e-Learning and the Science of Instruction E-Book

Ruth C. Clark

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 686

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

The essential e-learning design manual, updated with the latest research, design principles, and examples e-Learning and the Science of Instruction is the ultimate handbook for evidence-based e-learning design. Since the first edition of this book, e-learning has grown to account for at least 40% of all training delivery media. However, digital courses often fail to reach their potential for learning effectiveness and efficiency. This guide provides research-based guidelines on how best to present content with text, graphics, and audio as well as the conditions under which those guidelines are most effective. This updated fourth edition describes the guidelines, psychology, and applications for ways to improve learning through personalization techniques, coherence, animations, and a new chapter on evidence-based game design. The chapter on the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning introduces three forms of cognitive load which are revisited throughout each chapter as the psychological basis for chapter principles. A new chapter on engagement in learning lays the groundwork for in-depth reviews of how to leverage worked examples, practice, online collaboration, and learner control to optimize learning. The updated instructor's materials include a syllabus, assignments, storyboard projects, and test items that you can adapt to your own course schedule and students. Co-authored by the most productive instructional research scientist in the world, Dr. Richard E. Mayer, this book distills copious e-learning research into a practical manual for improving learning through optimal design and delivery. * Get up to date on the latest e-learning research * Adopt best practices for communicating information effectively * Use evidence-based techniques to engage your learners * Replace popular instructional ideas, such as learning styles with evidence-based guidelines * Apply evidence-based design techniques to optimize learning games e-Learning continues to grow as an alternative or adjunct to the classroom, and correspondingly, has become a focus among researchers in learning-related fields. New findings from research laboratories can inform the design and development of e-learning. However, much of this research published in technical journals is inaccessible to those who actually design e-learning material. By collecting the latest evidence into a single volume and translating the theoretical into the practical, e-Learning and the Science of Instruction has become an essential resource for consumers and designers of multimedia learning.

Leseprobe

About This Book

Why is e-Learning and the Science of Instruction important?

This is a book about what works in e-learning. Increasingly, organizations are turning to e-learning to save travel costs and instructional time. In fact e-learning in both synchronous and asynchronous formats is on the rise, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all training delivery of workforce learning. However, dollars saved are only an illusion if the quality of the training suffers.

Many books on the market offer useful advice for design and development of e-learning. Unlike these books, the answers we present are not based on opinion and fads; they are based on empirical research. Much of this new research is inaccessible to those producing or evaluating online learning because it has been distributed primarily within the academic research community. This book bridges the gap by summarizing research-based answers to questions that practitioners ask about effective e-learning.

What’s new in the fourth edition?

The popularity of the previous editions of this book is testimony to consumer interest in evidence-based guidelines about how to best use visuals, text, audio, practice exercises, and examples in e-learning. In the fourth edition we have updated the previous edition by adding new research, guidelines, and examples. Based on Richard Mayer’s extensive research on serious games, we have a new chapter on the effects of games on learning. We also have a new chapter on engagement in e-learning that presents recent research on generative multimedia learning.

What can you achieve with this book?

If you are a designer, developer, evaluator, or consumer of e-learning, you can use the guidelines in this book to ensure that your courseware meets human psychological learning requirements. In particular you can learn evidence-based ways to:

Communicate your content with words and visuals

Use audio to describe visuals

Avoid overloading learners with extraneous media effects

Optimize social presence in your courseware

Apply new research on engagement to your e-learning products

Design examples and practice exercises that build job-relevant skills

Determine when and how to use networked collaborative activities

Build thinking skills through evidence-based methods

Apply recent evidence on serious games to your portfolio of multimedia products

How is this book organized?

Chapters 1 through 3 lay the foundation for the book by defining e-learning, describing how the methods used in e-learning can promote or defeat learning processes, and summarizing the basic concepts associated with evidence-based practice.

Chapters 4 through 10 summarize the multimedia principles developed over thirty years of research by Richard Mayer and his associates at the University of California. In these chapters you will read the guidelines, the evidence, and the psychology, as well as review examples of how to (1) best use visuals, text, and audio, (2) increase social presence in your lessons, and (3) segment and sequence content in e-learning.

Chapters 11 through 16 focus on evidence-based guidelines related to important instructional methods and approaches in e-learning, including use of examples, practice, and feedback, collaborative learning assignments, navigation tools, and techniques to build thinking skills.

Chapter 17 is new to this edition and summarizes the most recent research on the effects of serious games on learning. In this chapter you will see the evidence that answers three fundamental questions about games: (1) What features promote learning in games? (2) Do games affect basic cognitive aptitudes? and (3) Are games more effective than traditional instructional approaches?

Chapter 18 integrates all of the book’s guidelines into a comprehensive checklist and illustrates how they apply in concert to asynchronous and synchronous e-learning examples.

The book’s introduction gives you a summary of specific topics in each chapter.

e-Learning and the Science of Instruction

Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning

Fourth Edition

Ruth Colvin Clark • Richard E. Mayer

Cover image: iconeer/Getty Images, Inc.

Cover design: Wiley

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2016 by Ruth Colvin Clark and Richard E. Mayer. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Names: Clark, Ruth Colvin, author. | Mayer, Richard E., 1947- author. Title: E-learning and the science of instruction : proven guidelines for    consumers and designers of multimedia learning / Ruth C. Clark, Richard E. Mayer. Description: Fourth edition. | Hoboken : Wiley, 2016. | Revised edition of    the authors' E-learning and the science of instruction, 2011. | Includes    bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015037550 (print) | LCCN 2015045401 (ebook) | ISBN    9781119158660 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119158677 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119158684    (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Business education—Computer-assisted instruction. | BISAC:    BUSINESS & ECONOMICS / Human Resources & Personnel Management. Classification: LCC HF1106 .C55 2016 (print) | LCC HF1106 (ebook) | DDC    658.3/12402854678—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015037550

To a new generation of e-learners:

Jacob, Avery, James, Emma, and Caleb (from RM)Joshua, Matthew, Lennon, and Luke (from RC)

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Chapter 1 e-Learning

Chapter Summary

What Is e-Learning?

Is e-Learning Better?

The Promises of e-Learning

The Pitfalls of e-Learning

Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals

e-Learning Architectures

What Is Effective e-Courseware?

Learning in e-Learning

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 2 How Do People Learn from e-Courses?

Chapter Summary

How Do People Learn?

Managing Limited Cognitive Resources During Learning

How e-Lessons Affect Human Learning

What We Don’t Know About Learning

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 3 Evidence-Based Practice

Chapter Summary

What Is Evidence-Based Practice?

Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness

What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons

How to Interpret Research Statistics

How Can You Identify Relevant Research?

Boundary Conditions in Experimental Comparisons

Practical Versus Theoretical Research

What We Don’t Know About Evidence-Based Practice

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 4 Applying the Multimedia Principle

Chapter Summary

Do Visuals Make a Difference?

Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics

Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning

Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle

Evidence for Using Words and Pictures

The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices

Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations?

What We Don’t Know About Visuals

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 5 Applying the Contiguity Principle

Chapter Summary

Principle 1: Place Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics

Psychological Reasons for Contiguity Principle 1

Evidence for Contiguity Principle 1

Principle 2: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics

Psychological Reasons for Contiguity Principle 2

Evidence for Contiguity Principle 2

What We Don’t Know About Contiguity

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 6 Applying the Modality Principle

Chapter Summary

Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text

Limitations to the Modality Principle

Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle

Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text

When the Modality Principle Applies

What We Don’t Know About Modality

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 7 Applying the Redundancy Principle

Chapter Summary

Principle 1: Do Not Add On-Screen Text to Narrated Graphics

Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle

Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text

Principle 2: Consider Adding On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations

Psychological Reasons for Exceptions to the Redundancy Principle

Evidence for Including Redundant On-Screen Text

What We Don’t Know About Redundancy

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 8 Applying the Coherence Principle

Chapter Summary

Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words

Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in e-Learning

Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest

Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand on Key Ideas

Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Technical Depth

Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics

Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Graphics in e-Learning

Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest

Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals

Can Interesting Graphics Ever Be Helpful?

Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio

Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning

Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio

What We Don’t Know About Coherence

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 9 Applying the Personalization and Embodiment Principles

Chapter Summary

Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style, Polite Wording Rather Than Direct Wording, and Human Voice Rather Than Machine Voice

Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle

Promote Personalization Through Conversational Style

Promote Personalization Through Polite Speech

Promote Personalization Through Voice Quality

Embodiment Principle: Use Effective On-Screen Coaches to Promote Learning

Implications for e-Learning

What We Don’t Know About Personalization and Embodiment

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 10 Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles

Chapter Summary

Segmenting Principle: Break a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments

Psychological Reasons for the Segmenting Principle

Evidence for Breaking a Continuous Lesson into Bite-Size Segments

Pretraining Principle: Ensure That Learners Know the Names and Characteristics of Key Concepts

Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle

Evidence for Providing Pretraining in Key Concepts

What We Don’t Know About Segmenting and Pretraining

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 11 Engagement in e-Learning

Chapter Summary

What Is Engagement?

When Behavioral Engagement Impedes Learning

Engagement That Leads to Generative Processing

A New View of Engagement

What We Don’t Know About Engagement

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 12 Leveraging Examples in e-Learning

Chapter Summary

What Are Worked Examples?

The Psychology of Worked Examples

Evidence for the Benefits of Worked Examples

Principles to Optimize Benefits of Worked Examples

Principle 1: Provide Worked Examples in Lieu of Problem Assignments When the Essential Load of the Lesson Is High

Principle 2: Fade from Worked Examples to Problems

Principle 3: Promote Self-Explanations

Principle 4: Include Instructional Explanations of Worked Examples in Some Situations

Principle 5: Apply Multimedia Principles to Examples

Principle 6: Support Far Transfer

What We Don’t Know About Worked Examples

Chapter Reflection

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 13 Does Practice Make Perfect?

Chapter Summary

What Is Practice in e-Learning?

Is Practice a Good Investment?

Principle 1: Add Sufficient Practice Interactions to e-Learning to Achieve the Objective

Principle 2: Mirror the Job

Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback

Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events

Principle 5: Apply Multimedia Principles

What We Don’t Know About Practice

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 14 Learning Together Virtually

Chapter Summary

What Is Collaborative Learning?

What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)?

Principle 1: Consider Collaborative Assignments for Challenging Tasks

Principle 2: Optimize Group Size, Composition, and Interdependence

Principle 3: Match Synchronous and Asynchronous Assignments to the Collaborative Goal

Principle 4: Use Collaborative Tool Features That Optimize Team Processes and Products

Principle 5: Maximize Social Presence in Online Collaborative Environments

Principle 6: Use Structured Collaboration Processes to Optimize Team Outcomes

What We Don’t Know About Collaborative Learning

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 15 Who’s in Control?

Chapter Summary

Learner Control Versus Program Control

Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions?

Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control

Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default

Principle 3: Consider Alternative Forms of Learner Control

Principle 4: Give Pacing Control to All Learners

Principle 5: Offer Navigational Support in Hypermedia Environments

The Bottom Line

What We Don’t Know About Learner Control

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 16 e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills

Chapter Summary

What Are Thinking Skills?

Can Thinking Skills Be Trained?

Principle 1: Focus on Explicit Teaching of Job-Relevant Thinking Skills

Principle 2: Design Lessons Around Authentic Work Tasks or Problems

Evidence for Problem-Focused Instruction

Principle 3: Define Job-Specific Thinking Processes

What We Don’t Know About Teaching Thinking Skills

Coming Next

Chapter 17 Learning with Computer Games

Chapter Summary

Do Games Have a Place in the Serious Business of Training?

Which Features Improve a Game’s Effectiveness?

Does Game Playing Improve Cognitive Skills?

Are Games More Effective Than Conventional Media?

What We Don’t Know About Learning with Computer Games

Coming Next

Suggested Readings

Chapter 18 Applying the Guidelines

Chapter Summary

Applying the Evidence-Based Guidelines to e-Courses

e-Lesson Guidelines Checklist

Review of Sample 1: Excel for Small Business

Review of Sample 2: Synchronous Excel Lesson

Review of Sample 3: Automotive Troubleshooting Simulation

Reflections on Past Predictions

Beyond 2016 in Multimedia Research

In Conclusion

References

Glossary

Name Index

Subject Index

About the Authors

EULA

List of Tables

Introduction

Table 1.1.

Chapter 1

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 2.1.

Table 2.2.

Table 2.3.

Table 3.1.

Table 3.2.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Table 11.1.

Table 13.1.

Table 13.2.

Table 14.1.

Table 14.2.

Table 15.1.

Table 16.1.

Table 16.2.

Table 16.3.

Table 17.1.

Table 17.2.

Table 17.3.

Table 17.4.

Table 18.1.

Table 18.2.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1

A Screen Capture from an Asynchronous Excel Lesson.

Figure 1.2

A Screen Capture from a Synchronous Excel Lesson.

Figure 1.3

Adapted from Bernard et al., 2004. Electronic Distance Learning Versus Face-to-Face Instruction: Distribution of Effect Sizes.

Figure 1.4

Adapted from ATD State of Industry Report, 2014. Percentage of Learning Hours Available Via Instructor-Led Classroom and Technology.

Figure 1.5

With permission from Raytheon Professional Services. A Simulated Automotive Shop Offers Accelerated Learning Opportunities.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.

Figure 2.2

Visual Cues Help Learners Attend to Important Elements of the Lesson.

Figure 2.3

Adapted from Mayer (2001a, 2005b) Screens from Lightning Lesson with Integrated Text and Graphics (Left) and Separated Text and Graphics (Right).

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1

Eye-Tracking Data Shows Different Patterns of Attention in Different Layouts of Print and Visuals.

Figure 3.2

Criteria of Good Experimental Comparisons.

Figure 3.3

Means and Standard Deviations from Two Lessons.

Figure 3.4

A Calculation of Effect Size for the Two Groups Illustrated in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.5

Research Can Have Theoretical and Practical Goals.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1

A Screen from Ben’s First Draft of the Excel Course.

Figure 4.2

A Revision of Figure 4.1 with Visuals and Words.

Figure 4.3

A Decorative Graphic That Does Not Improve Learning.

Figure 4.4

An Organizational Graphic on Coaching Topics.

Figure 4.5

Use of Color and Tables to Illustrate Quantitative Relationships.

Figure 4.6

How a Bicycle Pump Works Explained with Words Alone. .

Figure 4.7

How a Bicycle Pump Works Explained with Words and Graphics.

Figure 4.8

Learning Is Better from Words Plus Graphics Than from Words Alone. .

Figure 4.9

A Series of Static Visuals to Teach How Lightning Forms. .

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1

Ben’s First Draft Storyboards for the Excel Lesson.

Figure 5.2

The Legend Placed on the Side of the Graphic Violates the Contiguity Principle.

Figure 5.3

From Clark and Lyons, 2011. A Screen Rollover Integrates Text Below Section 1 of Graphic.

Figure 5.4

Text and Graphic Separated on Scrolling Screen.

Figure 5.5

Text and Graphic Visible Together on a Scrolling Screen.

Figure 5.6

Ineffective and Effective Placement of Feedback.

Figure 5.7

Separating Exercise Directions from Application Screen Adds Extraneous Memory Load.

Figure 5.8

Text Placed at Bottom of Screen (Left) Versus Next to Visual (Right).

Figure 5.9

Text Is Viewed Separately from Animation. .

Figure 5.10

Screens from Lightning Lesson with Integrated Text and Graphics (Left) and Separated Text and Graphics (Right). .

Figure 5.11

Eye-Tracking Shows Better Integration of Text and Visual When Visuals Are Integrated into the Text. .

Figure 5.12

Separated Version of the Brakes Lesson. .

Figure 5.13

Integrated Version of the Brakes Lesson. .

Figure 5.14

Narration Is Presented Separately from Animation.

Figure 5.15

This Alternative to Figure 5.1 Applies the Contiguity Principle.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1

Visual Described by On-Screen Text.

Figure 6.2

Audio Explains the Animated Demonstration of the Telephone System.

Figure 6.3

Visual Described by Audio Narration.

Figure 6.4

Practice Directions Provided in On-Screen Text in a Virtual Classroom Session.

Figure 6.5

Overloading of Visual Channel with Presentation of Written Text and Graphics. .

Figure 6.6

Balancing Content Across Visual and Auditory Channels with Presentation of Narration and Graphics. .

Figure 6.7

Screens from Lightning Lesson Explained with Audio Narration. .

Figure 6.8

Screens from Lightning Lesson Explained with On-Screen Text. .

Figure 6.9

Better Learning When Visuals Are Explained with Audio Narration. .

Figure 6.10

Responses to Questions in Audio Narration (A) or in On-Screen Text (B). .

Figure 6.11

A Temperature Graph. .

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1

Visual Described by On-Screen Text and Narration.

Figure 7.2

Graphics Explained Using Identical Text and Audio Narration.

Figure 7.3

Graphics Explained Using Audio Alone.

Figure 7.4

Overloading of Visual Channel with Graphics Explained by Words in Audio and Written Text. .

Figure 7.5

Better Learning When Visuals Are Explained by Audio Alone. .

Figure 7.6

When No Visuals Are Present, Content Can Be Presented with Text and Redundant Narration.

Figure 7.7

Use of Audio and Text Callouts Can Benefit Learning.

Figure 7.8

Screenshot from Narrated Video with and Without Subtitles. .

Figure 7.9

Visual Explained by On-Screen Text When Audio Off Is Selected.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1

A Screen to Add Interest to the Excel Lesson.

Figure 8.2

Extensive Text Elaborates on Spreadsheet Concepts.

Figure 8.3

Lean Text and Relevant Visual Explain Spreadsheet Concepts.

Figure 8.4

High and Low Interest Statements Added to a Lesson. .

Figure 8.5

High Interest Statements Added to a Lesson Depress Learning .

Figure 8.6

Learning Is Better When Non-Essential Text Is Excluded. .

Figure 8.7

Interesting But Irrelevant-to-Learning Information Should Be Excluded.

Figure 8.8

Interesting But Unrelated Graphics Added to Lightning Lesson. .

Figure 8.9

Text Accompanied by a Simple Visual (Left) Led to Better Understanding of Circulation Than an Anatomically Correct Detailed Visual (Right). .

Figure 8.10

Schematic Animations (Bottom) Led to Better Learning Than Video-Recorded (Top) Visuals of Mitosis. .

Figure 8.11

Standard and Enhanced Graphics for the Virus Lesson. .

Figure 8.12

Sounds of Explosions and Bullets Added to Narration of On-Screen Text.

Figure 8.13

Learning Is Better When Sounds and Music Are Excluded. .

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1

An Informal Approach Uses an Agent and Conversational Language.

Figure 9.2

A Formal Approach Omits the Agent and Uses More Formal Language.

Figure 9.3

Passive Voice Leads to a Formal Tone in the Lesson.

Figure 9.4

Use of Second Person and Informal Language Lead to a Conversational Tone in the Lesson.

Figure 9.5

How the Presence or Absence of Social Cues Affects Learning. .

Figure 9.6

Formal Versus Informal Lesson Introductions Compared in Research Study. .

Figure 9.7

Better Learning from Personalized Narration. .

Figure 9.8

On-Screen Coach Used to Give Reading Comprehension Demonstrations. .

Figure 9.9

Herman-the-Bug Used in Design-A-Plant Instructional Game. .

Figure 9.10

Agent Stands to Left in Slideshow on Solar Cells. .

Figure 9.11

The Puppy Character Plays No Instructional Role So Is Not an Agent.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1

Two Organizational Sequences for the Excel Lesson.

Figure 10.2

Some Screens from Lightning Lesson. .

Figure 10.3

Cutting and Pasting Text in Word Is a Simple Task.

Figure 10.4

Constructing a Formula in Excel Is a Complex Task

Figure 10.5

Adding a Continue Button Allows Learners to Progress at Their Own Rate.

Figure 10.6

Pretraining Illustrates the Parts and Functions of the Virtual Classroom Interface. .

Figure 10.7

Pretraining Teaches Formula Format Before Procedure. .

Figure 10.8

This Lesson Applies Both Segmenting and Pretraining Principles. .

Figure 10.9

Part of a Multimedia Presentation on How Brakes Work. .

Figure 10.10

Pretraining on How Brakes Work. .

Figure 10.11

Pretraining Version Resulted in Better Learning. .

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1

A Narrative Game for Learning Electro-Mechanical Principles. .

Figure 11.2

The Engagement Grid. .

Figure 11.3

Learning from Verbal and Pictorial Summaries, Either Student-Generated or Instructor-Provided. .

Figure 11.4

Proportion of Productive Inferences Generated from Three Lesson Versions. .

Figure 11.5

Elements Provided for Supported Drawing. .

Figure 11.6

Gain Scores for One-on-One Tutoring, Observing Tutoring, or Observing a Lecture Among University or Middle School Students. .

Figure 11.7

Learning from Preparing to Teach Versus Preparing to Teach and Teaching. .

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1

A Worked Example of a Probability Problem.

Figure 12.2

A Modeled Worked Example from a Sales Lesson.

Figure 12.3

Worked Example Problem Pairs Result in Faster and Better Learning.

Figure 12.4

Test Scores for Easier and More Complex Problems with Examples or with Practice Exercises: Novice Learners.

Figure 12.5

Fading from a Full Worked Example to a Practice Problem.

Figure 12.6

A Faded Worked Probability Problem.

Figure 12.7

A Self-Explanation Question Focused on First Solution Step of Probability Problem.

Figure 12.8

A Self-Explanation Question Encourages Deeper Processing of the Sales Modeled Example.

Figure 12.9

Different Physician Profiles Vary the Sales Context.

Figure 12.11

Better Learning from Case Examples in Video or Animation Than Text or No Example.

Figure 12.11

A Worked Example with Steps Presented in Text, Audio, or Text and Audio.

Figure 12.12

Varied Context Worked Examples Resulted in More Correct Discrimination of Statistical Test Type.

Figure 12.13

Alternative Placement of Negotiation Strategy Worked Examples in Three Lesson Versions.

Figure 12.14

Best Learning from Active Comparisons of Examples.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1

A Jeopardy Game Design for the Pharmaceutical Sales Lesson.

Figure 13.2

Practice Exercises Should Fall into Quadrant 4 of the Engagement Matrix.

Figure 13.3

This Multiple-Choice Question Requires the Learner to Recognize Correct Drug Facts.

Figure 13.4

This Multiple-Select Question Requires the Learner to Match Drug Features to the Appropriate Physician Profile.

Figure 13.5

Better Learning from e-Learning with Practice Interactions.

Figure 13.6

The Power Law of Practice: Speed Increases with Practice But at a Diminishing Rate.

Figure 13.7

This Feedback Tells the Learner That the Response Is Incorrect.

Figure 13.8

This Feedback Tells the Learner That the Response Is Incorrect and Provides an Explanation.

Figure 13.9

Better Learning from Explanatory Feedback.

Figure 13.10

Mixed Practice Leads to Poorer Practice Scores But Better Learning.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1

Synchronous Collaborative Learning with Chat, Audio, Whiteboard in Breakout Room.

Figure 14.2

Asynchronous Collaborative Learning Using a Wiki.

Figure 14.3

Asynchronous Collaborative Learning Using a Discussion Board.

Figure 14.4

A Graphic Interface to Support the Group Problem-Solving Process.

Figure 14.5

Collaborative Versus Solo Learning from High- and Low-Complexity Tasks.

Figure 14.6

A Learning Portal with Synchronous and Asynchronous Functionality.

Figure 14.7

The Menu Structure of This Collaborative Application Supports Argumentation Processes.

Figure 14.8

Structured Argumentation Collaborative Learning Process.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1

Navigational Elements Designed for High Learner Control.

Figure 15.2

A Lesson with Multiple Navigational Control Elements.

Figure 15.3

High Learner Control Over Manipulation of a Mechanical Device.

Figure 15.4

Default Navigation Options That Bypass Practice (Version 1) Led to Poorer Learning Than Default Options That Led to Practice (Version 2).

Figure 15.5

Three Navigational Map Layouts.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1

Online Thinking Skills Training.

Figure 16.2

A Sample Thinking Test Item.

Figure 16.3

Part of an Introduction to an Online Tutorial on Argument Analysis.

Figure 16.4

The Thought Bubble Displays Expert Thinking Processes.

Figure 16.5

The Sales Representative Tells the Learner What to Watch for in the Video Example.

Figure 16.6

A Case Problem Used in PBL.

Figure 16.7

A Multimedia Interface for Automotive Troubleshooting.

Figure 16.8

A Comparison of Learner with Expert Problem-Solving Actions During Automotive Troubleshooting.

Figure 16.9

The Learner Moves Relevant Data into the Evidence Table in BioWorld.

Figure 16.10

A Branched Scenario Design to Teach Anesthesiology.

Figure 16.11

Intrinsic Feedback Given to an Incorrect Response During Automotive Troubleshooting.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1

Value-Added Experiment Compares Base Group to Enhanced Group on Learning Outcome.

Figure 17.2

The Circuit Game.

Figure 17.3

The Circuit Game with Coaching Added.

Figure 17.4

The Circuit Game with Self-Explanation Questions Added.

Figure 17.5

The Design-A-Plant Game.

Figure 17.6

Cognitive Consequences Experiments Compare Game Group and Control Group on Cognitive Skill.

Figure 17.7

Tetris Game.

Figure 17.8

Media Comparison Experiment Compares Game Group and Conventional Group on Learning Outcome.

Figure 17.9

Cache 17 Game.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1

What’s Wrong Here?

Figure 18.2

What Guidelines Are Applied in This Revision of Figure 18.1?

Figure 18.3

What Guidelines Are Applied in This Revision of Figure 18.1?

Figure 18.4

What’s Wrong Here?

Figure 18.5

What Guidelines Are Applied in This Revision of Figure 18.4?

Figure 18.6

Use of Self-Explanation Question to Promote Engagement with an Example.

Figure 18.7

Content Outline of Synchronous Excel Lesson.

Figure 18.8

Introduction to Synchronous Excel Lesson.

Figure 18.9

Guidance from Faded Worked Example and Memory Support.

Figure 18.10

Work Order Triggers Automotive Troubleshooting Case.

Figure 18.11

Computer Offers Technical Guidance During Troubleshooting Case.

Figure 18.12

Continuing High Idle Shows That the Correct Diagnosis Was Not Selected.

Figure 18.13

End of Troubleshooting Simulation Allows Student-Expert Solution Comparisons.

Guide

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

IN THIS FOURTH EDITION, we have been able to use many of the illustrative storyboard examples created by Mark Palmer for the third edition.

We acknowledge the many instructional researchers and practitioner colleagues throughout the world whose work has contributed to this book. In particular, we thank the following:

Dale Bambrick, Raytheon Professional Services

Andrew Corbett, U.C. Davis Health System

Knowledge Innovation and Technology and Learning in Motion

Susanne Lajoie, McGill University

Dan Suthers, University of Hawaii

Finally, we are grateful to support from the Wiley team, especially to Matt Davis, Dawn Kilgore, and Rebecca Taff for editorial support.

INTRODUCTIONGETTING THE MOST FROM THIS RESOURCE

Purpose

The training field is undergoing an evolution from a craft based on fads and folk wisdom to a profession that integrates evidence and learning psychology into the design and development of its products. Part of the training revolution has been driven by the use of digital technology to manage and deliver learning solutions. This book provides you with evidence-based guidelines for both self-study (asynchronous) and virtual classroom (synchronous) forms of e-learning. Here you will read the guidelines, the evidence, the psychological theory, as well as review examples to shape your decisions about the design, development, and evaluation of e-learning for workforce learning.

Audience

If you are a designer, developer, evaluator, or consumer of e-learning, this book is for you. You can use the guidelines in this book to ensure that your courseware meets human psychological learning requirements and reflects the most recent research on e-learning methods. Although most of our examples focus on workforce learning, we believe instructional professionals in the educational and academic domains can equally benefit from our guidelines.

Package Components

For this fourth edition, we have updated the instructor guide that includes resources that can be adapted to various courses that focus on design and development of multimedia learning. To access the instructor guide, use the following link: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1119158664.html.

Our guidelines checklist found in Chapter 18 is also posted on the Wiley website and can be accessed the same URL.

Table 1.1 summarizes the content of the book’s chapters. In this fourth edition, two new chapters have been added. Chapter 11 describes recent evidence related to engagement in e-learning. Chapter 17 draws on Richard Mayer’s recent book, Computer Games for Learning, and summarizes research about serious games. We have updated research in all chapters and have been able to derive new guidelines based on the accumulation and analysis of many new experiments on the main principles of the book.

Table 1.1. A Preview of Chapters

Chapter

Topics

1. e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls

Our definition of e-learning Research on e-learning effectiveness Potential promise and pitfalls in e-learning Three architectures for e-learning design

2. How Do People Learn from e-Courses?

An overview of human learning processes and how instructional methods can support or disrupt them An Introduction to three forms of cognitive load

3. Evidence-Based Practice

Our definition of evidence-based practice Three approaches to research on instructional effectiveness How to interpret research statistics A description of boundary conditions in experimental comparisons

4. Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather Than Words Alone

Evidence on learning improvement in e-lessons that include visuals Psychological benefits of visuals Types of visuals that best promote learning Who benefits most from visuals? When to use static illustrations or animations

5. Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics

Evidence for placing on-screen text near the graphics they describe Evidence for sequencing of text or audio in conjunction with visuals The psychological basis for the contiguity principle Situations that most benefit from applying the contiguity principle.

6. Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text

Evidence for presenting words that describe graphics in audio rather than in text When the modality principle does and does not apply Effective and ineffective applications of the modality principle as well as the psychological basis for the modality principle

7. Applying the Redundancy Principle: Explain Visuals with Words in Audio OR Text But Not Both

Evidence for use of audio to explain graphics rather than audio and redundant text that repeats the audio Situations when adding on-screen text to narration is a good idea

8. Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Extra Material Can Hurt Learning

Evidence for omitting extraneous words, distracting graphics and stories, as well as sounds and background music Psychological basis for the coherence principle How to add interest to e-learning without violating coherence

9. Applying the Personalization and Embodiment Principles: Use Conversational Style, Polite Wording, Human Voice, and Virtual Coaches

Evidence for using conversational style, voice quality, and polite speech to improve learning Evidence for best use of computer agents to present instructional support Evidence for how to maximize learning benefits from computer agents

10. Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles: Managing Complexity by Breaking a Lesson into Parts

Evidence for breaking a continuous lesson into bite-size segments and allowing learners to access each segment at their own rate Evidence for sequencing key concepts in a lesson prior to the main procedure or process of that lesson

11. Engagement in e-Learning

Our definition of engagement A distinction between psychological and behavioral engagement A summary of evidence-based methods that promote generative mental load

12. Leveraging Examples in e-Learning

What are worked examples? Evidence for the benefits of worked examples Principles to optimize learning from worked examples

13. Does Practice Make Perfect?

Our definition of practice in e-learning Evidence for the benefits of practice Principles to optimize learning from practice exercises

14. Learning Together Virtually

Our definition of collaborative learning Situations under which collaborative learning is most effective A structured collaboration process shown to optimize learning outcomes

15. Who’s in Control? Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation

The distinction between learner and program control Do learners make good instructional decisions? Guidelines and evidence for implementation of learner control

16. e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills

Can thinking skills be trained? Our definition of thinking skills Guidelines for design of e-learning to promote thinking skills

17. Learning with Computer Games

Are games relevant to workforce learning? Which features improve a game’s effectiveness? Does game playing improve cognitive skills? Are games more effective than traditional instructional approaches?

18. Applying the Guidelines

A checklist and summary of all the guidelines in the book A summary of the effect sizes for the major book guidelines Three short discussions of how the guidelines apply to e-learning samples

Glossary

The glossary provides definitions of the technical terms used throughout the book.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

What Is e-Learning?

Is e-Learning Better?

The Promises of e-Learning

Promise 1: Customized Training

Promise 2: Engagement in Learning

Promise 3: Multimedia

Promise 4: Acceleration of Expertise Through Scenarios

Promise 5: Learning Through Digital Games

The Pitfalls of e-Learning

Pitfall 1: Too Much of a Good Thing

Pitfall 2: Not Enough of a Good Thing

Pitfall 3: Losing Sight of the Goal

Pitfall 4: Discovery Learning

Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals

Near Versus Far Transfer Perform Goals

e-Learning Architectures

Interactivity in the Architectures

What Is Effective e-Courseware?

Training Goals

Learner Differences

Context

Learning in e-Learning

CHAPTER 1e-LearningPromise and Pitfalls

CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this chapter we define e-learning as instruction delivered on a digital device that is intended to support learning. In e-learning the delivery hardware can range from desktop or laptop computers to tablets or smart phones, but the instructional goal is to support individual learning or organizational performance goals. Our scope includes e-learning designed for self-study available upon demand (asynchronous e-learning) as well as instructor-led e-learning presented at a fixed time (synchronous e-learning). Among these two forms of e-learning, we include e-courses developed primarily to provide information (inform courses) as well as those designed to build specific job-related skills (perform courses).

However, the benefits gained from these new technologies depend on the extent to which they are used in ways compatible with human cognitive learning processes and based on research-based principles of instructional design. When technophiles become so excited about cutting-edge technology that they ignore human mental limitations, they may not be able to leverage technology in ways that support learning. Instructional methods that support rather than defeat human learning processes are an essential ingredient of all effective e-learning courseware. The most appropriate methods depend on the goals of the training (for example, to inform or to perform); the learner’s related skills (for example, whether they are familiar with or new to the skills); and various environmental factors, including technological, cultural, and pragmatic constraints.

In this chapter we lay the groundwork for the book by defining e-learning and identifying both the potential and the pitfalls of digital training.

What Is e-Learning?

We define e-learning as instruction delivered on a digital device (such as a desktop computer, laptop computer, tablet, or smart phone) that is intended to support learning. The forms of e-learning we examine in this book have the following features:

Stores and/or transmits lessons in electronic form on external drives, the cloud, local internal or external memory, or servers on the Internet or intranet.

Includes content relevant to the learning objective.

Uses media elements such as words and pictures to deliver the content.

Uses instructional methods such as examples, practice, and feedback to promote learning.

May be instructor-led (synchronous e-learning) or designed for self-paced individual study (asynchronous e-learning).

May incorporate synchronous learner collaboration as in breakout rooms or asynchronous collaboration as on discussion boards.

Helps learners build new knowledge and skills linked to individual learning goals or to improved organizational performance.

As you can see, this definition has several elements concerning the what, how, and why of e-learning.

What. e-Learning courses include both content (that is, information) and instructional methods (that is, techniques) that help people learn the content.

How. e-Learning courses are delivered via digital devices using words in the form of spoken or printed text and pictures such as illustrations, photos, animation, or video. Some forms of e-learning called asynchronous e-learning are available on demand and designed for individual self-study. We show a screen shot from an asynchronous class on Excel in Figure 1.1. These courses are typically self-paced, allowing the individual learner to access training at any time or any location on their own. Other formats, called synchronous e-learning, virtual classrooms, or webinars, are designed for real-time instructor-led training. We show a screen shot from a virtual classroom in Figure 1.2. Synchronous e-learning allows students from New York to New Delhi to attend an online class taught by an instructor in real time. However, synchronous sessions are also often recorded, allowing them to be viewed by a single learner in a self-paced (asynchronous) manner. Synchronous and asynchronous forms of e-learning may support collaboration with others through applications such as wikis, breakout rooms, chat, discussion boards, media pages, and email. Many organizations combine instructor-led virtual classroom sessions, self-study sessions, and collaborative knowledge sharing opportunities in blended learning solutions.

Figure 1.1 A Screen Capture from an Asynchronous Excel Lesson.

Figure 1.2 A Screen Capture from a Synchronous Excel Lesson.

Why. e-Learning lessons are intended to help learners reach personal learning objectives or perform their jobs in ways that improve the bottom line goals of the organization.

In short, the “e” in e-learning refers to the “how”—the course is digitized so it can be stored in electronic form. The “learning” in e-learning refers to the “what”—the course includes content and ways to help people learn it—and the “why” of e-learning is the purpose: to help individuals achieve educational goals or to help organizations build skills related to improved job performance.

Our definition states that the goal of e-learning is to build job-transferable knowledge and skills linked to organizational performance or to help individuals achieve personal learning goals. Although the guidelines we present throughout the book also apply to lessons designed for school-based or general-interest learning goals, our emphasis is on instructional programs that are designed for workforce learning. To illustrate our guidelines, we draw on actual training courseware from colleagues who have given us permission to use their examples. In addition, we have built two sets of storyboards: one with a focus on basic Excel skills intended to illustrate a typical technology training course and a second with a focus on sales skills intended to illustrate instructional techniques that apply to more strategic skills.

In the five years since we wrote the third edition of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction, digital technology has continued to evolve rapidly. Blended designs integrate the benefits of technology and in-person instructional contexts. Search engines and social media make learners receivers, producers, and distributors of knowledge. Popular digital applications such as online games have prompted the use of games for learning purposes. Likewise, platforms have shrunk and diversified, giving birth to a range of mobile learning devices. As we write this chapter, the new Apple watch offers the smallest portable device with a diverse array of applications and the new Oculus Rift allows for low-cost virtual reality. No doubt instructional and performance support applications will continue to become more portable, more flexible, and more context sensitive to needs of the worker.

Is e-Learning Better?

For many training goals, you may have a choice of several delivery media. One of the least expensive options is a traditional book in printed or digital format. In-person instructor-led training augmented with slides and the occasional video is another popular option, accounting for about 55 percent of all delivery in U.S. workforce learning in 2013 (ATD, 2014). Finally, e-learning in either self-study or instructor-led formats offers a third choice. As you consider your delivery options, you might wonder whether some media are more effective for learning purposes than others.

Although technology is evolving rapidly, much of what we are seeing today under the e-learning label is not new. Training delivered on a computer, traditionally labeled computer-based training or CBT, has been available since the 1960s. Early examples delivered over mainframe computers were primarily on-screen text with interspersed questions—electronic versions of behaviorist psychologist B.F. Skinner’s teaching machine. The computer program evaluated answers to the multiple-choice questions and prewritten feedback was matched to the learner responses. One of the main applications of these early e-lessons was to train workers to use mainframe computer systems. As technology has evolved, acquiring greater capability to deliver rich multimedia, the courseware has become more elaborate in terms of realistic graphics, audio, color, animation, games, and complex simulations. However, as we will see, greater media capabilities do not necessarily ensure more learning.

Each new wave of instructional delivery technology (starting with film in the 1920s) spawned optimistic predictions of massive improvements in learning. For example, in 1947 the U.S. Army conducted one of the first published media comparisons with the hypothesis that film teaches better than classroom instructors (see box for details). Yet after more than sixty years of research attempting to demonstrate that the latest media options are better, the outcomes fail to support the superiority of any single delivery medium over another.

The First Media Comparison Research

In 1947 the U.S. Army conducted research to demonstrate that instruction delivered by film resulted in better learning outcomes than traditional classroom or paper-based versions. Three versions of a lesson on how to read a micrometer were developed. The film version included a narrated demonstration of how to read the micrometer. A second version was taught in a classroom. The instructor used the same script and included a demonstration using actual equipment along with still slide pictures. A third version was a self-study paper lesson in which the text used the same words as the film, along with pictures with arrows to indicate movement. Learners were randomly assigned to a version and after the training session they were tested to see if they could read the micrometer. Which group learned more? There were no differences in learning among the three groups (Hall & Cushing, 1947).

With few exceptions, hundreds of media comparison studies have shown no differences in learning with different media (Clark, R.E., 1994, 2001; Dillon & Gabbard, 1998). A meta-analysis by Bernard et al. (2004) integrating research studies that compared learning from electronic distance education to learning from traditional classroom instruction yielded the achievement effect sizes shown in Figure 1.3. (See Chapter 3 for information on meta-analysis and effect sizes). As you can see, the majority of effect sizes in the bar chart are close to zero, indicating no practical differences in learning between face-to-face and electronic distance learning. However, the bars at either end of the graph show that some distance learning courses were much more effective than classroom courses and vice versa. A review of online learning by Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, Shaw, and Lin (2006) concurs: “Overwhelming evidence has shown that learning in an online environment can be as effective as that in traditional classrooms. Second, students’ learning in the online environment is affected by the quality of online instruction. Not surprisingly, students in well-designed and well-implemented online courses learned significantly more, and more effectively, than those in online courses where teaching and learning activities were not carefully planned and where the delivery and accessibility were impeded by technology problems” (p. 116).

Figure 1.3 Adapted from Bernard et al., 2004. Electronic Distance Learning Versus Face-to-Face Instruction: Distribution of Effect Sizes.

From the plethora of media comparison research conducted over the past sixty years, we have learned that it’s not the delivery medium, but rather the instructional methods that cause learning (Clark, R.E. 2001). When the instructional methods remain essentially the same, so does the learning, no matter which medium is used to deliver instruction. Conversely, a course that includes effective instructional methods will better support learning than a course that fails to use effective methods, no matter what delivery medium is used.

Still, we don’t want to leave the impression that all media are equivalent. Each delivery environment has its tradeoffs. Books, for example, are inexpensive, self-paced, and portable, but limited to printed text and still graphics. Classroom instructor-led training offers high social presence and opportunities for hands-on practice, but is instructor-paced and content invariant, requiring all learners to proceed at the same pace and review the same content. Computers represent one of the most flexible media options as they support media elements of printed text, graphics (still and animated), and audio. Computers offer opportunities for unique engagement with simulations or with highly immersive environments that in some cases would be impossible to replicate outside a digital environment. In addition, computers offer opportunities to tailor learning opportunities that are difficult to achieve outside of one-to-one human tutoring. With Web 2.0, computers offer multi-lateral communication channels that span time and space. All of these features offer promise, but also harbor pitfalls when not used in ways congruent with human learning processes. A smart instructional solution often involves a variety of delivery contexts. Known as blended learning, a course may include text readings, on-the-job projects, asynchronous online pre-work assignments, an in-person classroom session followed by virtual classroom discussions, and/or discussion boards. The U.S. Department of Education reports a significant learning advantage to blended courses compared to either pure classroom-based or pure online learning (2010).

The Promises of e-Learning

How popular is e-learning in workforce learning? The trends in delivery media for the last decade shown in Figure 1.4 reveal a steadily increasing market share for digital learning. Since the first edition of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction, we have reported growth from approximately 11 percent technology-delivered instruction in 2001 to around 39 percent in 2011–2013 (ATD, 2014). As of 2013, in-person instructor-led classroom training still accounts for a healthy share of training hours at around 55 percent.

Figure 1.4 Adapted from ATD State of Industry Report, 2014. Percentage of Learning Hours Available Via Instructor-Led Classroom and Technology.

Organizations have looked to e-learning to save training time and travel costs associated with traditional face-to-face learning. However, cost savings are only an illusion when e-learning does not effectively build knowledge and skills linked to desired job outcomes. Will you leverage the potential of e-learning to provide relevant and cost-effective learning environments? Part of the answer depends on the quality of the instruction embedded in the e-learning products you are designing, building, or selecting today. We propose that the opportunities to foster learning via digital instruction rely on appropriate leveraging of five unique features that we summarize in the following paragraphs.

Promise 1: Customized Training

Self-study asynchronous e-learning has the potential to customize learning to the unique needs of each learner. By unique needs, we don’t mean learning styles—a myth still popular among training practitioners in spite of a lack of evidence to support it (Clark, R.C., 2015; Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork, 2008). By customized training we mean tailoring content, instructional methods and navigation based on the needs of individual learners. In Chapter 15 we discuss the tradeoffs between learner control and program control. Learner control in asynchronous e-learning permits learners to progress at their own pace and select topics and methods that best meet their needs. In contrast to the one-size-fits-all approach of most instructor-led training, learner control options allow learners to customize their learning environment.

Promise 2: Engagement in Learning

Regardless of delivery media, all learning requires engagement. In Chapter 11 we discuss engagement in detail, making a distinction between behavioral and psychological engagement. By behavioral engagement we mean any overt action a learner takes during an instructional episode. Some examples of behavioral activities in e-learning include pressing the forward arrow, typing an answer in a response box, clicking on an option from a multiple-choice menu, verbally responding to an instructor’s question, selecting an action from a pull-down menu, using text chat during a webinar, or posting assignments and comments on a discussion board. By psychological engagement, we mean cognitive processing of content in ways that lead to acquisition of new knowledge and skills. Some cognitive processes that lead to learning include paying attention to the relevant material, mentally organizing it into a coherent representation, and integrating it with relevant prior knowledge. Some examples of methods in e-learning intended to prime psychological engagement include adding relevant on-screen visuals, including worked out examples of problems to study prior to practice, and asking relevant questions during an online presentation.

In Chapter 11 we review research showing that behavioral activity does not necessarily promote appropriate psychological engagement for learning. In fact, some behavioral engagement methods actually depress learning compared to methods that involve less learner activity. Clicking on-screen objects to reveal definitions or playing a narrative-based instructional game are two examples of active engagement that may not promote learning. In contrast, carefully reviewing a worked out example of how to solve a problem involves little or no behavioral activity but can lead to psychological activity needed for learning. Our point is that high levels of behavioral activity don’t necessarily translate into the type of psychological processing that supports learning. Likewise, meaningful learning can occur in the absence of behavioral responses. Your goal is to use media elements and instructional methods that promote psychological engagement that leads to achievement of learning objectives. In Chapter 11 we expand this theme, describing evidence-based engagement that is and is not effective.

Promise 3: Multimedia

In e-learning, you can use a combination of text, audio, as well as still and motion visuals to communicate your content and help learners acquire relevant knowledge and skills. Fortunately, we have a healthy arsenal of research to guide your best use of these media elements that we discuss in Chapters 4 through 10.

Promise 4: Acceleration of Expertise Through Scenarios

Studies of experts across a wide variety of domains show that about ten years of experience are needed to reach high levels of proficiency (Ericsson, 2006). In some work settings, getting that experience can take years because situations that require certain skills rarely present themselves. e-Learning, however, offers opportunities to immerse learners in job-realistic environments requiring them to solve infrequent problems or complete tasks in a matter of minutes that could take hours or days to complete in the real world. For example, when troubleshooting equipment, some failures are infrequent and may require considerable time to resolve. A computer simulation such as the one shown in Figure 1.5 can emulate those failures and give learners opportunities to resolve them in a realistic work environment. In Chapter 16 we discuss e-learning programs such as this one designed to build thinking skills.

Figure 1.5 With permission from Raytheon Professional Services. A Simulated Automotive Shop Offers Accelerated Learning Opportunities.

Promise 5: Learning Through Digital Games

An emerging theme in workforce learning involves adding games as a form of engagement, an approach known as gamification. Mayer (2014b) lists the following characteristics of games: (1) rule-based simulated systems, (2) responsive to the player, (3) challenging, (4) cumulative, allowing for assessment of progress toward goals, and (5) inviting, offering appeal and interest for the learners. The goal of gamification is to provide learning experiences that are motivating, engaging, and effective. Considerable research progress has been made to define the features that make games effective for learning. We summarize that evidence in Chapter 17.

The Pitfalls of e-Learning

The powerful features of e-learning are a two-edged sword with many potential traps that sabotage learning. Here we summarize some of the major pitfalls that can rob your organization of a return on investment in digital learning:

Pitfall 1: Too Much of a Good Thing

As we will see in Chapter 2, the human cognitive system is limited and, when it comes to instruction, less is often more. It’s tempting to use an eye-catching mix of animations, sounds, audio, and printed text to convey your content. However, we have good evidence to support our advice: Don’t do it! Read Chapter 8 on the Coherence Principle for evidence on our theme that often students learn more content when less glitz is presented.

Pitfall 2: Not Enough of a Good Thing