Construction Planning, Programming and Control E-Book

Brian Cooke

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1113

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

An essential introduction to the management of building projects

Construction management is a complex discipline with many facets. The essence of construction management is the delivery of construction projects to meet the client’s goals whilst recognising the commercial interests of the many designers, consultants and contractors involved. Balancing the expected quality outcomes, the highest safety standards and time and budget pressures is not an easy task. Therefore, students and practitioners looking to understand the core principles of construction management need an authoritative, accessible and comprehensive text on the subject.

Since its first edition in 1998, Construction Planning, Programming and Control has met this need with its practical approach to the management of construction projects. The book covers the principles and practice of project time and cost control and includes key related topics and more. It places the subject matter in the context of the challenges facing the construction industry and explains complex issues in a practical and understandable way.

Readers of the fourth edition of Construction Planning, Programming and Control will also find detailed coverage of:

• Procurement and contracts, supply chain and risk management and health and safety management including CDM 2015
• JCT 2016, NEC4; ICC and FIDIC conditions of contract
• Method statements and the development of safe systems of work
• Three new major case studies including an in-depth look at HS2
• Fully updated content to reflect new thinking with regard to modern methods of construction (MMC), building information modelling (BIM) and the latest planning and cost management software

Construction Planning, Programming and Control is an invaluable reference for students of construction management, surveying, civil engineering, and more.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

About the Authors

Preface

Acknowledgements

Acronyms

1 Construction Projects

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Why Do Projects Go Wrong?

1.3 Managing the Risk of Delayed Completion in the 21st Century

1.4 The Latham Reports

1.5 The Egan Reports

1.6 The Wolstenholme Report

1.7 The Farmer Review

References

Notes

2 Project Environment

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Industry Culture

2.3 Defining the Industry

2.4 Industry Clients

2.5 Construction Firms

2.6 Industry Leadership

References

Notes

3 Project Risk

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Risk Management

3.3 Risk Assessment

3.4 Design Stage

3.5 Tender Stage

3.6 Construction Stage

3.7 Managing Project Risk

References

Notes

4 Managing Construction Projects

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Projects and Programmes

4.3 Management

4.4 Team Building

4.5 Project Management

4.6 Collaboration

4.7 Design Management

4.8 Project Management Models

4.9 Project Stages

4.10 Digital Construction

4.11 Managing the Supply Chain

4.12 Managing Construction

References

Notes

5 Modern Methods of Construction

5.1 Introduction

5.2 MMC Categories

5.3 Modular Construction

5.4 Panelised Construction

5.5 Component-Based Systems

5.6 Hybrid Construction Systems

5.7 Digital Technologies

5.8 Planning for Modular Construction

References

Notes

6 Procurement and Contracts

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Tendering

6.3 Special Relationships

6.4 Procurement Routes

6.5 Contractual Arrangements

6.6 Standard Forms of Contract

6.7 Types of Contract

6.8 Time Management

References

Notes

7 Estimating and Bidding

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Approaches to Estimating

7.3 Measurement

7.4 Estimating Software

7.5 Top-down Estimating

7.6 Cost Information

7.7 New Rules of Measurement

7.8 Bottom-up Estimating

7.9 Bidding

References

Notes

8 The Planning Process

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Strategic Planning

8.3 Design Planning

8.4 Development Case Study

8.5 Construction Planning

Reference

9 Scheduling Techniques

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Linked Bar Charts

9.3 Arrow Diagrams

9.4 Precedence Diagrams

9.5 Arrow, Precedence and Linked Bar Chart Relationships

9.6 Line of Balance

9.7 Time-Chainage Diagrams

10 Construction Sequences

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Resources

10.3 Temporary Works

10.4 Work Sequences

10.5 Sequence Study

References

Notes

11 Method Statements

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Format of Method Statements

11.3 Types of Method Statement

11.4 Preparing Method Statements

11.5 Worked Example

Notes

12 Planning for Safety

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Hazard and Risk

12.3 Legal Framework

12.4 Managing Health and Safety

12.5 Planning the Work

12.6 Industry-Specific Legislation

12.7 The CDM Regulations 2015

12.8 Health and Safety Training

12.9 Measuring Performance

12.10 Enforcement of Legislation

12.11 Accidents and Incidents

References

Web References

Notes

13 Planning the Project

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Principles of Project Planning

13.3 Pre-construction Planning

13.4 The Baseline Programme

13.5 Requirement Schedules

13.6 The Target Programme

13.7 Contract Planning

14 Planning Cash Flow

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Earned Value Analysis

14.3 Cash Flow Forecasting

14.4 Improving Cash Flow

14.5 Movement of Money

14.6 Working Capital

References

Notes

15 Project Control

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Budgetary Control

15.3 Establishing Budgets

15.4 Site Records

15.5 Meetings

15.6 Key Performance Indicators

Reference

16 Controlling Time

16.1 Introduction

16.2 The Contractor’s Programme

16.3 Progress and Delay

16.4 Recording Progress

16.5 Delay and Disruption

16.6 Extensions of Time

16.7 The ‘As-Planned’ Programme

16.8 The ‘As-Built’ Programme

16.9 Delay Analysis

16.10 Delay Analysis in Practice

16.11 Project Acceleration

References

Web References

17 Controlling Money

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Reporting Procedures

17.3 Earned Value Analysis

17.4 Cost Value Reconciliation

17.5 Cost Value Reports

References

Note

18 Controlling Resources

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Subcontractors

18.3 Labour Control

18.4 Materials Control

18.5 Plant Control

19 Hotel and Commercial Centre

19.1 Project Description

19.2 Design

19.3 CIMS-MBS Off-Site Manufacture

19.4 Construction

19.5 Legal Matters

Reference

20 Motorway Bridge Replacement

20.1 Project Description

20.2 Project Scope

20.3 Project Organisation

20.4 Programme

20.5 Detailed Design Development

20.6 Construction Planning

Notes

21 High Speed 2

21.1 Project Description

21.2 Route

21.3 ProjectScope

21.4 Legal Framework

21.5 Funding and Governance

21.6 Roles and Cooperation

21.7 Order of Cost

21.8 Project Design

21.9 Procurement

21.10 HS2 Works Areas

21.11 Construction Management

21.12 Construction Methods

21.13 Innovation

21.14 Epilogue

References

Notes

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Recent mega projects.

Table 1.2 Construction industry reports.

Table 1.3 Latham issues.

Table 1.4 Latham suggestions.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Standard industrial classification.

Table 2.2 Construction industry sectors.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Subcontractors.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Multi-tier framework.

Table 6.2 Procurement methods compared.

Table 6.3 Main options of ECC.

Table 6.4 Lump sum contracts.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Project management software.

Table 9.2 Five construction operations.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Definitions.

Table 12.2 Risk assessment.

Table 12.3 Management regulations schedule 1.

Table 12.4 CDM structure.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Completion.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Client cash flow.

Table 14.2 Contractor’s cash flow.

Table 14.3 Cumulative value forecast.

Table 14.4 Weighted average payment delay.

Table 14.5 Tender analysis.

Table 14.6 Working capital requirements.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Meeting agenda.

Table 15.2 Weekly meetings.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Reduction in project period.

Table 16.2 Total project costs at week 23.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 CVR terminology.

Chapter 21

Table 21.1 Procurement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Projects, programmes and portfolios.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Construction output by sector.

Figure 2.2 Construction output.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Risks and uncertainties.

Figure 3.2 Crossrail risk hierarchy.

Figure 3.3 T5 supply chain.

Figure 3.4 Procurement risk.

Figure 3.5 Completion. (a) Practical completion. (b) Substantial completion....

Figure 3.6 Dynamic time modelling.

Figure 3.7 Project risk register.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Project management.

Figure 4.2 Organisation structure- medium-sized company.

Figure 4.3 Project organisation – small company.

Figure 4.4 Organisation structure – large company.

Figure 4.5 Organisation of construction activities in a large company.

Figure 4.6 Business units.

Figure 4.7 Operating divisions.

Figure 4.8 Project decision making.

Figure 4.9 Project management.

Figure 4.10 Common Data Environment dashboard – workflows.

Figure 4.11 Construction management software.

Figure 4.12 OGC Gateway Process.

Figure 4.13 RIBA Plan of Work.

Figure 4.14 Overlapping project stages.

Figure 4.15 Infrastructure process models.

Figure 4.16 TfL delivery environment.

Figure 4.17 Asta Powerproject 4D. (Photograph courtesy of Eleco UK Ltd).

Figure 4.18 Project supply chain.

Figure 4.19 Bill of quantities.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 DfMA overlay.

Figure 5.2 MMC spectrum.

Figure 5.3 Modular housing.

Figure 5.4 Volumetric construction – steel.

Figure 5.5 Burger King.

Figure 5.6 Miscellaneous.

Figure 5.7 Panelised construction.

Figure 5.8 Hybrid systems.

Figure 5.9 Hybrid – Holiday Inn.

Figure 5.10 High-rise application.

Figure 5.11 Viaduct pier.

Figure 5.12 3DCP process overview. Image courtesy of HTL.tech.

Figure 5.13 3D printing. Photographs courtesy of HTL.tech (https://www.htl.t...

Figure 5.14 Site finishing works.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 HS2 joint ventures.

Figure 6.2 Traditional procurement relationships.

Figure 6.3 Design and build client-led.

Figure 6.4 Design and build contractor-led.

Figure 6.5 Management contracting arrangement.

Figure 6.6 Construction management arrangement.

Figure 6.7 Target cost contracts.

Figure 6.8 Procurement strategy and programme.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Top-down/bottom-up estimating.

Figure 7.2 Pricing documentation.

Figure 7.3 Subcontract enquiry.

Figure 7.4 BIM measure. BIM model courtesy of Buildsoft.

Figure 7.5 Cubit estimating.

Figure 7.6 Budget estimate.

Figure 7.7 Order of cost estimate.

Figure 7.8 Development of cost plan 1.

Figure 7.9 Development of detailed cost plan 2.

Figure 7.10 Price data bases.

Figure 7.11 Indices and location factors.

Figure 7.12 Inflation indices.

Figure 7.13 Comparative cost planning.

Figure 7.14 Cost checking.

Figure 7.15 Unit rate estimating.

Figure 7.16 Operational estimating.

Figure 7.17 Preliminaries.

Figure 7.18 Tender summary.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Overview of client planning and process.

Figure 8.2 Overview of contractor planning and process.

Figure 8.3 Types of programmes.

Figure 8.4 Project master schedule.

Figure 8.5 Design programme.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Arrow and precedence notations.

Figure 9.2 Linked bar chart.

Figure 9.3 Linked bar chart relationships.

Figure 9.4 Developing a linked bar chart.

Figure 9.5 Retaining wall plan, cross-section and sequence of work.

Figure 9.6 Retaining wall logic diagram.

Figure 9.7 Factory project precedence diagram.

Figure 9.8 Finish-to-start relationships.

Figure 9.9 Overlapping relationships – 1.

Figure 9.10 Overlapping relationships – 2.

Figure 9.11 Finish-to-finish relationships.

Figure 9.12 Start-to-finish relationships.

Figure 9.13 Line-of-balance principles – 1.

Figure 9.14 Line of balance principles – 2.

Figure 9.15 Sequence logic.

Figure 9.16 Balance line – foundations.

Figure 9.17 Balance line – external walls.

Figure 9.18 Balance line – roof.

Figure 9.19 Horizontal format.

Figure 9.20 Vertical format.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Sequence of construction for pile cap formation.

Figure 10.2 Bar chart – Pile cap sequence.

Figure 10.3 Drag boxes.

Figure 10.4 Soil nailing/shotcrete.

Figure 10.5 Box culvert.

Figure 10.6 Slip forming.

Figure 10.7 Secant piling/top-down.

Figure 10.8 Top-down construction.

Figure 10.9 8-Storey reinforced concrete frame building.

Figure 10.10 Table forms.

Figure 10.11 Construction sequence for columns and slab soffit.

Figure 10.12 Linked bar chart sequence.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Overview of method statement formats.

Figure 11.2 Site layout plan.

Figure 11.3 Development photos.

Figure 11.4 Proposal one.

Figure 11.5 Alternative proposal two.

Figure 11.6 Basement piling/pile caps.

Figure 11.7 Basement sequence.

Figure 11.8 Tableforms.

Figure 11.9 Tender method statement.

Figure 11.10 Construction method statement.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Pressures on health and safety.

Figure 12.2 Planning for health and safety.

Figure 12.3 Hazards in construction.

Figure 12.4 Qualitative risk assessment.

Figure 12.5 Control measures.

Figure 12.6 Risk assessment.

Figure 12.7 Contractor’s risk assessment.

Figure 12.8 Health and safety legislation.

Figure 12.9 Health and safety organisation.

Figure 12.10 Job safety analysis.

Figure 12.11 Generic construction hazards.

Figure 12.12 Provision for health and safety on accepted programme.

Figure 12.13 Safety method statement.

Figure 12.14 Pre-construction/construction phase plan.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Work breakdown structure.

Figure 13.2 Activity durations.

Figure 13.3 Procurement programme.

Figure 13.4 Procurement – steelwork.

Figure 13.5 Procurement programme – finishes.

Figure 13.6 Master programme.

Figure 13.7 Baseline programme.

Figure 13.8 Updated baseline.

Figure 13.9 Information requirements schedule.

Figure 13.10 Request for information sheet.

Figure 13.11 Target programme.

Figure 13.12 Subcontractor programme.

Figure 13.13 Stage programme.

Figure 13.14 Short-term programme.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Client cash flow.

Figure 14.2 Principles of forecasting monthly payments due to contractor.

Figure 14.3 Quarter–third rule.

Figure 14.4 Quarter–third rule: Monthly/cumulative value forecast.

Figure 14.5 Cumulative Percentage Value method.

Figure 14.6 Cumulative Percentage Value and Quarter–third methods compared....

Figure 14.7 Value forecasts based on bar chart.

Figure 14.8 Cumulative value–time forecast based on bar chart.

Figure 14.9 Cash flow forecast.

Figure 14.10 Average credit period (JCT SBC).

Figure 14.11 Cumulative value forecast.

Figure 14.12 Cash flow principles – 1.

Figure 14.13 Cash flow principles – 2.

Figure 14.14 Cumulative value forecast.

Figure 14.15 Value–time graph.

Figure 14.16 Cost, value and cash forecast – months 1–6.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Labour budget.

Figure 15.2 Labour forecast and variance.

Figure 15.3 Plant budget.

Figure 15.4 Plant forecast and variance.

Figure 15.5 Preliminaries budget.

Figure 15.6 Preliminaries forecast and variance.

Figure 15.7 Project meetings.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Early warning system.

Figure 16.2 Monthly progress report.

Figure 16.3 Elecosoft site progress mobile.

Figure 16.4 Progress recording by colour.

Figure 16.5 Progress recording by computer.

Figure 16.6 Progress by earned value.

Figure 16.7 Types of float.

Figure 16.8 Groundworks project 1.

Figure 16.9 Showing delay on the programme.

Figure 16.10 Groundworks project 2.

Figure 16.11 Groundworks project 3.

Figure 16.12 Time-cost relationships.

Figure 16.13 Time-cost optimisation 1.

Figure 16.14 Time-cost optimisation 2.

Figure 16.15 Time-cost optimisation 3.

Figure 16.16 Time-cost optimisation 4.

Figure 16.17 Time-cost optimisation 5.

Figure 16.18 Time-cost optimisation 6.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Principles of cost-value reporting.

Figure 17.2 Principles of earned value analysis.

Figure 17.3 Reconciliation procedure.

Figure 17.4 Assessment of reconciled value.

Figure 17.5 CVR report.

Figure 17.6 CVR report – spreadsheet format.

Figure 17.7 CVR report – graphical format.

Figure 17.8 Value/time-cost/time relationship.

Figure 17.9 Actual profit release

v

. forecast.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Programming stages during construction.

Figure 18.2 Subcontractor liaison meetings.

Figure 18.3 Short-term planning.

Figure 18.4 Labour allocation to programme.

Figure 18.5 Resource histogram – joiners.

Figure 18.6 Resource levelling – joiners.

Figure 18.7 Materials management.

Figure 18.8 Mismanagement of materials.

Figure 18.9 Site waste management strategy.

Figure 18.10 Site waste management plan.

Figure 18.11 Waste hierarchy.

Figure 18.12 Waste datasheet.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Site layout.

Figure 19.2 Project organisation.

Figure 19.3 3D view.

Figure 19.4 Module programme.

Figure 19.5 Completed module.

Figure 19.6 Installing modular units.

Figure 19.7 CIMC site organisation structure.

Figure 19.8 Construction programme.

Figure 19.9 Lift shafts – 1.

Figure 19.10 Lift shafts – 2.

Figure 19.11 Structural steelwork.

Figure 19.12 Safety provisions.

Figure 19.13 Cladding.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Site plan. Photograph courtesy of Amey/SRM JV.

Figure 20.2 Site layout. Photographs courtesy of Amey/SRM JV.

Figure 20.3 Site organisation. Photographs courtesy of Amey/SRM JV.

Figure 20.4 Project organisation structure.

Figure 20.5 Cofferdam to south abutment. Photographs courtesy of MGF Ltd.

Figure 20.6 Structural steelwork to bridge deck. Photographs courtesy of Ame...

Figure 20.7 Clause 30 programme.

Figure 20.8 Bored piling. Photograph courtesy of Amey/SRM JV.

Figure 20.9 Moving the bridge deck. Photographs courtesy of Amey/SRM JV.

Figure 20.10 Demolition 1. Photographs courtesy of Amey/SRM JV.

Figure 20.11 Demolition 2. Photographs courtesy of Amey/SRM JV.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 HS2 original route and works areas.

Figure 21.2 HS2 governance.

Figure 21.3 Design animations. Photographs courtesy of HS2 Ltd.

Figure 21.4 Phase 1 framework.

Figure 21.5 Long Itchington Wood. Photographs courtesy of HS2 Ltd.

Figure 21.6 Spoil disposal Long Itchington Wood tunnel. Photographs courtesy...

Figure 21.7 Colne Valley Viaduct – 1. Photographs courtesy of HS2 Ltd.

Figure 21.8 Colne Valley Viaduct – 2. Photographs courtesy of HS2 Ltd.

Figure 21.9 Colne Valley Viaduct – 3. Photographs courtesy of HS2 Ltd.

Figure 21.10 Old Oak Common – 1. Photographs courtesy of HS2 Ltd.

Figure 21.11 Old Oak Common – 2. Photographs courtesy of HS2 Ltd.

Figure 21.12 Green tunnel. Photographs courtesy of HS2 Ltd.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

About the Authors

Preface

Acknowledgements

Acronyms

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Construction Planning, Programming and Control

Fourth Edition

Brian Cooke and Peter Williams

This edition first published 2025© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Edition History1e 1998 by McMillan Education, UK; 2e 2004 by Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK; 3e 2009 by Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, UK

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Cooke, Brian, author. | Williams, Peter, 1947- author.

Title: Construction planning, programming and control / Brian Cooke, Peter Williams.

Description: Fourth edition. | Chester, UK : Wiley, 2025. | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2024011276 (print) | LCCN 2024011277 (ebook) | ISBN  9781119109457 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119109464 (adobe pdf) | ISBN  9781119109471 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Building–Planning.

Classification: LCC TH153 .C597 2025 (print) | LCC TH153 (ebook) | DDC  690.068 – dc23/eng/20240409

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024011276

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024011277

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Peter Williams

About the Authors

Brian Cooke (MSc) is a former chartered civil engineer, chartered builder, quantity surveyor and principal lecturer in construction management. He has extensive industry experience and has lectured widely on management and financial topics in the United Kingdom and overseas. Brian is now retired.

Peter Williams (MSc) is a former chartered builder and chartered quantity surveyor with many years of experience in building and civil engineering contracting. He was also a principal lecturer in construction management, quantity surveying and construction health and safety management. Peter is currently a writer, researcher, lecturer and consultant.

Preface

The world has changed considerably since the previous edition of this book was published in 2009.

Not only have we all suffered a hugely damaging pandemic, the United Kingdom has left the European Union, and the world is seeing unimaginable levels of conflict and social change.

World supply chains remain unpredictable post-pandemic, and UK debt is more than £2.5 trillion – almost 100% of GDP – with industry output seriously impacted by reduced levels of public sector spending.

On a more positive note, a huge transformation in digital technology in the past 10 years has revolutionised communications generally and construction design and management in particular such that construction projects can now be seen in virtual reality before they are built. Building Information Modelling (BIM) has transformed the interface between design, planning and construction, thereby facilitating a ‘what-if’ approach to planning pre-construction that was hitherto not possible.

Mobile technology has also changed unrecognisably since the first iPad was released in 2010. Mobile devices have transformed the way in which construction projects are managed and progressed, meaning that site progress and requests for information can now be processed in real time.

This period of exciting development has taken place against a background of sobering change in the UK construction scene which has witnessed the collapse of Carillion, the United Kingdom’s second largest contractor and the consequently seismic effect that this has had on the construction supply chain. Official reports suggest that significant numbers of insolvencies resulted from this catastrophe and call into question the robustness and reliability of auditing standards and practices. Since then, other large contractors have suffered grinding profits and financial instability – causing disquiet amongst shareholders – and other top 100 contractors have followed Carillion into insolvency.

Despite these winds of change, the aims of the first edition have not changed.

This is a book for students of construction-related professional and degree courses – construction management, building, civil engineering, quantity surveying and building surveying alike. Students and young professionals of all these disciplines need a basic understanding of the culture and methodologies of the industry. They need to know how construction projects are procured, planned and managed, and they need to appreciate the link between construction technology and the methods, order and sequence of work on site. This book aims to fulfil this need.

The fourth edition is a major rewrite necessitated by the tide of progress and changes in industry practice. The basic structure of the book is unchanged, but there are seven completely new chapters, three new major case studies and the remaining 11 chapters have been extensively rewritten and updated.

The ambit of the book has been broadened and deepened and the early chapters have been refocused on the management of projects and project risk. Major and mega-projects have been given suitable prominence in the book including the Shard, Crossrail, Heathrow T5, Hinkley Point C and HS2, and new material has been included covering joint ventures, frameworks and collaborative working.

The case studies and sequence studies in this edition cover a much wider variety of construction methods than previously and include modular construction, slip forming, tunnelling and top-down construction. In common with previous editions, health and safety and the provision of safe systems of work are integral to the book and retain their importance in a revised and fully updated dedicated chapter.

In this edition, particular emphasis has been placed on work sequences and method statements, and these chapters have been extensively revised and extended. The book is also illustrated with colour photographs for the first time to add realism to the case studies and the numerous worked examples.

Coverage of construction industry reports has been updated to include reflections on how the industry has responded to the challenges posed by Latham, Egan and so on. This includes the Farmer Review which has prompted a new chapter on modern methods of construction and a new case study dealing with modular construction. The topics of contracts and procurement have been amalgamated into a new, extensive and fully-revised stand-alone chapter. This includes coverage of a number of international contracts and the role of the programme in a wide variety of contract conditions.

Finally, this edition includes coverage of common data environments, enterprise resource planning, construction management software and the use of 4D BIM in construction scheduling.

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the invaluable generosity and support of several people who have helped me through the long and difficult task of writing this book. Some have provided access to the software used in the text and others have given permission to use copyrighted material, but all those mentioned here have given the most precious thing of all – their time. In this respect, I am particularly indebted to Chris Buckley, Project Manager for Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd, for his input to Chapter 20. Chris’s great knowledge and experience of the industry informed other chapters too and my visits to site were always highly informative and good fun!

The process of writing a book is a solitary endeavour, but each personal contact – no matter how fleeting – has provided renewed inspiration to see it through to a conclusion and to make the end product the best that I can achieve. I can do no better.

Firstly, my sincere thanks go to everyone who has helped directly or indirectly with the technical aspects of the book – people who represent the generosity of a special industry with which I am proud to have been associated for 60 years.

Martin Belcher

4PS Construct

Tony Bolding

Cloud4 Ltd (QSPro)

Chris Buckley

Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd

Stephen Durkin

BSS Software (Cubit Estimating)

John Fozzard

Project Commander

Kieran Witsey

HS2 Ltd

Polly Catchpole

Elecosoft UK Ltd

Justin Kinsella

HTL.tech

Secondly, I would to like to record my particular thanks to my Wiley-Blackwell publisher Dr Paul Sayer, whose patience, support and unshakeable faith have made this publication possible.

Thirdly, throughout the ups and downs of several years since the fourth edition was commissioned, my dearest Jaqueline has been a rock of love and encouragement, a sounding board for ideas and the motivation to keep going when it seemed easier to give up.

Finally, but not least, the fourth edition of this book is dedicated to the memory of my dear friend and former colleague Paul Hodgkinson. Paul produced the many excellent illustrations in the three previous editions, several of which live on in this edition simply because they cannot be equalled. They represent a timeless tribute to a loyal and dedicated professional and an all-round great bloke who I am proud to have known.

Peter WilliamsChester    

Acronyms

BAA

British Airports Authority

BCIS

Building Cost Information Service

BIM

Building Information Modelling

BQ

Bills of Quantities

BSS

Building Software Services

CAD

Computer-aided Design

CATO

Causeway CATO Suite

CDM

Construction Design and Management Regulations

CIOB

Chartered Institute of Building

CFA

Continuous Flight Auger

CIMC

China International Marine Containers

COSHH

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health

CPI

Consumer Price Index

CSCS

Construction Skills Certification Scheme

ERP

Enterprise Resource Planning

FIDIC

Fédération Internationale des Ingénieurs Conseils

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GSK

GlaxoSmithKline plc

HGCR

Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act

HMP

His Majesty’s Prisons

HMRC

His Majesty’s Revenue and Customs

HVAC

Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning

ICC

Infrastructure Conditions of Contract

ICE

Institution of Civil Engineers

JCT

Joint Contracts Tribunal

KFC

Kentucky Fried Chicken

KPI

Key Performance Indicator

MEP

Mechanical and Electrical Services Book

MEWP

Mobile Elevating Work Platforms

M&E

Mechanical and Electrical

MOT

Ministry of Transport

NEC

New Engineering Contract

ONS

Office for National Statistics

PFI

Private Finance Initiative

QS

Quantity Surveyor

RC

Reinforced Concrete

RIBA

Royal Institute of British Architects

RICS

Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors

RPI

Retail Price Index

SIP

Structural Insulated Panel

TBM

Tunnel Boring Machine

Chapter 1 Dashboard

Key Message

Major projects are complex.

The culture and methodologies of the industry condition the way projects are carried out. Appropriate procurement choices are vital.

Public sector clients tend to be excessively bureaucratic, and politicians and political decisions can severely disrupt the smooth running of projects.

Definitions

Projects

may be standalone or part of a programme or portfolio. Projects are traditionally measured by the criteria of time, cost and quality.

Programmes

are measured by the achievement of specific strategic objectives and benefits.

Portfolios

are a means of structuring investment in properties or physical assets where a balance between investment and benefit is required.

Building Information Modelling (BIM)

has improved project information exchanges and design clash detection as well as facilitating the 4D planning of projects.

Headings

Chapter Summary

1.1

Introduction

Construction is a hugely adaptable and inventive industry that undertakes an impressive array of projects from domestic scale to mega-infrastructure projects of cutting-edge complexity.

Many major projects have experienced poor out-turns regarding time and cost predictability.

Construction mega-projects are special due to their size, cost and complexity. They inform our approach to ‘normal’ projects and help to drive forward new ways of thinking and new technologies.

1.2

Why Do Projects Go Wrong?

Construction is a ‘project-based industry’ where the time, cost, quality, resources, problems and solutions are all geared to the project.

Construction work is complex because it involves the procurement and management of finite resources from a supply chain that often struggles to cope with demand.

1.3

Managing the Risk of Delayed Completion in the 21

st

Century

Construction projects – especially mega-projects – are frequently late and over budget. The many reasons for this include poor planning and management and the lack of dynamic scheduling, risk management and record keeping in order to control time effectively.

Many common forms of contract do not promote or encourage efficient time management.

Project management software can aid effective project planning and control and thereby minimise risk, delay and disputes in construction projects.

1.4

The Latham Reports

Commissioned to find ways to reduce conflict and litigation and encourage the industry’s productivity and competitiveness.

1.5

The Egan Reports

Set up by Government to identify the scope for improving quality and efficiency in construction.

1.6

The Wolstenholme Report

Wolstenholme sought to establish what progress had been made since the second Egan Report in 2002.

1.7

The Farmer Review

Commissioned by the Construction Leadership Council to review the UK construction labour model and the poor performance of the industry.

Critical symptoms included low productivity, low predictability of time, cost and quality, structural and leadership fragmentation, low margins and adversarial pricing models.

Learning Outcomes

Understand the nature and complexity of construction projects.

Distinguish between projects, programmes and portfolios.

Appreciate the role of industry reports in understanding the culture and methodologies of construction.

Learn More

Read

Chapter 1

Sections 1.3

–

1.7

to see whether the recommendations of official reports have had any significant impact on the way that the industry operates.

See also

Chapters 2

,

4

and

19

–

21

.

1Construction Projects

1.1 Introduction

Construction is likev no other industry.

The built environment around us is testimony to the audacity and ingenuity of architects, builders and engineers over the centuries. The Egyptian pyramids, mediaeval castles and cathedrals, the canal and rail infrastructure of the nineteenth century and more recent projects such as the skyscrapers of New York and tunnels through the Swiss Alps and under the English Channel provide breathtaking exemplars that characterise the world of construction and engineering.

A particular feature of the history of construction around the world is that the buildings, structures, bridges, railways and tunnels are all essentially prototypes. This is true to this day, even where designs are identical. Repetitive housing, fast-food outlets, chain hotels and standardised factory-made components may well be ‘jelly-mould’ designs, but every construction site on which they are built is different, and each construction team will invariably be unique, assembled with different people from different socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. These are the people who turn design into reality in the tough and dangerous world of construction.

Construction is a hugely adaptable and inventive industry that undertakes an impressive array of projects from domestic-scale repair, maintenance and remodelling work to mega-infrastructure projects of cutting-edge complexity posing enormous technological challenges.

The E39 highway in Norway is a good example – it is 1000 km (680 mi) long and crosses fjords up to 1.3 km deep with floating bridges and tunnels – a project of breath-taking scale and environmental sensitivity.

https://youtu.be/HCT-FurFVLQ

1.1.1 Industry Reputation

Paradoxically, the construction industry does not have the best reputation:

It is widely recognised as being adversarial and slow to accept change.

Easy entry into the industry encourages shoddy workmanship and so-called ‘cowboy’ builders.

Many major projects have experienced poor out-turns regarding time and cost predictability including Wembley Stadium, the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood and Crossrail in London. England’s current High-Speed Rail project (HS2) has suffered delays, overspending, extensive scope changes and widespread criticism.

The industry generally suffers from a poor health and safety record.

The Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB)

1

reports that construction underperforms in terms of inclusivity and diversity.

Conversely:

Major contractors have encouraged top-down improvements in health and safety ‘norms’ which drive higher standards in the many subcontractors and smaller firms that operate in the industry.

Building information modelling

(

BIM

) has improved project information exchanges and design clash detection as well as facilitating the 4D planning of projects.

Modern methods of construction, the concept of

design for manufacture and assembly

(

DfMA

) and the use of factory-built components and assemblies are being more widely integrated into mainstream projects with beneficial impact on time and cost certainty.

1.1.2 Projects

Construction is often referred to as a ‘project-based industry’ and, wherever there is a built environment, you will not be far from a tower crane, roadworks on a motorway or scaffolding around a building – indications of the presence of a construction project.

A construction project could be anything from a modest house extension to the £15 billion Crossrail project in London, one of the largest construction projects ever undertaken in Europe – but there is a common theme. The whole focus is on the project – the time, cost, quality, resources, problems and solutions are all geared to the project.

This brings enormous pressure on project teams, however, big or small they are, to ensure that the project is completed on time, on budget and to the correct quality standards.

The ‘one-off’ nature of construction creates additional pressures, however, because more or less every project has its own individuality and peculiarities depending on the site and location, the design and type of construction, the business arrangements between the parties and the hopes and expectations of all those involved. Projects may be defined as:

Unique, transient endeavours, undertaken to bring about change and achieve planned objectives, which can be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or benefits.

(APM 2020)

This definition identifies the normal reasons why construction projects are carried out and the expected outcomes – a client satisfied with the finished result and completion within defined time, cost and quality expectations.

Whether a construction project is intended to provide an asset for personal use (such as a house) or for production or investment (a new factory or an office block) or to upgrade or maintain an existing asset (a house extension or repairs to a rail bridge), capital expenditure is normally required in the form of a loan, direct investment or public funding.

In some cases, public-sector projects are constructed with private-sector investment. The private finance initiative (PFI) used in the UK enabled the public sector to repay the capital cost of its projects over time according to the utility provided by the facility. This could be a toll bridge, a hospital or a prison, for instance. Concerns over value for money, however, led to PFI – and its successor PF2 (Private Finance 2) – being discontinued. Other forms of public-private partnership (PPP) have been developed in their place.

1.1.3 Programmes

In order to distinguish between a ‘project’ and a ‘programme’ take the example of a modern PPP between a local authority and the development arm of a large contractor.

A joint venture was formed in order to build 109 new homes for sale and 69 for rent across two sites as part of a two-phase regeneration scheme that includes associated community facilities.2

This development is a ‘programme’ which are defined as:

Unique and transient strategic endeavours, undertaken to achieve a defined set of objectives, incorporating a group of related projects and change management activities. They can be defined as coordinated … combined to achieve beneficial change.

(APM)

A programme can therefore be described as a number of related projects brought together to achieve particular benefits in a more effective way than as a group of individual projects. Admittedly, each project in the programme may well be organised and managed individually but there might be shared facilities – such as an on-site concrete batching plant – and the same contracts manager may be in overall charge of all the projects comprised in the programme.

An important distinction between projects and programmes is that projects are traditionally measured by the criteria of time, cost and quality whereas programmes are measured by the achievement of specific strategic objectives and benefits which might otherwise have not been possible had the projects been managed independently.

A further notable difference between projects and programmes is that programmes are often punctuated by a number of milestones and are not always as strictly finite as a project. They also take far longer to complete than any of the projects within the programme and may, in some cases, have no specific end date at all.

HS2 is often referred to as a project, but it is, in fact, a programme with specific strategic objectives: to reduce journey times, increase connectivity and encourage investment. There are hundreds of individual elements to HS2 – stations, tunnels, bridges, viaducts and track, rolling stock and so on – that are geographically spread over some 400 km (260 mi), making it impossible to manage as one project.

However, HS2 also sits within a portfolio of public sector infrastructure investments in road, rail and major transport schemes.

1.1.4 Portfolios

Portfolios are used to select, prioritise and control an organisation’s programmes and projects, in line with its strategic objectives and capacity to deliver (APM).

Local authorities, for instance, own and manage a wide variety of property, such as social housing, schools, care homes, waste and recycling centres, shopping and leisure centres, commercial property and municipal buildings, and so on, that require investment in order to maintain, adapt, replace or augment the estate. This investment usually takes place over an unspecified period, and the work involved has to be managed and prioritised.

Consequently, the related or unrelated programmes of work or stand-alone projects that arise need to be organised into a structured portfolio and managed according to urgency, need, budgetary and timing demands, usually in the form of an asset management plan.

Similar portfolios of work will be found in hospital or prison estates or in airport authorities that have large estates of properties to look after.

Portfolios are, therefore, a means of structuring investment in properties or physical assets, such as road and rail infrastructure, where a balance between investment and benefit is required and where projects and programmes are created and closed out accordingly.

The role of portfolios, and the interrelationship between projects and programmes, is illustrated in Figure 1.1 which distinguishes a stand-alone programme from that sitting within a portfolio and shows how a project can equally sit within a programme and a portfolio. It also depicts how an organisation can have stand-alone projects and programmes as well. The CIOB provides a useful summary:

Projects

are of relatively short duration measured in weeks/months – a new hospital for example.

Programmes

have longer durations measured in years with a finite end – such as upgrading a number of existing hospitals to meet modern standards.

Portfolios

are ongoing activities with no defined end – the repair and maintenance of a number of hospitals over an undefined or ongoing period, for example.

1.1.5 Mega Projects

The construction industry is renowned for its mega projects and there is no doubt that they have a beguiling fascination for their breathtaking scale, technical audacity, incredible timescales and enormous cost. Some recent examples of such projects are shown in Table 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Projects, programmes and portfolios.

Table 1.1 Recent mega projects.

Indicative cost

Indicative construction period

Project

Description

US$ billion

Years

Al Maktoum International Airport, Dubai

Airport

82

5

Dubailand, Dubai

Theme Park and leisure project

64

12

South-North Water Transfer Project, China

Canal project for irrigation system

78

48

London Crossrail Project

Tube system

23

10

Linear Chuo Shinkansen, Japan

Ultra-high-speed railway using magnetic levitation technology

52

12 (Phase 1)

Realistically speaking, the time and cost figures associated with such projects do not really matter – they are broad estimates at best. Yes, these projects are planned and, yes, timescale and cost controls are in place, but everyone knows that time will overrun significantly, and cost will spiral way beyond original expectations – it is ‘par for the course’ for the vast majority of these huge projects.

This does not invalidate the need for planning and control – it is just that unknown, unforeseen and unexpected events override the process. Political delays, inflation, technological change and business failures mean that the risks are high, but so are the rewards.

Mega projects change the lives of millions of people, but they are the very tip of the construction ‘iceberg’ and might be considered ‘abnormal’ in an industry-wide context. One of the great benefits of mega projects, however, is that they inform our approach to ‘normal’ projects and help to drive forward new ways of thinking and new technologies that can filter down through the echelons of the industry.

Sir John Egan (1998) said that the UK construction industry is capable of carrying out the most difficult and innovative projects imaginable and another mega-project – High Speed 2 (HS2) – is one of the largest and most controversial in recent times.

The timeline for construction works for HS2 is vague, with some estimates suggesting that it might be 20 years before the project is entirely complete. Cost is another imponderable – originally estimated to cost £32 billion, predictions range from £56 billion to £100+ billion at the time of writing.

Politically speaking, the future of HS2 is open to question as there are serious doubts about the business case for the project. This is counterbalanced to some extent by the fact that HS2 is being modelled in a BIM environment, using the latest digital technologies. Consequently, the entire project will be realised virtually, from design through construction and occupancy, before physical work is carried out – thereby creating considerable economies.

This process should facilitate enormous savings in time and money compared to traditional methods – despite the eye-watering cost – and may well set the standard for future, more modest projects, in line with government aspirations.

1.2 Why Do Projects Go Wrong?

Late and over-budget major projects certainly grab the headlines:

The Berlin Brandenburg Airport was completed nine years late.

The Flamanville-3 nuclear power station in France is over 11 years late and more than five times over its initial €3.3 billion budget.

Crossrail in London was similarly £billions over budget and several years late.

In the United Kingdom, the first phase of HS2 is reportedly four years behind schedule and phase two was eight years late before it was cancelled.

In its annual report 2022–2023, the UK

Infrastructure and Projects Authority

(

IPA

)

3

gave phases 1 and 2a of HS2 a ‘red’ rating. This means that successful delivery

appears to be unachievable

and that

there are major issues with project definition, schedule, budget, quality and/or benefits delivery, which at this stage do not appear to be manageable or resolvable

. The implication is that the project

may need re-scoping and/or its overall viability reassessed

.

4

Reasons for such delays are easy to find and can include:

Ineffective political governance.

Lengthy statutory approvals processes.

Suffocating bureaucracy and political meddling.

Hugely complex chains of command – there are over 29 000 people engaged on HS2, for instance.

Sheer scale – HS2 Phase 1 has over 350 major construction sites.

Extensive scope changes and ‘mission creep’.

Poor accountability.

Poor project management.

Poor quality materials and inadequate workmanship.

The COVID-19 pandemic and its aftereffects.

Scarcity of resources – especially skilled labour.

A recent survey by the Project Management Institute (PMI) revealed that only 48% of major construction projects were completed on time in 2020 and that almost one-third of projects failed to meet their original aims and objectives.5

In an earlier CIOB survey6 involving several thousand projects, simple, repetitive and low-rise projects (<6 storeys) were reported to have a high chance of success using traditional management processes. This contrasts sharply with more complex projects where the likelihood of completion on time, or within a short time after the intended completion date, was reported to be significantly lower.

1.2.1 Looking for Reasons

Whilst providing useful insights into why projects may be delayed, the results from the PMI and CIOB surveys are entirely predictable. Complex projects will face problems because they are just that – complex.

The CIOB survey tends to point the finger at contractors, project managers and at the standards of project management in the industry as the prime suspects when a project is delayed but there is much more to it than that:

Construction projects invariably commence on site before the design is sufficiently well developed which can lead to late, incomplete or conflicting information being issued to contractors thereby compromising the proper planning of production on site. This issue has been raised in several official reports including the Latham Report (1994).

Design changes are common in construction which leads to variations or changes to works information. This can lead to inefficiencies, reworking of completed work and delays awaiting confirmation of instructions.

Many projects rely on design input from specialist subcontractors who are, invariably, appointed after the main contract has been awarded. This militates against commencement of work on site based on a complete design and can result in design clashes, conflicting or late information and potential delays should materials and components require long lead times before they can be delivered to site.

Construction contracts often include provisional sums for work which is envisaged but not yet designed. Such work may well be defined in the contract but often this is inadequately detailed to enable the contractor to allow for the work in the schedule.

Extensions of time allowed under construction contracts often provide inadequate recompense for the actual delay incurred on projects resulting from design changes, delayed instructions, unforeseen physical conditions or supply chain problems.

In the event of delay, English law requires contractors to mitigate delay which can lead to inefficient working and poor use of resources.

Contractors normally carry the risk of delay due to bad weather unless the weather is sufficiently inclement to be considered exceptional.

Both clients and contractors are prone to being over-optimistic when planning their projects.

Inflationary pressures and poor budgetary control.

Disputes over contract payments can cause cash flow problems for contractors and subcontractors. This can lead to delays on projects due to inability to secure and pay for the necessary materials and other resources needed to keep the project on schedule.

Slightly tongue-in-cheek, there is also Murphy’s law which says that:

Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.

Nothing is as easy as it looks.

Everything takes longer than you think it will.

1.2.2 Murphy’s Law

The construction of the Scottish Parliament building in Holyrood, Edinburgh, Scotland, which was finally completed in 2004 – more than three years late – is a classic example of Murphy’s law.

In a 271-page report by Lord Fraser,7 a catalogue of reasons why the project cost so much money and took so long to build was given, including:

The project cost was initially estimated to be £10–40 million.

Outturn cost was £414 million.

The Spanish architect Enric Miralles died before his vision could be completed.

The architectural joint venture engaged for the project had different cultures and ways of working.

Construction management procurement was chosen which placed full control of the project in the client’s hands but also all the risk.

The project was beset by accusations of poor and inexperienced management and criticisms of Members of the Scottish Parliament for meddling in the project and constantly making design changes.

It might be of some comfort that the building was generally acclaimed for its design which aimed to create a poetic union between landscape, people and culture and was awarded the 2005 RIBA Sterling Prize for architecture!!

1.2.3 Complexity

Construction projects – especially large projects – can run into difficulties simply due to the passage of time. It can take years to design a large project and the statutory approvals process – which might involve parliamentary consent – can take years or even decades. As time goes by legislation changes, project objectives and expectations can change and developments in construction materials, techniques and IT can also impact a project. The political and economic climate can change over time and changes of government, inflation or economic downturns can seriously affect the viability or scope of a project.

Inflationary pressures on the predicted cost of HS2 mean that the project may be significantly scaled-back or abandoned entirely, mid-construction. The resultant impact on the industry is enormous with future order books decimated and an entire industry looking to find £billions worth of alternative work.

Construction work is complex because it involves the procurement and management of finite resources – materials, plant, labour, temporary works, specialist contractors and so on – from a supply chain that, especially at times of high industry output, struggles to cope with demand.

Additionally, projects are often undertaken in demanding conditions, subject to the vagaries of the weather, poor ground conditions, sometimes on confined sites with difficult access and where all manner of hazards are present beyond those directly related to the construction work itself (such as traffic, pedestrians, nearby buildings, underground services or tunnels).

A further layer of complexity is added to construction projects because they normally involve much more than the work on site:

Justification for the intended project is normally needed in the form of a business case or some other criteria such as spatial requirements, modernisation of a facility, maintenance, etc.