood heights, wind speeds, and sea levels. For the property insurance industry, more extreme weather events and a changing climate mean increased costs and less predictability about future damage payouts, which, in turn, mean higher premium rates for customers or withdrawal of coverage altogether. Changes in the fundamental rhythms of nature have consequences for agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing, tourism, and many other sectors of the economy, where activities depend on regular seasonal patterns. For farmers, decisions on when to plant crops or when to apply fertilizer and irrigation are rooted in expectations about weather and climate. For fishermen, a warming ocean can affect what types of fish are available, when to catch them, and how much to harvest. For manufacturers, more frequent coastal storms can damage port facilities and disrupt global supply chains. For sectors such as ski tourism, a lack of winter snow can have dramatic repercussions for local economies.
Climate change also has profound consequences for biodiversity and ecosystems. For example, a warming and acidifying ocean influences marine ecosystems, affecting coral reefs as well as the entire food chain. Many species of fish feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton, which are sensitive to temperatures and ocean acidity. Some of these fish in turn provide food for other fish, for birds such as penguins, and for mammals such as polar bears, dolphins, and walruses. Changing climate conditions represent an existential threat for some animals and plants, increasing the risk of local and global extinction. On land, the tolerance zones for plants have been gradually shifting, with many species migrating north or south, or to higher elevations. Some tree species in temperate regions are threatened by pests and diseases that did not typically survive over winters when conditions were cooler. The diversity of plants, animals, and ecosystems is important, not just because of the benefits and services that they provide to humans but because of the intrinsic value of nature.
intrinsic value is the inherent worth of something in and of itself
Cultural practices and identities are also influenced by climate change, which transforms conditions and experiences that matter to individuals, communities, and nations. Safety, prosperity, and a sense of place are among the many things that people care about which are affected by climate change. In the future, it will increasingly affect where people can live, what they can eat, and how they experience life. As these and other impacts and threats become more evident, climate change is taking a growing toll on physical, mental, and emotional health. Feelings of sadness, anxiety, grief, depression, or trauma are increasingly associated with ongoing or impending losses, whether due to the devastation caused by extreme events or to the loss of loved species, locations, or experiences. These and other psychological aspects of climate change can have tangible socioeconomic and physical consequences, whether through missed work or school, a reduced capacity to concentrate or participate in everyday activities, or an increased consumption of medicines or other healing or pain-reducing modalities. Mental health impacts of climate change can be compounded when people or communities face multiple stressors, such as economic crises, food insecurity, disease threats, or lack of water. The COVID-19 pandemic revealed the systemic nature of vulnerability and risk, and also the importance of connections, relationships, and social safety nets.
sense of place is the meaning and emotions that are evoked in connection with a person’s experiences and memories of a particular place
This brief overview identifies many reasons why climate change matters. However, as we will discuss in this book, climate change also introduces some reasons for optimism. It shows that the environment is directly influenced by human activities and that human actions can and do have impacts on larger systems. This implies that we have the potential to initiate positive changes that will contribute to more equitable and sustainable futures. Climate change matters because it shows that we matter.
Equity and climate justice
Climate change raises profound equity concerns. Both the causes and consequences of climate change are unevenly distributed within and across societies, and over generations. Responses to climate change, including mitigation and adaptation policies, also have uneven consequences across regions, sectors, communities, and social groups. When viewing climate change through an equity lens, many questions arise: Do individuals, companies, and countries that are doing the most to cause climate change have an obligation to help those who are most affected? What types of compensation and adaptation assistance should the victims of climate change receive, and from whom? Whose voices count in decisions about climate action? Who is looking out for the rights of non-human species and future generations?
adaptation is an action taken in response to the impacts of climate change in order to reduce risks, losses, and damages, or to take advantage of new opportunities
Equity, in its most general form, is a measure of whether something is fair and just to all concerned. Equity is an inclusive concept that applies to all, without discrimination or bias. It is distinguished from equality, which means that each individual or group has the same opportunities or resources, regardless of context or needs. A foundational equity issue raised by climate change concerns responsibility, as those who are least responsible for causing the problem are most vulnerable to its impacts. A study by Kartha et al. (2020) highlights the disproportionate responsibility for greenhouse emissions across different income groups globally, showing that the richest 10% are responsible for nearly 50% of global emissions. In total, individuals in the richer half of the world’s population are responsible for more than 90% of emissions, while the contributions of the poorer half account for less than 7% of total emissions. The disproportionate impacts of climate change are especially evident in frontline communities that are already facing other forms of marginalization and discrimination due to race, class, ethnicity, indigeneity, gender, identity, and other factors. The poorest and most marginalized are not only disproportionately exposed to climate change, but they also have the least capacity to adapt and recover.
Recognition of the equity dimensions of climate change, and especially the connections between climate change and social justice, is at the core of the climate justice movement (see Box 1.2). In addition to concerns about uneven responsibilities for climate change and unequal impacts, efforts to promote climate justice shed light on the overlaps between climate change exposure and other forms of inequity, including those associated with racial, gender, economic, and environmental factors. In the United States, for example, communities of color suffer disproportionately from illnesses including asthma, heart disease, and COVID-19 infections (Gaynor and Wilson 2020). These same communities are often among the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change such as heat waves and flooding (EPA 2021). The climate justice movement draws attention to processes such as colonization and systemic racism that contribute to and perpetuate inequalities and vulnerabilities (Rice, Long, and Levenda 2022). The movement also highlights the need for wider and more inclusive participation in climate change-related decisions, elevating the voices of small island nations, Indigenous groups, and members of marginalized communities worldwide (Sultana 2022a; Thomas et al. 2020).
climate justice draws attention to inequalities across different communities, groups, and nations in contributions to rising greenhouse gas emissions, vulnerabilities and capacities to adapt to climate change impacts, and representation and voice in climate change decision making
Box 1.2 Movements for climate justice
An increasing number of social movements have emerged in recent years to address climate change. These movements are supported by a wide variety of global organizations aimed at promoting climate action, including, for example, 350.org, Global Power Shift, Idle No More, Indigenous Climate Action, The Sunrise Movement, Fridays for Future, Extinction Rebellion, and Just Stop Oil. The movements have a diversity of goals, from increasing awareness of the unequal impacts of climate hazards to adopting more just and sustainable modes of living and caring for the Earth. Movements such as Extinction Rebellion are devoted to raising awareness of the existential threat of climate change and biodiversity loss and drawing attention to the linkages between climate change and ecological and social justice. Many justice-focused movements include significant youth participation or are largely youth led. For example, the youth-led Fridays for Future and Sunrise Movement stress the urgent need for immediate climate action. The Youth Climate Movement (YOUNGO) is an international network of youth organizations that actively participate in international climate negotiations to promote climate justice and global solidarity (Thew, Middlemiss, and Paavola 2020). Calling out the failure of politicians and previous generations to respond, these movements draw attention to intergenerational justice and the urgency of climate action.
Are any climate movements active in your community? Have you participated or considered participating in any of these movements? Why or why not?Equity issues regarding climate change also relate to impacts on children, young people, and future generations. The concept of intergenerational justice suggests that present-day generations have moral duties and responsibilities to ensure that future generations have the same opportunities to live well (Meijers 2023). For children and young people, climate change poses both an immediate and a long-term threat to their physical and mental health and well-being (Sanson, Van Hoorn, and Burke 2019; Vergunst and Berry 2022). Although it is sometimes easy to think of future generations as a distant abstraction, Davies, Tabucanon, and Box (2016) remind us that children born today will be experiencing decades of unprecedented climate change impacts. As such, children and young people represent a critical link between current adults and future generations; they have an enormous stake in today’s climate policies and actions and are potentially the strongest advocates for action on climate change.
Finally, a focus on equity also draws attention to questions of ethics and responsibility for both people and other species (Tschakert et al. 2021). Biodiversity loss is itself a global concern, and over recent decades monitored wild animal populations have decreased by 69% due to human activities (WWF 2022). Climate change is contributing to biodiversity losses by damaging terrestrial and ocean habitats and ecosystems that support the lives, health, and well-being of all species. In focusing on the equity dimensions of these interlinked issues, we consider what humans owe to other species and whether humans living today have a moral duty to preserve the health of the planet for all species both in the present and the future. While the answers to these and other questions raised by climate change vary depending on worldviews, values, and beliefs, there is no doubt that climate change impacts and responses raise deep moral and ethical concerns.
The climate of the Anthropocene
Climate change is frequently described as “the greatest challenge for humanity.” Yet it is important to recognize that human activities have long influenced the environment. From prehistoric times onward, activities such as hunting and fishing, gathering of fruits and seeds, and domestication of crops and livestock have affected the planet’s biophysical systems. Human activities, such as making fires for cooking and heating or clearance of forests for agricultural production, led to changes in the composition of the atmosphere and the Earth’s albedo, thus influencing the climate. Since the onset of industrialization roughly 250 years ago, the scale and extent of human influence on the Earth system has become ever more evident and pronounced.
albedo is a measure of how much solar energy hitting the Earth’s surface is reflected back to space
The cumulative effect of human activities on the planet is now so pervasive that the present era is sometimes referred to as the Anthropocene (Steffen, Crutzen, and McNeill 2007). The Anthropocene is defined as an epoch where human activities have been the dominant influence on Earth system processes (see Box 1.3 on page 14). Although the onset of the Anthropocene is debated, it marks the end of the Holocene epoch, a period lasting more than 11,000 years, during which environmental conditions supported the development and flourishing of human societies (Lewis and Maslin 2015). The rapid and dramatic environmental transformations that characterize the Anthropocene have vital implications for human societies, all non-human species, and the future of the planet.
With respect to climate change, the pervasive influence of human activity can be traced to the use of fossil fuel energy and the development of industrial societies. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, energy needs were met primarily by burning wood and other replenishable organic materials. Industrialization dramatically increased demand for energy to power extraction and production processes and transportation of people, resources, and goods. This led to a rapid increase in the extraction and production of fossil fuels, first coal and later petroleum and natural gas. Along with increased rates of logging and clearance of forests for agriculture, livestock grazing, and expansion of towns and cities, growing use of fossil fuel energy marked a turning point for human influence on planetary systems, including the climate system.
Demand for fossil fuel energy to run machinery, mine natural resources, and transport raw materials, finished products, and people accelerated with the expansion of industrial societies and the rapid growth of towns and cities after World War II. The period starting in about 1950 marks the beginning of what has been referred to as the “Great Acceleration” (Steffen et al. 2015a) (see Figure 1.2). Throughout this period, the increased burning of fossil fuels, along with deforestation and expansion of agricultural and livestock production, has contributed to dramatically rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxides (NOx). The Great Acceleration continues to the present day and is closely intertwined with a period of rapidly changing social, political, and cultural conditions, population growth, economic globalization, urbanization, and rising levels of consumption.
the Great Acceleration is a period that began roughly in the middle of the twentieth century and continues to the present day and is marked by dramatic increases in the consumption of fossil fuels, deforestation and land-use changes, greenhouse gas emissions, and other measures of human impact on the global environment
Human-induced climate change represents a key aspect of global environmental change, but it is not the only one associated with the Anthropocene. Humans are also contributing to biodiversity loss, changes in the biogeochemical cycles, land-use changes, ocean acidification, and many other impacts. One group of scientists has identified nine planetary boundaries to describe how human activities threaten to disrupt the Earth’s physical systems and its “safe operating space for humanity” (Rockström et al. 2009; Steffen et al. 2015b) (see Figure 1.3 on page 13). By some accounts, humans have already overstepped six planetary boundaries: climate change, biosphere integrity, land-system change, freshwater change, biogeochemical cycles (phosphorus [P] and nitrogen [N]), and novel entities (Richardson et al. 2023). Of particular concern are potential tipping points. Examples of climate-related tipping points include the melting of Arctic summer sea ice, the Greenland ice sheet, and the West Antarctic ice sheet, changes in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), Amazon rainforest dieback, the dieback of boreal forests, and shifts in the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (Lenton 2013). Recent research has suggested that a number of these tipping points become likely within the range 1.5°–2°C (2.7°–3.6°F) increases in global temperatures, including the collapse of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, the die-off of low-latitude coral reefs, and permafrost thaw (Armstrong McKay et al. 2022).
planetary boundaries are thresholds for the impact of human activities on the Earth’s physical life-support systems, which, if crossed, will contribute to a heightened risk of abrupt and irreversible environmental change
tipping points are thresholds where systems can shift irreversibly into another state or mode of operation with unpredictable and potentially dangerous consequences
the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) includes a system of ocean currents that bring cold water south and warm water north, circulating nutrients and helping to bring warmth to some regions, including northern Europe
the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a recurring pattern of warm and cool water temperatures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean which influences weather conditions in many other regions of the world
Figure 1.2 Documenting the Great Acceleration.
Source: McPhearson et al. 2021
Although the Anthropocene is a widely discussed concept within academic and policy circles, its definition, interpretation, and use are contested (Dalby 2016). Many researchers are critical of the concept of the Anthropocene, pointing out that not every human being has had a negative impact on the planet (Biermann et al. 2016). Indeed, a relatively small part of the population has had disproportionately large consequences for the global environment (Nielsen et al. 2021). Emphasizing colonial legacies, global capitalism, unequal power relations, and materialist consumer culture as drivers of environmental degradation, some suggest that “Capitalocene” might be a more appropriate label for the present epoch (Altvater et al. 2016). Others draw attention to historical and contemporary colonialism, racism, and gender and religious oppression as critical to understanding the Anthropocene (Brown and Kanouse 2021; Davis et al. 2019; Haraway 2016). Some point out that urgent and apocalyptic messages about the Anthropocene can be used to justify risky and undemocratic policy responses, such as geoengineering and totalitarian governance (Lynch and Veland 2018; Swyngedouw 2013).
the Capitalocene is the idea that capitalism is the central driver of human influence on global environmental systems
geoengineering includes a variety of large-scale technological measures that are intended to influence the Earth’s climate and counter the effects of global warming
The idea that humans are “in” the Anthropocene coincides with a period of rapidly changing social, political, and cultural conditions. While many people recognize that humans are not separate from nature and are advocating for social, economic, environmental, and climate justice, growing feelings of social isolation, economic insecurity, xenophobia, political polarization, and nationalism have contributed to skepticism towards science, disdain for the future, and rejection of climate change as a valid concern. Some suggest that the Anthropocene can serve as a bridging concept that contributes to more inclusive understandings of complex issues such as climate change (Brondizio et al. 2016). Through its interpretive flexibility, the Anthropocene can potentially bring together research and insights from the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to create new narratives about humanity’s relationship to the Earth, thereby expanding the range of futures that are considered possible and desirable (Castree 2014; Lövbrand et al. 2015). Indeed, the very idea of the Anthropocene recognizes that humans influence large-scale systems, which, in turn, opens opportunities for humans to transform systems in ways that foster more sustainable, just, and inclusive futures.
Openings and opportunities
Much of our discussion so far has emphasized the risks associated with climate change. However, it also introduces openings and opportunities for transforming ideas, policies, and actions. Seeing climate change as an opportunity involves recognizing the threat, reducing risks and vulnerabilities, and focusing on the possibilities and potentials for creating alternative futures. As a shared danger, climate change can be viewed as a mandate for global cooperation and an opportunity for humanity to collaborate on solutions that benefit everyone, with peace, equity, and unity as potential outcomes of the current crisis.
Figure 1.3 Planetary boundaries.
Source: Richardson et al. 2023. Reprinted with permission of AAAS. © The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee AAAS. Distributed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)
The signing of the 2015 Paris Agreement by more than 190 nations is one example of the potential for global collaboration on climate change (UNFCCC 2015). It marked a potentially pivotal event towards realizing the goal of avoiding dangerous climate change, as set forth in Article 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This refers to the specific UNFCCC goal of stabilizing emissions of greenhouse gases. While a precise threshold for what is dangerous has not been established, the consensus is that temperature increases beyond 1.5°C (2.7°F) pose grave threats to human and ecological systems (IPCC 2023b). It is important to remember that climate change is already causing significant harm to many nations, communities, ecosystems and species. Even seemingly small changes represent dangerous climate change for some, and the difference between 1.5°C (2.7°F) and 2°C (3.6°F) is significant (IPCC 2018). Although the Paris commitments are voluntary, the 1.5°C (2.7°F) target represents more than a temperature goal. Rather, it can be interpreted as a shared recognition that the implications of climate change are serious, unevenly distributed, and costly, and that the burdens of adapting to climate change will increase as global temperatures rise (IPCC 2018). In many ways, the Paris Agreement can be thought of as “marching orders” for a global transformation to sustainability.
the Paris Agreement is a 2015 agreement signed by more than 190 nations to limit climate change to below 2°C – and ideally to 1.5°C – by the end of the twenty-first century
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty that aims to stabilize emissions of greenhouse gases at a level that would “prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”
Box 1.3 Climate change over geological time
One way to gain perspective on human influence on planetary systems is to consider human history relative to geological time. Geological epochs mark major periods in the Earth’s roughly 4.5 billion-year history (see Figure 1.4). To put humans into the context of geological time, the ancestors of humans have been around for about six million years, modern humans evolved about 200,000 years ago, and civilizations emerged only about 6,000 years ago. The significant effects of human actions on the Earth system are evident in the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and cryosphere. The pervasive signature of human actions is also reflected in the Earth’s stratigraphy, which now includes deposits of aluminum, concrete, plastics and other human-made materials. The geochemical signatures in lake strata show high levels of petrochemical residues, pesticides, and other markers of human activities (Waters et al. 2016). This evidence has led scientists to propose the Anthropocene as a new geological epoch.
Consideration of geological time gives us a broader perspective on the magnitude and speed of recent and projected climate change. When we look at geologic time scales, especially prior to human history, we can see evidence of significant past climatic changes. For example, almost 56 million years ago, during a geological period referred to as the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), global average temperatures increased by about 6°C (10.8°F) (McInerney and Wing 2011). However, this increase occurred over a period of 20,000 years. Over the past 135 years, global average land and ocean surface temperatures have increased by nearly 1°C (1.8°F), and recent projections suggest that temperatures may increase by 1.4°C (2.5°F) to 4.4°C (7.9°F) by the end of this century (IPCC 2023b).
Figure 1.4The fraction of time that the Holocene represents in Earth’s history.
Source: Based on figure from The Economist, 2011
Framing climate change as an opportunity can catalyze and expand movements that link it to environmental and social justice, as discussed in Box 1.2. This involves confronting unsustainable government policies and business practices, and challenging exclusionary and oppressive institutions and systems that contribute to risks and vulnerabilities. A growing number of governments, NGOs, businesses, civil society groups, and citizens recognize that addressing climate change can promote innovative forms of governance, including more equitable and sustainable ways to organize the economy and society. Together with creatives, intellectuals, and activists, they are forming communities of practice to promote sustainability in everything from fashion and food to art and education. Climate change can also spark new research and innovation, for example on renewable energy technologies, early warning systems, or changes in food access or consumption practices. Responding to climate change will create many new types of jobs and foster new industries aimed at the production and distribution of alternative forms of energy and materials, new learning platforms, and new modes of transportation and social interaction. Together, these shifts contribute to ongoing green transitions towards sustainability.
green transitions are large-scale shifts away from fossil fuel energy sources towards alternative, renewable energy sources
Climate change also presents an opportunity for deeper inquiries into how mindsets, beliefs, values, and worldviews influence social norms, institutions, economic dynamics, and power relationships (O’Brien 2018). There are growing questions about the narratives of “progress” that have driven industrialization, modernization, economic growth, and globalization, yet have also led to ecological degradation, land dispossession, and the exploitation and marginalization of many groups. Alternative narratives and paradigms that emphasize collaboration and connection over competition and separation are emerging or being revitalized (Veland et al. 2018). A growing recognition of Indigenous knowledge systems and new discoveries in science are highlighting deep interconnections between humans and the environment and contributing to a revision of the atomistic, mechanistic, and deterministic understandings of nature that emerged during the Western Enlightenment (Redvers et al. 2022). For example, some argue for an “Age of Enlivenment” where consciousness and connection are seen as vital to all life (Weber 2013). Many are interested in whether and how changes in worldviews, norms, and values can contribute to social tipping points that rapidly transform systems towards sustainability (Milkoreit et al. 2018; Otto et al. 2020).
social norms are the unwritten ideas or rules of behavior that are considered acceptable by individuals within a particular group
paradigms are patterns of thought and ways of understanding systems and human–environment connections
social tipping points are non-linear processes of change within social systems that can lead to rapid and widespread societal changes
The barriers to limiting global warming to 1.5°C (2.7°F) or 2°C (3.6°F) remain formidable. In fact, many argue that avoiding dangerous climate change is now virtually impossible without large-scale removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere (IPCC 2023b). Some suggest that it is necessary to simply accept the losses and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Others point out that there are biophysical and social limits to adaptation and that successful responses to climate change will require deliberate transformations (Adger et al. 2009; O’Brien 2012). It is important to be clear about the different assumptions regarding the barriers to societal change and to challenge them when necessary (McPhearson et al. 2021). It is also important to point out that not everything needs to be transformed and to recognize successes and opportunities for shared learning. Many existing institutions, values, norms, and ways of living and working are already contributing to equitable climate change responses (Bennett et al. 2016). Finally, it is important to acknowledge the historical significance of humanity’s capacity to innovate and collaborate, especially in times of crisis (Butzer and Endfield 2012). Rebecca Solnit (2023: 6) reminds us to recognize that “what is unlikely is possible, just as what is likely is not inevitable.”
limits to adaptation are insurmountable social and biophysical obstacles that render adaptation actions ineffective
deliberate transformation is a form of intentional transformative change that emphasizes sustainability, equity, and a fairer balance of power in society
Climate change as transformation
Climate change demonstrates that humans are capable of transforming global systems. Our activities are influencing the climate system in fundamental ways – changing temperatures, rainfall patterns, extreme events, and sea levels. Humans are also contributing to both risks and vulnerabilities through the ways that we organize societies, including the policies, regulations, institutions, and incentives that influence behaviors and practices. The types of transformations that many of us are contributing to through climate change are not random or inevitable but a reflection of how we have organized society, as well as how we think about ourselves in relation to the natural world, to each other, and to the future. In many respects, climate change is a wake-up call that encourages a questioning of assumptions about power and politics, economic growth, resource-based consumption, material prosperity, and human exceptionalism. The potential to mobilize and engage society with positive transformations to sustainability is perhaps the biggest opportunity associated with climate change.
human exceptionalism is the idea that humans are unique and categorically different from all other species on Earth
As we emphasize throughout this book, there are many ways to frame, understand, and explore climate change and its relationship to society. Geographer Mike Hulme (2009) refers to the “plasticity of climate change” to describe how the idea of climate change takes on different meanings in different contexts. Each framing of climate change sees the problem in a different way and prioritizes different kinds of strategies and solutions. Some approaches point to specific scientific or policy dimensions of the issue, while others focus on questions of equity and justice. Integrative approaches recognize that the psychological, emotional, and spiritual dimensions of climate change, including humanity’s deep connection to nature, are closely connected to the politics and practices that define the problem and shape the solutions.
This book presents an integrative framing of climate change, exploring the many lenses through which one can view the issue and its social dimensions. The overall goal of the book is to help you think about climate change in new and different ways, to see not only the problems but also the possibilities and potentials for transformative responses. Below, we highlight some of the key messages that will emerge as you read this book:
1 Science is not enough to stimulate action on climate change. As we discuss in chapter 2, climate science provides overwhelming evidence that humans are causing climate change. Yet scientific knowledge about climate change is not sufficient to engage society with meaningful responses. Research from the social sciences and humanities draws attention to the role of institutions, power relationships, and social norms in maintaining the status quo and suggests that a lack of facts and information is not the problem. Action on climate change is influenced by whether and how information – and, increasingly, disinformation – resonate with values, identities, and emotions, and affects economic, cultural, and political processes. This also points to the potential of narratives, stories, and dialogues to engage people personally, politically, and practically with climate change.
2 Discourses have power. Different ways of defining, describing, and discussing the problem of climate change lead to different solutions. In chapter 3, we present some of the key discourses related to climate change and describe the types of response that they prioritize. We emphasize that responses are closely linked to ideas and understandings of what knowledge is and whose knowledge is considered legitimate. Discourses are internalized and reproduced through media, education, and other social institutions, and they are actively promoted or dismissed by those with vested interests in maintaining or achieving a particular outcome. Recognizing how language and ideas influence society allows us to reflect on the power of discourses and their potential to support or hinder action on climate change.
3 Worldviews shape our perspectives. Worldviews, along with the values, beliefs, and assumptions that support them, influence how different individuals and groups relate to and approach climate change. As discussed in chapter 4, worldviews represent the lenses through which we interpret and understand reality; like discourses, worldviews are influenced by social processes, institutions, and relations, as well as by everyday experiences and emotions. The seeming intractability of climate change presents an opportunity to widen our lenses and view problems and solutions from new and different perspectives. This introduces a significant role for art, creativity, and imagination in visioning alternative futures.
4 Greenhouse gas emissions and energy use are driven by social processes. In chapters 5 and 6, we show that responsibility for rising greenhouse gas emissions is unequal across countries, regions, and social groups. These patterns reflect inequalities associated with processes of development, globalization, urbanization, and land-use change. Addressing the drivers of climate change through mitigation policies and practices, such as promoting renewable energy and sustainable consumption, entails challenging economic systems, power relations, social norms, institutions, and systems of privilege that perpetuate fossil fuel usage and unsustainable forms of development. As low-carbon energy transitions accelerate, attention to economic, social, and energy justice is vital to these efforts.
5 Climate change impacts are highly unequal but affect everyone. Chapters 7 and 8 demonstrate that changing climate conditions and extreme events are having profound yet uneven impacts on individuals, households, communities, and nations, as well as on other species and ecosystems. Both tangible and intangible impacts of climate change are having widespread effects on livelihoods, cultural practices, and physical and mental health. Vulnerabilities to these impacts are shaped by intersecting social and economic disparities and historical and contemporary processes of dispossession and marginalization. Interacting with multiple stressors, climate change contributes to food and water insecurities, population displacement, and migration, affecting both humans and other species. In a highly interconnected world, the security and well-being of all species, as well as all future generations, are affected by climate change.
6 Adaptation to climate change is necessary but insufficient. In chapter 9, we explore responses that enable and prepare societies and ecosystems to live with climate change. While actions that mitigate greenhouse gas emissions are vitally important, many impacts are already being experienced or are unavoidable because CO2 emissions from past activities will continue to warm the planet for decades to come. Adaptation can foster resilience to the impacts of climate change but may have adverse consequences or contribute to new risks and vulnerabilities. There are also many barriers and limits to adaptation, and losses and damages are already being experienced. Ultimately, adaptation to climate change presents opportunities to transform systems, cultures, and relationships to nature in an equitable and sustainable manner.
7 Transformations to sustainability are possible and underway. The future we experience will depend, to a large extent, on whether and how human decisions and actions shift the systems and cultures that are contributing to climate change. In chapter 10, we show that transformations to sustainability are already happening, and we identify opportunities to engage with the practical, political, and personal spheres of transformation. We explore the role of narratives and imagination, as well as paradigms and practices for scaling transformative changes and generating thriving futures. In considering both individual and collective agency, we emphasize how each of us can contribute to an equitable and sustainable world.
Summary
Many questions remain about whether and how societies can make the profound changes needed to avoid dangerous climate change, especially amidst other concerns and priorities, and when people with vested interests and political, economic, or social power are committed to the status quo. As we emphasize throughout this book, climate change is not simply a physical phenomenon that is influenced by human systems. It is a social issue that reflects constellations of political and economic power, cultural norms, and expectations about prosperity, well-being, quality of life, and security. Climate change is about how we see ourselves in relation to nature and to others and how we organize ourselves and our societies. It is a global challenge that requires acknowledging the diverse ways that change is understood and addressed. Meeting the challenge of climate change can open new opportunities and possibilities for a better world.
Reflection questions
What aspects of climate change matter most to you, and why? Do you think climate change matters to other people for the same reasons?
How and why are issues other than climate change relevant to the Anthropocene?
What do you care about most for your future and the future of others?
Active learning: why climate change matters
Have a conversation with a classmate, friend, family member, or peer about why climate change matters to each of you. Do you agree or disagree about the reasons that climate change is important? Reflect on what the conversation reveals about the different meanings of climate change.
