Cognition E-Book

Robert W. Weisberg

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1505

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

From memory to creativity—a complete and current presentation of the field of cognition

The process of cognition allows us to function in life; it translates inputs from the world so we can recognize the sound of the alarm clock, remember the day of the week, and decide which clothes to wear.

Cognition: From Memory to Creativity provides readers with a clear, research-based, and well-illustrated presentation of the field, starting with memory—the most accessible starting point—to more complex functions and research in information processing. Authors Robert Weisberg and Lauretta Reeves include the newest neurological findings that help us understand the human processes that allow for cognition.

Unique in its organization, Cognition incorporates both classical and modern research and provides demonstration experiments for students to conduct with simple materials.

Cognition explores:

• Models of memory and memory systems
• Encoding and retrieval
• Forgetting vs. false memory
• Visual cognition
• Attention and imagery
• Sounds, words, and meaning
• Logical thinking and decision making
• Problem solving and creative thinking

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study of Cognition

Why Do We Need to Study Cognition Scientifically?

Outline of Chapter 1

Cognitive Psychology: A Subject Matter and a Point of View

Psychology as a Science

Toward a New Cognitive Psychology

The Cognitive Revolution

The Cognitive Revolution: Summary

The New Cognitive Psychology

From Cognitive Psychology to Cognitive Science

Distributed Models of Cognition

Development of Modern Cognitive Science: Summary

Cognitive Scientists' Study of Hidden Processes

Themes of the Book

Review Questions

Chapter 2: Memory I: Models of Memory and Memory Systems

A World-Class Memory

Outline of Chapter 2

Basic Processes in Memory: S.F.'s Method for Remembering

The Multi-Store Model of Memory

Short-Term Store

Short-Term to Long-Term Stores: The Control Processes

Neuropsychology of the Multi-Store Model

Evolution of the Multi-Store Model: STS to WM

Brain Systems in Working Memory

From Working Memory to Long-Term Store

Long-Term Store

Long-Term Memory Systems: Semantic, Episodic, and Procedural Knowledge

Modular Storage Systems: Evidence From Amnesia

Explicit Versus Implicit Memory

Conclusion: Long-Term Memory Systems

Review Questions

Chapter 3: Memory II: Encoding and Retrieval

Outline of Chapter 3

Two Conceptions of Memory Processes: Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down

Remembering as a Bottom-Up Process: Ebbinghaus's Study of Rote Rehearsal and Memory

Better Versus Worse Types of Encoding?

Summary

Is Deeper Encoding Always Better?

Maximizing Remembering: Coordination of Encoding and Retrieval

Retrieval Processes: Summary and Conclusions

Retrieval and Meta-Memory: Our Knowledge of What We Know

Practical Aspects of Memory: Increasing Memory Performance With Mnemonic Devices

Encoding and Retrieval in Memory: Conclusions

Review Questions

Chapter 4: Memory III: Errors of Omission (Forgetting) and Commission (False Memory)

Outline of Chapter 4

Laboratory Studies of Memory and Forgetting

Remembering and Forgetting Over Long Periods of Time

Remembering and Forgetting Over Very Long Periods of Time: Bahrick's Analysis of Permastore

Method of Study and Forgetting: Distributed Versus Massed Practice

Very Long-Term Retention of Information: Conclusions

Theories of Forgetting

Measuring Decay in Memory: How Could We Tell if Memory Traces Weaken as Time Passes?

Interference Theory

Might There Be Positive Functions of Forgetting?

Research on Forgetting: Conclusions

Accuracy of Memory for Dramatic Events: The Question of Flashbulb Memories

Memory Errors of Commission: The Question of False Memories

Construction of Large-Scale Memories

False Memories: Conclusions

Forgetting: Summary and Conclusions

The Study of Memory: Conclusion

Review Questions

Chapter 5: Visual Cognition: Pattern Recognition and Spatial Localization

Outline of Chapter 5

Visual Processing

Bayesian Accounts of Visual Processing

Two Modules in the Visual Processing System

What Versus Where Modules: Lesion Studies in Animals

What Versus Where, or Perception Versus Action?

Spatial Navigation

Pattern Recognition

Two Stages in Pattern Recognition—Feature Integration Theory

Beyond Features: Structural Descriptions of Patterns

Geons: Components of Complex Objects

Recognition of Complex Objects: Summary

Modularity in Visual Pattern Recognition: Are Faces Special?

The Top-Down Nature of Perception: The Perceiver's Contribution

Top-Down Processes in Reading

Unconscious Priming: Pattern Recognition Without Awareness

Perceptual Processes: Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions

Chapter 6: Attention

Outline of Chapter 6

The Study of Attention in Early Psychology

Involuntary Attention: Overt Orienting to Stimuli

Covert Orienting of Attention

Brain Systems and Orienting

Attention and Inhibition: Negative Priming

Neuropsychological Syndromes: Disruption of Visual Attention

Change Blindness

Executive Functions of Attention: Selective and Divided Attention

Dividing Attention in Real Life: How Well Do We Multitask?

Structural Models of Attention: Early Versus Late Selection

Selective Attention and the Perceptual Cycle

Attention and Capacity

Are There No Limits to Our Capacity? A Central Bottleneck

Summary: Attentional Processes

Review Questions

Chapter 7: Imagery

Outline of Chapter 7

Functions of Imagery

Shepard's Studies of Mental Imagery

Studying and Measuring Imagery

Imagery and Perception: The Analogue View

Brain Mechanisms in Perception and Imagery

A Further Debate: Imagery Versus Propositions as the Medium of Thought

Analogue Responses to the Propositional Critique

The Study of Imagery: Conclusions and Implications

Review Questions

Chapter 8: Concepts and Categories

Outline of Chapter 8

Concepts and Categories

Categorization Based on Rules: The Classical View of Concepts

Studies of the Formation of Classical or Rule-Defined Concepts

Exemplars as the Basis for Categorization

Knowledge- and Goal-Based Views of Concepts

Development of Concepts and Categorization

Structures of Concepts and Categories: Summary and Conclusions

Relations Among Concepts: The Structure of Knowledge

Goal- and Use-Based Influences on Concepts, Categorization, and Inferences

Using Concepts to Think About the World: The Importance of the Basic Level

Concepts and Thinking: Building Representations in Working Memory

Neurocognitive Studies of Concepts

Concepts and Categories: Conclusions

Review Questions

Chapter 9: Language I: Sounds, Words, and Meanings

Outline of Chapter 9

Language as Communication

Components of Communication

Levels of Linguistic Analysis

Language and the Cognitive Revolution

Pragmatic Aspects of Communication

Phonology

Processing Phonemes: Studies of Speech Production and Perception

Infants' Sensitivity to the Sound Structure of Language

The Phonemic Structure of the First Words

Learning Word Meanings: Conclusions

Lexical Access

Generativity in Word Formation: Overregularization

Brain Structures Involved in Lexical Processing

Review Questions

Chapter 10: Language II: Sentence Processing

Outline of Chapter 10

Analysis of Sentence Structure

Formal Aspects of Sentences

Development of Syntax

Development of Sentence Structure

The Innateness Hypothesis and Critical Periods for Language Development

Building the Interpretation of Discourse: Constructing Mental Spaces

Stages of Speech Production

What Speech Errors Reveal About Language Production

Neurocognition of Language: Broca's Aphasia, or Agrammatism

The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

Processing Figurative Language: Comprehension of Metaphor

Sentence Processing: Conclusions

Review Questions

Chapter 11: Thinking I: Logical Thinking and Decision Making

Thinking and Decision Making

Outline of Chapter 11

The Question of Human Rationality

The Availability Heuristic: Retrievability as a Factor in Gathering Evidence

Difficulties Using Evidence

Choosing Possible Courses of Action: Framing Effects

Deductive Reasoning: Moving From Premises to Conclusions

Content Effects in Deductive Reasoning

Theories of Deductive Reasoning

Are Humans Rational or Irrational?

Teaching Reasoning and Decision Making

Neuropsychology of Reasoning

Review Questions

Chapter 12: Thinking II: Problem Solving

Outline of Chapter 12

Questions of Definition: Problems, Problem Solving, and Creative Thinking

The Information-Processing Theory of Problem Solving: Searching Problem Spaces

Strong Methods in Problem Solving: Studies of Expertise in Problem Solving

Use of Analogies in Nonexperts: Studies of Analogical Transfer of Knowledge in Problem Solving

Mathematical Problem Solving and Acalculia

Analysis in Problem Solving: Summary and Conclusions

Insight in Problem Solving

Early Research on Insight

The Gestalt Response to Thorndike: Intelligence and Insight in Apes and Humans

Representational Change Theory of Insight

Evidence Supporting the Special-Process View

Insight as Business-as-Usual

The Status of Insight: A Hybrid Model

Problem Solving: Conclusions

Review Questions

Chapter 13: Thinking III: Creative Thinking

Barriers to the Study of Creativity

Outline of Chapter 13

Questions of Definition: Creative Products, Creative Thinking, and Creativity

Two Case Studies in Creativity

The Information-Processing Perspective on Creativity

Heuristics in Scientific Thinking: Observing Scientists at Work

Expertise in Creative Thinking: The 10-Year Rule in Creativity

Development of Creative Capacity: Talent Versus Practice

The Information-Processing View of Creativity: Summary

Genius and Madness

Unconscious Thinking and Incubation in Creativity

Incubation and Illumination Without the Unconscious

The Psychometric Perspective: Testing for Creative Ability

The Darwinian Theory of Creativity: Blind Variation and Selective Retention as a Model of Creative Thought

You Too Can Be Creative!

Toward a Neuroscience of Creativity

Conclusions About Creative Thinking: Ordinary Processes Producing Extraordinary Outcomes

Review Questions

References

Author Index

Subject Index

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Weisberg, Robert W.

Cognition : from memory to creativity / Robert W. Weisberg and Lauretta M. Reeves.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-22628-5 (cloth)

ISBN 978-1-118-25861-3 (e-bk)

ISBN 978-1-118-23360-3 (e-bk)

ISBN 978-1-118-22010-8 (e-bk)

1. Cognition. I. Reeves, Lauretta. II. Title.

BF311.W4155 2013

153–dc23

Without the support of my wife, Nancy, this book would never have been completed. I dedicate it to her.

—R.W.

I dedicate the book to my parents, my first educators.

—L.R.

Preface

When authors set out to write a book, the first question they must answer is what the new book will add beyond related books that on the same topic. Once the book is published, that same question arises in the minds of those who might use it in courses: what does this book give us that is new and different? We believe that this book is a positive addition to the books available for courses in cognitive psychology, for two main reasons—a unique organization and expanded coverage. While many textbooks contain the words cognition or cognitive psychology, this book substantially alters the standard organization of cognition textbooks. In addition, this book covers a broader subject matter than most other cognitive texts through its inclusion of a separate chapter on creativity.

Most texts in cognition traverse the path set almost 50 years ago by Neisser in his pioneering textbook, Cognitive Psychology (1967): they follow information as it first comes into the system, is stored in memory, and then is used as needed to speak or solve problems or make decisions. Coverage usually begins with perception, attention, and related phenomena—the processes whereby information from the world “enters” the cognitive system, and is selected for further processing. Even though the organization of most books is thus “bottom-up,” in that it begins with how material comes in from the environment, the authors acknowledge that perception and attention are influenced by “top-down” processes. That is, the authors often emphasize that our knowledge plays a critical role in even the early processes of perception and attention. For example, we are more efficient processors of information when we are familiar with the domain in which we are functioning. Although such discussions highlight the important role that memory—in the form of knowledge and expectancies—plays in perceptual processes, most standard textbooks cannot make too much of that connection, because memory is not discussed until after perception and attention. It is as if a promissory note has been given: we will be able to better understand the initial chapters later, when the discussion of memory is presented.

A similar disconnect is seen after the discussion of memory has been presented. The topic of memory is presented in the middle of the book, and is followed by discussions of processes that are assumed to be dependent on it—language, thinking and reasoning, problem solving. However in the typical text no explicit connection is made between memory and those higher processes.

The present book takes a different tack in organizing the phenomena that fall under the topic of cognitive psychology. If it is true, as most textbook writers emphasize, that memory is critical in all our functioning, including functioning of the “lower” mental processes such as perception and attention, then it seems to follow that the discussion of cognition should begin with the study of memory. If we understand first of all how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved (including information about what things look like), then not only will we have an understanding of memory, we will also have a conceptual base that we can use to understand other phenomena, such as visual recognition of objects, language, and decision making.

We also have used the discussion of memory as the organizing point for the discussion of the other “higher processes”—language; concepts; reasoning and decision making; and problem solving. We emphasize the close relation between memory and all the higher processes, and we make explicit the connections among them. For example, in our discussion of language development, we draw the connection between memory processes and the kinds of things children say when they are learning to speak. Similar connections are made in the discussion of language processing in adults, and of the role of memory in creativity.

There are also instructional benefits to beginning a cognitive psychology text with the study of memory: pedagogically it is a natural entry point for students in their engagement with the subject matter. After all, as students they are concerned with questions about memory—How can I better remember information? Why did I remember where an answer was on a textbook page, but not the answer itself? Why does my grandmother remember vivid details of her childhood experiences but not where she put her keys? Thus, memory processes are more familiar to us than almost any other cognitive activities (when was the last time you had a discussion about how you are able to recognize the machine in front of you as a computer?) Both authors have experimented over several years with beginning courses with the study of memory versus beginning with the usual perception and attention; students greatly prefer being introduced to the study of cognition starting with memory. It provides them with an accessible way to learn theoretical approaches to cognition, and to critically assess cognitive research. We have used drafts of this textbook in classes and have found that students like both the organization and the writing style, which one student described as feeling “like the authors are talking to us.”

The main difference in content between the present book and other textbooks can be seen in the subtitle; the presence of the word creativity in the subtitle of our book indicates immediately that it is significantly different from other books. Most, but not all, cognitive texts have sections on creativity, but those discussions are often small sections within the Problem Solving chapter. In this book, creative thinking is presented in a separate chapter. It is our belief that research in problem solving and creativity are now mature enough to be covered on their own. It is also natural to cover both topics as arising out of the issues and themes discussed earlier in the book, especially memory. Thus, this textbook provides greater breadth than most other cognition texts. Again, our use of the book in classes and reviewers' responses, have demonstrated that people are fascinated by this material and by our approach of tying creativity to the “lower-level” processes discussed earlier in the book.

A final point of difference in our book is that we have tried to integrate neuroscience material into the presentation of key topics within each chapter. Rather than presenting neuroscience material in boxes or separate sections at the end of each chapter, neuroscience evidence—from both patients with brain damage and studies using PET scans or fMRI findings—is assimilated into each section where it is relevant.

In conclusion, we believe that Cognition: From Memory to Creativity provides instructors with a novel approach to the study of cognition, written in a highly accessible style. In addition, the book provides instructors and students with coverage of material that they will find nowhere else in the currently available texts.

Acknowledgments

This book would never have seen the light of day if Tisha Rossi, Executive Editor for Psychology at John Wiley & Sons, had not casually asked whether I had been working on any other projects. I thank her for her support and encouragement. Kara Borbely, Editorial Program Coordinator for the Professional/Trade Division at Wiley, has also played an important role in the gestation of this book, and I thank her for her help. Several reviewers, including Yuhong Jiang, University of Minnesota, Department of Psychology; Tandra Ghose, UCLA, Department of Psychology; Yohan Delton, Brigham Young University, Department of Psychology; and Nadine Martin, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Temple University, provided detailed feedback on an early draft of the manuscript, and I am grateful for their careful and helpful work.

A project of this magnitude inevitably encounters ups and downs during its production. I would like to thank my coauthor, not only for the knowledge and care that she brought to the project, but also for her dry sense of humor, which helped us get over the bumps.

R.W.

I would like to thank my husband and children for their forbearance during my physical and psychological absences throughout the writing process, and the many Austin take-out restaurants that have kept my family fed since this project was begun several years ago.

My gratitude goes to the following people and agencies who arranged for photos to be taken, or allowed us to borrow EEG or fMRI images: Dr. André Souza (Postdoctoral Fellow at Concordia University in Montréal, Canada), Dr. Logan Trujillo (Psychology Department of the University of Texas at Austin), and Dr. Jeffrey Luci (Imaging Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin). I am also grateful to those who served as models for many of the stimuli—Arian Mobasser, Claudia Tye, and members of the Anderson High School Little Theater Company (especially Connor Martin, Tristan McConnell, Catherine Pierce, Camilla Rivadenyra, Cecily Tye, and Hanna Tyson). Thanks to Cecily Tye, who helped with many of the drawings and graphic designs in the book, and to Claudia Tye, who assisted with photography and photo editing.

I would also like to thank my coauthor (and former dissertation advisor) Bob Weisberg, and Tisha Rossi, Kara Borbely, and Kim Nir of Wiley, for their help and patience during the writing (and re-writing, and re-re-writing) of this text. The reviewers have helped to make this a better book.

Many students and teaching assistants have provided informal feedback on assorted chapters; I appreciate both this feedback, and their enthusiasm for cognitive psychology, which has kept me inspired about teaching. Many thanks to colleagues and graduate students within the University of Texas Psychology Department, and to Michael Tye, for conversations that helped sharpen some of the ideas conveyed in the book.

L.R.

Chapter 1

Introduction to the Study of Cognition

Before you even arrived at your first class this morning, you had engaged in numerous cognitive acts: recognizing the sound of your alarm clock and the time depicted on its face, saying “good morning” to your roommate, and categorizing your cereal as a breakfast food. You also had to remember the day of the week so that you knew which classes to attend, you decided which clothes to wear, and you paid attention as you crossed the road to get to your first class. Perhaps you even engaged in some creative thinking as you doodled while waiting for class to start. These are all examples of the cognitive processes—the mental processes—at work. Cognition both allows us to operate in the real world, and makes life richer.

Humans are captivated by how the mind works, and this fascination makes its way into popular culture. Stories about cognitive functioning and the connection between the brain and the mind are in newspapers and on TV all the time. Films about memory—whether the loss of memory (Memento) or implanted memories (Total Recall, Inception)—have become top-grossing hits. Books about consciousness (Dennett, Consciousness Explained, 1991), intelligence (Herrnstein & Murray, The Bell Curve, 1994), language (Pinker, The Language Instinct, 1994), memory (Foer, Moonwalking with Einstein: The Art and Science of Remembering Everything, 2011), and the relation between talent, practice, and success (Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success, 2011) were bestsellers. Articles in popular magazines discuss insight in problem solving (Lehrer, “The Eureka Hunt,” 2012a) and creativity in business (Gladwell, “Creation Myth,” 2011). The appeal of the mind holds even for scientists: Since 2001, psychological topics related to cognition or neurocognition have made the cover story of Scientific American magazine numerous times. The discipline of cognitive psychology has historically encompassed the study of the cognitive or mental processes, and provides the research upon which so many popular films and bestselling books are based. However, more recently, there has been a broadening of research on cognition to include neuroscience, computer science, linguistics, and philosophy, which has spawned a new discipline: cognitive science.

While much of the research on cognitive processes takes place in laboratories, for the cognitive scientist, life itself is an experiment in cognition: Everywhere one looks, it is possible to see evidence of mental processes at work. Dr. Weisberg's daughter used to be a competitive ice-skater, and every day she would go for practice sessions. The ice would be full of skaters, practicing the jumps, spins, and other moves they would need for their competitive programs. The practice sessions were not purely athletic endeavors; we can dissect what is happening at a cognitive level as each skater practices on a crowded ice rink.

First, memory is involved (Chapters 2–4). The main task facing those skaters is to master their material, so that they remember the correct sequence of jumps, glides, spins, and twists in their programs. Sometimes during a competition a skater begins to move in an erratic way, losing synchronization with the music: The skater has temporarily forgotten the program. The pressure of competition often causes skaters to forget or misremember a sequence of movements that was remembered easily many times during practice.

A second cognitive task facing the ice-skaters involves visual and spatial processing (Chapter 5): Each skater has to know the boundaries of the skating rink and the spatial configuration of their routine within those boundaries. They must also recognize other skaters as people to be avoided and determine their own and others' speed and direction, to determine if any collisions are likely. Sometimes younger skaters run out of space and cannot perform a jump because they are too close to the wall. Such skaters are not able to accurately calculate the space available for the move they hoped to carry out. This occurs much more rarely with experienced skaters, indicating that those visual-processing skills have developed over years of practice. This is one example of the general importance of knowledge in cognitive functioning.