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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Are you getting the most learning value from visuals? Thoroughly revised and updated, Graphics for Learning is the second edition of the bestselling book that summarizes the guidelines for the best use of graphics for instructional materials, including multimedia, texts, working aids, and slides. The guidelines are based on the most current empirical scientific research and are illustrated with a wealth of examples from diverse training materials. The authors show how to plan illustrations for various types of content, including facts, concepts, processes, procedures, and principles. The book also discusses technical and environmental factors that will influence how instructional professionals can apply the guidelines to their training projects. Praise for the First Edition "For years I've been looking for a book that links cognitive research on learning to graphics and instructional design. Here it is! Ruth Clark and Chopeta Lyons not only explain how to make graphics work--they've created a very interesting read, full of useful guidelines and examples." --Lynn Kearny, CPT, instructional designer and graphic communicator, Graphic Tools for Thinking and Learning "Finally! A book that integrates visual design into the larger context of instructional design and development." --Linda Lohr, Ed.D., author, Creating Graphics for Learning and assistant professor, University of Northern Colorado
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Seitenzahl: 537
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2010
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Table of Contents
Cover
ABOUT THIS BOOK
About Pfeiffer
Title
Copyright
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION OFGRAPHICS FOR LEARNING
INTRODUCTION: GETTING THE MOST FROM THIS RESOURCE
THE LOST POTENTIAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL VISUALS
WHAT MAKES OUR BOOK DIFFERENT FROM OTHER BOOKS ON GRAPHICS?
IS THIS BOOK FOR YOU?
AN OVERVIEW OF OUR BOOK
Introduction to Section One: The Foundation
CHAPTER 1: The Power of Visuals
THE UNREALIZED POTENTIAL OF VISUALS
WHAT IS A GRAPHIC?
WHICH VISUALS ARE BEST? NO YELLOW BRICK ROAD
GRAPHICS IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL LANDSCAPE
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 2: Three Views of Instructional Visuals
THREE VIEWS OF VISUALS
COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS OF GRAPHICS
GRAPHICS TO SUPPORT PSYCHOLOGICAL EVENTS OF LEARNING
OUR GUIDING PRINCIPLES
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 3: A Visual Design Model for Planning Graphics Systematically
THREE FACETS OF GRAPHICS
WHAT CAN HAPPEN WITHOUT A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNERS FOLLOW A SYSTEMATIC PROCESS
A VISUAL DESIGN MODEL
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
Introduction to Section Two: How to Use Visuals to Support Psychological Learning Processes
CHAPTER 4: Graphics and Learning
NOT ALL GRAPHICS ARE EQUAL
GRAPHICS AND LEARNING
A TALE OF TWO MEMORIES
UNIQUE BRAIN STORAGE FOR VISUAL INFORMATION
HOW LEARNING HAPPENS
HOW GRAPHICS PROMOTE LEARNING
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 5: Plan Graphics That Direct Attention
ATTENTION, LEARNING, AND GRAPHICS
GUIDELINE 1: USE SIGNALS TO FOCUS ATTENTION
GUIDELINE 2: USE COLOR AND CONTRAST TO FOCUS ATTENTION
GUIDELINE 3: USE MOTION CUES IN ANIMATIONS
GUIDELINE 4: USE COLOR TO IMPROVE JOB PERFORMANCE
GRAPHICS AND DIVIDED ATTENTION
GUIDELINE 5: PLACE TEXT CLOSE TO THE VISUAL IT DESCRIBES
GUIDELINE 6: AVOID DISTRACTING VISUALS
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 6: Plan Graphics That Leverage Prior Knowledge
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE, LEARNING, AND GRAPHICS
WHAT ARE ADVANCE ORGANIZERS?
GUIDELINE 1: USE COMPARATIVE ADVANCE ORGANIZERS
GUIDELINE 2: USE EXPOSITORY ADVANCE ORGANIZERS
GUIDELINE 3: AVOID SEDUCTIVE DETAILS IN LESSON INTRODUCTIONS
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 7: Plan Graphics That Minimize Irrelevant Mental Load
WHAT IS MENTAL LOAD?
GUIDELINE 1: USE GRAPHICS RATHER THAN TEXT FOR SPATIAL CONTENT
GUIDELINE 2: USE SIMPLE GRAPHICS FOR DEEPER LEARNING
GUIDELINE 3: USE ANIMATIONS TO TEACH HANDS-ON SKILLS
GUIDELINE 4: EXPLAIN COMPLEX GRAPHICS WITH WORDS IN AUDIO
GUIDELINE 5: USE WORDS OR GRAPHICS ALONE WHEN INFORMATION IS SELF-EXPLANATORY
GUIDELINE 6: USE PREVIEWS AND OVERLAYS WITH COMPLEX VISUALS
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 8: Plan Graphics to Help Learners Build Mental Models
MENTAL MODELS, LEARNING, AND GRAPHICS
HOW GRAPHICS HELP LEARNERS BUILD MENTAL MODELS
GUIDELINE 1: USE ORGANIZATIONAL GRAPHICS TO SHOW QUALITATIVE RELATIONSHIPS
GUIDELINE 2: USE CHARTS AND GRAPHS TO COMMUNICATE QUANTITATIVE RELATIONSHIPS
GUIDELINE 3: USE TRANSFORMATIONAL VISUALS TO COMMUNICATE CHANGES IN TIME OR SPACE
GUIDELINE 4: USE INTERPRETIVE VISUALS TO COMMUNICATE ABSTRACT CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS
GUIDELINE 5: USE ANIMATED ONLINE AGENTS TO MODEL THINKING PROCESSES
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 9: Plan Graphics That Support Transfer of Learning
TRANSFER AND WORK PERFORMANCE
GUIDELINE 1: USE DYNAMIC VISUALS THAT REFLECT WORKPLACE CONTEXT FOR PROCEDURES
GUIDELINE 2: INCORPORATE WORKPLACE CONTEXT IN 3D WORLDS
MENTAL MODELS ARE KING IN FAR-TRANSFER LEARNING
GUIDELINE 3: USE STATIC VISUALS TO ILLUSTRATE HOW THINGS WORK
GUIDELINE 4: USE DYNAMIC VISUALS FOR INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
GUIDELINE 5: USE VARIED CONTEXT VISUAL EXAMPLES FOR DEEPER UNDERSTANDING
GUIDELINE 6: USE WORKPLACE CONTEXT VISUALS FOR IMMERSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 10: Plan Graphics for Motivation and Learning
MOTIVATION AND LEARNING
GUIDELINE 1: USE DYNAMIC VISUALS THAT DISPLAY WORK CONTEXT
GUIDELINE 2: LEVERAGE SOCIAL PRESENCE THROUGH LEARNING AGENTS
GUIDELINE 3: CONSIDER USING RELEVANT TRIGGER VISUALS TO CATCH INITIAL INTEREST
GUIDELINE 4: MINIMIZE GRAPHICS USED SOLELY AS EYE CANDY
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 11: Plan Graphics to Leverage Individual Differences
DIFFERENT STROKES FOR DIFFERENT FOLKS?
GUIDELINE 1: DROP THE MYTH OF VISUAL LEARNING STYLES
GUIDELINE 2: EMPHASIZE VISUALS FOR BEGINNERS
GUIDELINE 3: PROVIDE JUST-IN-TIME TRAINING TO HELP LEARNERS INTERPRET COMPLEX VISUALS
GUIDELINE 4: ENCOURAGE ALL LEARNERS TO PROCESS VISUALS EFFECTIVELY
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
Introduction to Section Three: How to Visualize Lesson Content
CHAPTER 12: How to Visualize Procedures
WHAT ARE PROCEDURES?
TEACHING PROCEDURES
GUIDELINE 1: COMBINE REPRESENTATIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL VISUALS IN DEMONSTRATIONS
GUIDELINE 2: DEMONSTRATE PROCEDURES WITH DYNAMIC VISUALS
GUIDELINE 3: MANAGE MENTAL LOAD
GUIDELINE 4: USE VISUALS TO DRAW ATTENTION TO WARNINGS
GUIDELINE 5: DESIGN ONLINE PRACTICE EXERCISES EFFECTIVELY
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 13: How to Visualize Concepts
WHAT ARE CONCEPTS?
TEACHING CONCEPTS
HOW TO VISUALIZE CONCEPTS
GUIDELINE 1: DISPLAY TEACHING METHODS IN A CONTIGUOUS MANNER
GUIDELINE 2: CREATE VISUAL COUNTEREXAMPLES
GUIDELINE 3: USE VISUAL ANALOGIES
GUIDELINE 4: DISPLAY RELATED CONCEPTS TOGETHER
GUIDELINE 5: USE ORGANIZATIONAL VISUALS FOR RELATED CONCEPTS
GUIDELINE 6: PROMOTE LEARNER ENGAGEMENT WITH CONCEPT VISUALS
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 14: How to Visualize Facts
WHAT ARE FACTS?
TEACHING FACTS
HOW TO VISUALIZE FACTS
GUIDELINE 1: USE REPRESENTATIONAL VISUALS DISPLAYED IN JOB CONTEXT
GUIDELINE 2: DISPLAY FACTS WITH VISUAL CONTIGUITY
GUIDELINE 3: USE ORGANIZATIONAL VISUALS
GUIDELINE 4: USE RELATIONAL VISUALS FOR NUMERIC TRENDS
GUIDELINE 5: PROMOTE ENGAGEMENT WITH IMPORTANT FACTUAL VISUALS
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 15: How to Visualize Processes
WHAT ARE PROCESSES?
WHO NEEDS PROCESS KNOWLEDGE?
TEACHING PROCESSES
HOW TO VISUALIZE PROCESSES
GUIDELINE 1: USE TRANSFORMATIONAL VISUALS THAT SHOW STATE CHANGES
GUIDELINE 2: USE SIMPLER VISUALS TO PROMOTE UNDERSTANDING
GUIDELINE 3: MANAGE LOAD WHEN PRESENTING PROCESS VISUALS
GUIDELINE 4: USE INTERPRETIVE VISUALS TO REPRESENT ABSTRACT PROCESSES
GUIDELINE 5: PROMOTE ENGAGEMENT WITH PROCESS VISUALS
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 16: How to Visualize Principles
WHAT ARE PRINCIPLES?
PROBLEM-CENTERED LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
COMPONENTS OF PROBLEM-CENTERED LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
WHEN TO CONSIDER PROBLEM-CENTERED LEARNING
INDUCTIVE LEARNING FROM CASE EXAMPLES
TEACHING PRINCIPLES AS LAWS OR THEORIES
HOW TO VISUALIZE PRINCIPLES
GUIDELINE 1: USE REPRESENTATIONAL VISUALS FOR PROBLEM-CENTERED LEARNING COMPONENTS
GUIDELINE 2: USE MULTIMEDIA DYNAMIC VISUALS FOR CASE SCENARIOS
GUIDELINE 3: USE ANIMATED AGENTS TO MODEL CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS
GUIDELINE 4: USE GRAPHIC DESIGN DEVICES TO MANAGE MENTAL LOAD DURING PROBLEM-CENTERED LEARNING
GUIDELINE 5: ANALYZE VIDEO- OR AUDIO-RECORDED WORK SAMPLES
GUIDELINE 6: ENGAGE LEARNERS WITH EXPLANATORY VISUALS, INCLUDING VISUAL SIMULATIONS
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
Introduction to Section Four: How to Plan and Communicate Your Visuals
CHAPTER 17: Determine the Context
THE REALITIES OF THE WORKPLACE
WHAT TO DECIDE AND WHEN
ASSESS THE LEARNING LANDSCAPE
CONSIDER PRODUCTION
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 18: Design Your Visual Approach
GETTING THE RIGHT ARTIST
DESIGNING THE VISUAL APPROACH
TREATMENT MEETINGS
WHAT TO CONSIDER
ROUGH IT OUT—STYLE AND AVAILABLE REAL ESTATE
A SEMI-FICTIONAL CASE STUDY
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 19: Visualize Individual Graphics
CREATING INDIVIDUAL VISUALS THAT WORK
A CASE STUDY CONTINUED: SANJI’S GRAPHIC
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 20: Communicate and Lay Out Your Graphic Plans
WHO NEEDS TO KNOW
COMMUNICATING THE VISUAL APPROACH
COMMUNICATING IDEAS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL GRAPHICS
COMMUNICATING LAYOUT PLANS
COMMUNICATING GRAPHICS TO PRODUCTION STAFF
CASE STUDY CONTINUED: SANJI TALKS TO THE ARTIST
THE BOTTOM LINE
COMING NEXT
CHAPTER 21: Apply the Principles
THE END-USER SYSTEM APPLICATION TRAINING
THE INVESTMENT CLUB’S FINANCIAL BASICS TRAINING
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
INDEX
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 1: The Power of Visuals
Figure 1.1. Factors That Shape the Effectiveness of Graphics.
CHAPTER 2: Three Views of Instructional Visuals
Figure 2.1. A Summary of Communication Functions of Graphics.
Figure 2.2. A Decorative Graphic.
Figure 2.3. A Visual Mnemonic. The best mnemonic incorporates both an auditory and a visual cue such as door-like for Doric.
Figure 2.4. An Interpretive Graphic for Blood Circulation.
Figure 2.5. Human Learning Process Overview.
Figure 2.6. Eye-Tracking Data Indicates Areas of Interest Outlined on This Experimental Visual.
Figure 2.7. A Virtual World Classroom. Replicating existing environments with new technology represents the first-generation use of most new technologies.
CHAPTER 3: A Visual Design Model for Planning Graphics Systematically
Figure 3.1. Three Facets of Graphics.
Figure 3.2. Slideshow Presentation Slide.
Figure 3.3. A Visual Design Model. If you are used to following an instructional design methodology, the process in this graphic design model may be familiar. Note the emphasis here is on the planning and design, not on the actual development of the graphics themselves.
Figure 3.4. The Designer’s Revision of Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.5. A Somber Treatment for a Serious Subject.
Figure 3.6. An Industry-Specific Treatment, 3D Modeled.
Figure 3.7. A Cartoon Treatment.
CHAPTER 4: Graphics and Learning
Figure 4.1. An Interpretive Illustration from a Lesson on Lightning Formation.
Figure 4.2. An Extraneous Illustration from a Lesson on Lightning Formation.
Figure 4.3. Human Learning Processes.
Figure 4.4. A Mid-Play Chess Board.
Figure 4.5. Printed Words and Graphics Both Enter the Visual Processing Centers of WM.
Figure 4.6. Task Directions Presented by Text and by a Graphic.
Figure 4.7. A Representational (A) and an Interpretive Graphic (B) to Illustrate Gas Pressure.
CHAPTER 5: Plan Graphics That Direct Attention
Figure 5.1. A Print Version of a Lesson on Use of Screen Real Estate.
Figure 5.2. An Online Version of a Lesson on Use of Screen Real Estate.
Figure 5.3. A Screen from an Online Animated Sequence.
Figure 5.4. A Signaled Animation of the Cardiovascular System Improved Learning.
Figure 5.5. Arrows That Appeared Sequentially Were Used to Cue Moving Parts in a Piano.
Figure 5.6. Moving Lines of Color (Red and Blue) Were Used to Cue Moving Parts in a Piano.
Figure 5.7. A Separated and Contiguous Placement of Text.
Figure 5.8. Eye-Tracking Data Shows Different Patterns of Attention Allocation.
Figure 5.9. A Two-Column Layout in Print.
Figure 5.10. A Scrolling Screen Integrates Visuals and Text with Reduced Graphics.
Figure 5.11. Two Vertical Frames Used in an Online Course to Integrate Text with Graphics.
CHAPTER 6: Plan Graphics That Leverage Prior Knowledge
Figure 6.1. A Comparative Advance Organizer.
Figure 6.2. A Confusing Comparative Advance Organizer.
Figure 6.3. A Helpful Comparative Advance Organizer.
Figure 6.4. The Serenade Visual, an Expository Advance Organizer.
CHAPTER 7: Plan Graphics That Minimize Irrelevant Mental Load
Figure 7.1. Content Presented Primarily with Words.
Figure 7.2. Same Content Presented Primarily with Graphics.
Figure 7.3. A Photograph of Headlight Housing in Car Engine Area.
Figure 7.4. A Line Drawing of Headlight Housing in Car Engine Area.
Figure 7.5. Simple Line Drawing Versus 3D Drawing of Heart Circulation.
Figure 7.6. The Number of Correct Steps and Time to Tie Knots After Studying Dynamic and Static Visuals.
Figure 7.7. Content Presented Primarily with Graphics.
Figure 7.8. Same Content Presented with Graphics and Words. Adding redundant textual information to a self-explanatory graphic can add extraneous mental load and slow down learning.
Figure 7.9. A Preview Presented on Paper.
CHAPTER 8: Plan Graphics to Help Learners Build Mental Models
Figure 8.1. Two Sketches of Blood Circulation Reflecting Flawed Mental Models.
Figure 8.2. A Bar Graph from a History Text.
Figures 8.3 and 8.4. Revisions of the Display of Data in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.5. A Graph with (Before) and Without (After) Extraneous Detail.
Figure 8.6. Two of a Series of Static Visuals to Teach How a Toilet Tank Works.
Figure 8.7. A Screen Capture from an Animated Interpretive Visual on Boyle’s Law.
Figure 8.8. A Concrete Simulation Interface (Top) Led to Better Learning Among Novices and Younger Learners Than the Abstract Interface (Bottom)
Figure 8.9. An Online Agent Explains the Probability Concept of Drawing with Replacement.
CHAPTER 9: Plan Graphics That Support Transfer of Learning
Figure 9.1. One Screen from New Software Training.
Figure 9.2. A Virtual World Classroom.
Figure 9.3. A Screen Shot from a Virtual Tour of a Pharmaceutical Distribution Warehouse.
Figure 9.4. A Schematic Diagram of a Control Panel.
Figure 9.5. Learning from Teaching Examples Using Text, Video, or Computer Animation.
Figure 9.6. Multiple Diverse Examples of Screen Design.
Figure 9.7. A Concrete and an Abstract Version of a Simulation.
Figure 9.8. An Office Graphical Interface for an Immersive Learning Environment.
CHAPTER 10: Plan Graphics for Motivation and Learning
Figure 10.1. The Cycle of Motivation.
Figure 10.2. Student Ratings of Examples in Text, Video, and Animations.
Figure 10.3. A Realistic Automotive Shop Interface. Visual interfaces like this one make the learning value immediately salient.
Figure 10.4. The learning agent in the lower-left corner offers feedback to learner responses to the customer.
Figure 10.6. A Text and Graphic Explanation of Dual Control Version 1.
Figure 10.7. A Text and Graphic Explanation of Dual Control Version 2.
CHAPTER 11: Plan Graphics to Leverage Individual Differences
Figure 11.1. One Question from a Spatial Aptitude Test.
Figure 11.2. An Imaginary 3D Object as Basis for Cross-Sectional Drawing.
Figure 11.3. Learning of High and Low Knowledge Learners from Lessons with Text Only Versus Lessons with Text and Graphics.
Figure 11.4. Proportion of Correct Predictions from a Weather Map Before and After Training.
Figure 11.5. A Hjulstrom Curve. Interpretation of this complex graph was improved by brief training provided just before studying the graph as well as a segmented presentation of the graph.
CHAPTER 12: How to Visualize Procedures
Figure 12.1. An Online Course Menu.
Figure 12.2. A Procedure Job Aid.
Figure 12.3. A PowerPoint Help Screen.
Figure 12.4. Directions for Equipment Procedure.
Figure 12.5. Static Visuals with Arrows Used to Illustrate Steps.
Figure 12.6. An Equipment Procedure Shown Out of (Before) and in (After) Context.
Figure 12.7. A Drop-Down Menu Shown in Whole-Screen Context.
Figure 12.8. Assembly Text and Graphics Are Separated on Different Pages. Align text close to the visual display of the action.
Figure 12.9. An Effective Warning. This warning is clearly marked and embedded in an action step.
Figure 12.10. A Simulation Practice Exercise.
CHAPTER 13: How to Visualize Concepts
Figure 13.1. A Lesson Topic on the Concept Nerd.
Figure 13.2. Four Examples of URLs Signaling the Three URL Components.
Figure 13.3. An Example and Non-Example of Formatted Web Pages. Always clearly label the counterexample to avoid potential confusion.
Figure 13.4. Related Visuals of Quality Concepts Shown Together.
Figure 13.5. A Simulation Allows the Learner to Try Diverse Alignment Options.
Figure 13.6. An Organizational Graphic in a Coaching Lesson.
CHAPTER 14: How to Visualize Facts
Figure 14.1. A Rollover Explains Screen Functionality.
Figure 14.2. A Workbook Explains Screen Functionality.
Figure 14.3. This Lesson Teaches Recognition of Factual Information.
Figure 14.4. Case Study Data Presented in Secondary Window.
Figure 14.5. Case Study Data Obscures Primary Window.
Figure 14.6. One Screen from a Course on Human Evolution.
Figure 14.7. An Interactive Bar Graph in a Financial Management Course.
Figure 14.8. A Fact Recognition Practice.
CHAPTER 15: How to Visualize Processes
Figure 15.1. A Text Description of How a Bicycle Pump Works.
Figure 15.2. A Text-Plus-Graphic Description of How a Bicycle Pump Works.
Figure 15.3. Water Cycle.
Figure 15.4. Schematic Versus Realistic Dynamic Visuals of Mitosis.
Figure 15.5. A Multimedia Lesson on Digestion.
Figure 15.6. Integrated Visuals Used to Explain a Three-Pulley System.
Figure 15.7. Learning from Four Visual Representations of a Three-Pulley System.
CHAPTER 16: How to Visualize Principles
Figure 16.1. A Virtual Automotive Shop.
Figure 16.2. Response to an Incorrect Diagnosis of an Automotive Failure.
Figure 16.3. A Comparison of Learner’s Actions to Expert’s Actions.
Figure 16.4. A Website Created for a Case Company.
Figure 16.5. A Virtual World Context for Learning Water Ecology Principles.
Figure 16.6. A Branched Scenario Customer Service Lesson.
CHAPTER 17: Determine the Context
Figure 17.1. Space Needed for English, French, and Spanish.
Figure 17.2. Vector vs. Raster Graphics.
CHAPTER 18: Design Your Visual Approach
Figure 18.1. A Graphic-Dominant Instructional Screen.
Figure 18.2. A Text-Dominant Instructional Screen.
Figure 18.3. Treatment for Instruction Carried by Audio.
Figure 18.4. Visual Approach/Treatment for a Series of Two-Page Photo Spreads with Legend. With the legend folded out, the reader can page through the photos without having to flip back and forth to read about each one.
Figure 18.5. Notice where your eye is drawn.
Figure 18.6. This design would have been better served by line art.
CHAPTER 19: Visualize Individual Graphics
Figure 19.1. Overhead View of How to Fold an Origami Rabbit to Provide a Task-Centered Perspective.
Figure 19.2. Treatment Section from a Detailed Outline for an e-Learning Product. These treatment ideas ultimately became graphics in the course represented in Figure 20.2.
Figure 19.3. Digital Photo Included in Script.
CHAPTER 20: Communicate and Lay Out Your Graphic Plans
Figure 20.1. What Artists Want.
Figure 20.2. A Sample Shot List.
Figure 20.3. A 360-Degree Photograph Based on the Description in Point 3 of the Shot List shown in Figure 20.2.
Figure 20.4. A Sample Layout Storyboard.
Figure 20.5. A Storyboard Developed in PowerPoint.
Figure 20.6. A Three-Column Script.
Figure 20.7. Static Comp-Screen Sample. The sample is a “picture,” a static graphic that is completely non-functioning.
Figure 20.8. Sanji’s Pencil Sketch of the Layout in the Full-Screen Graphic.
Figure 20.9. The Developed Interactive Art.
Figure 20.10. Programmed Version. The final visual encompasses all three facets: treatment, graphic, and layout of individual screen.
CHAPTER 21: Apply the Principles
Figure 21.1. A Visual Design Model. Applying the design model to projects.
Figure 21.2. Basic Template for Teaching Software Screens. The team prepares comps and discusses the look and placement of pop-ups, cueing numbers, and navigational indicators.
Figure 21.3. Organizational Visual (Process) Helps Orient Learners.
Figure 21.4. Analogy Graphic to Help Novice Users. The novice learner is introduced to the idea of data organized into usable formats through the analogy of the phonebook.
Figure 21.5. Phone Book Graphic from Figure 21.4 Dissolves to Screen That Shows Records and Fields.
Figure 21.7. The Same Interaction Screen After the Learner Tries to Do a Filtered Search.
Figure 21.8. Revised Version of Figure 21.7.
Figure 21.9. Sample Template for the Multimedia Demonstrations.
Figure 21.10. Print-Based Version of the Same Content as Figure 21.9.
Figure 21.11. Job-Aid Card for Same Content as Figure 21.9.
Figure 21.12. George’s Comp for the Interface Royalty-Free Clip Art.
Figure 21.13. Brown-Bag Representational Graphic.
Figure 21.14. Dynamic Calculation Screen. The design allows learners to discover the impact of their various choices.
Figure 21.15. Two-Page Spread for the Investment Club’s Print-Based Booklet.
List of Tables
CHAPTER 1: The Power of Visuals
Table 1.1. Surface Features of Graphics
Table 1.2. Three Views of Graphics for Instruction
Table 1.3. Communication Functions of Graphics
Table 1.4. Psychological Functions of Graphics
CHAPTER 3: A Visual Design Model for Planning Graphics Systematically
Table 3.1. Three Facets of Graphics
CHAPTER 3: A Visual Design Model for Planning Graphics Systematically
Table 6.1. Comprehension Ratings for the Balloon Passage
CHAPTER 8: Plan Graphics to Help Learners Build Mental Models
Table 8.1. Explanatory Graphics
Table 8.2. Some Common Graphic Organizers
Table 8.3. Evidence-Based Guidelines for Use of Graphs
CHAPTER 10: Plan Graphics for Motivation and Learning
Table 10.1. Types of Interest
CHAPTER 15: How to Visualize Processes
Table 15.1. A Psychological Process for Learning Systems
Table 15.2. Learning and Performance Based on Process Knowledge
CHAPTER 16: How to Visualize Principles
Table 16.1. Six Components of a PCL Learning Environment
CHAPTER 17: Determine the Context
Table 17.1. Key Learner Profile Characteristics to Consider
Table 17.2. Questions to Ask About the Learning Environment
Table 17.3. Questions to Ask About the Delivery Media
Table 17.4. Questions to Ask About e-Learning Platforms
CHAPTER 18: Design Your Visual Approach
Table 18.1. Roles Involved in Art Production
Table 18.2. Candidate for a Graphics-Driven Layout?
Table 18.3. Are You Working to Existing Templates?
CHAPTER 19: Visualize Individual Graphics
Table 19.1. Tips for Going Beyond Clip Art
Table 19.2. Artists’ Rights
Table 19.3. Do You Have Sole Responsibility for Selecting and Creating Your Own Individual Graphics?
CHAPTER 20: Communicate and Lay Out Your Graphic Plans
Table 20.1. Who Needs to Know What
Table 20.2. Standard Look and Feel Documents
Table 20.3. Tradeoffs of Using a Storyboard
Table 20.4. Tradeoffs of Using a Script
Table 20.5. Have No Say Over the Layout of Individual Displays?
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ABOUT THIS BOOK
Why is this topic important?
There’s no question that everyone reacts to visuals. And more often than not, people’s opinions have little to do with the learning potential of a graphic. Although we’ve had years to build verbal literacy, most of us have had little training in visual literacy. As a result, training materials either underutilize or abuse visuals. In some cases, visuals included in books and online courses actually depress learning! In an age of highly visual media like computers, as well as abundant access to visuals through clip art, we need guidance on the best use of visuals for learning. Whether you are an instructor, instructional designer, or graphic artist, in this book you will find evidence-based guidelines you need to plan effective visuals in your instructional materials.
What can you achieve with this book?
The second edition of Graphics for Learning reveals the processes and most recent research-based principles involved in designing effective graphics for print or computer instructional materials. We answer questions such as:
Does an investment in visuals pay off in better learning?
What kinds of graphics are proved to improve learning?
What process should I use to ensure the most appropriate visuals in my instructional materials?
What is the truth about visual learning styles?
How can visuals be used for motivation?
How can I select or design visuals that boost rather than corrupt learning?
When is it best to use animations or still videos?
How is this book organized?
The first section of the book includes three chapters that lay the foundation by introducing three views of graphics and overviewing a visual design model. Section Two looks at the ways that graphics interact with the brain to support or disrupt psychological learning processes. In Section Three you will learn how to best leverage graphics to illustrate your content, including procedures, concepts, facts, processes, and principles. Last, in Section Four we guide you through a visual design model that illustrates how to plan your visuals from the start of your project to the production phase.
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Graphics for Learning
Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials
SECOND EDITION
Ruth Colvin Clark
Chopeta Lyons
Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Published by Pfeiffer
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Graphics for learning : proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials/ Ruth Colvin Clark, Chopeta Lyons.— 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-54744-1 (pbk.)
1. Visual aids—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Visual education—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Business education—Audio-visual aids—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Learning, Psychology of. I. Lyons, Chopeta C. II. Title.
LB1043.5.C53 2011 371.33'5—dc22
2010034665
Acquiring Editor: Matthew Davis
Production Editor: Dawn Kilgore
Editorial Assistant: Lindsay Morton
Director of Development: Kathleen Dolan Davies
Editor: Rebecca Taff
Manufacturing Supervisor: Becky Morgan
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
One of the goals of our work and this book in particular is to illustrate how research on graphics and graphic design can be implemented in practice. We appreciate the contributions of the instructional professionals who have allowed us to reprint graphic examples from their training programs to illustrate the ideas in this second edition, including:
Dale Bambrick, Raytheon Professional Services
Mimi Banks, L’Oreal
Kevin Hadlock, Moody’s Analytics
Doug LeFlamme, WellPoint
Stephanie Olson, University of Phoenix
We also thank Mark A. Palmer, who created art, including our section organizers for this book, and our editors and production support staff at Pfeiffer, including Matt Davis, Dawn Kilgore, and Rebecca Taff.
FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION OF GRAPHICS FOR LEARNING
People learn better from graphics and words than from words alone. This idea—the multimedia principle—is the premise of this book. In short, this book’s theme is that you can help people learn better if you include appropriately designed graphics in instructional presentations.
For example, consider how you would teach someone a simple fact, such as, “The alveoli are tiny air sacs in the lungs.” Although these words give a correct definition, you might have some difficulty understanding what they mean. Figure F.1 shows a map of the lungs, including the alveoli, and thus helps you make sense of the verbal definition.
As another example, consider how you would teach someone a process such as how a car’s braking system works. Using words, you could say, “When the driver steps on a car’s brake pedal, a piston moves forward inside the master cylinder. The piston forces brake fluid out of the master cylinder and through the tubes to the wheel cylinders. In the wheel cylinders, the increase in fluid pressure makes a smaller set of pistons move. These smaller pistons activate the brake shoes. When the brake shoes press against the drum, both the drum and wheel stop or slow down.” However, this explanation, although accurate, is somewhat hard to follow. The frames in Figure F.2 may help you visualize the actions described in the words and thus may help you come to a better understanding of how brakes work.
As you can see in these examples, sometimes words alone are not enough to promote learning. In short, these examples show how adding graphics can promote the process of learning. Recent research confirms that, in some cases, people can learn better from graphics and words than from words alone (Mayer, 2009).
Figure F.1. A Visual to Promote Understanding of Lung Structure
Source: Mayer and Sims, 1994.
Figure F.2. Visuals to Promote Understanding of How a Car’s Braking System Works
Source: Mayer, Mathias, and Wetzell, 2002.
Although graphics can serve as aids to human learning, understanding and reasoning, it is important to consider that all graphics are not equally effective. How can you design graphics that help people learn, understand, or reason?
Until fairly recently, the best advice you could get about how to design graphics came from the opinions of experts. This is because, until fairly recently, there was not a large research base or a cognitive theory of how people learn from words and pictures. However, today there is a growing research base and an educationally relevant science of learning that can be used to help you figure out how to design graphics. The second edition of Graphics for Learning takes advantage of today’s research evidence and learning theories and shows you how to design graphics that are aids to human learning, understanding, and reasoning.
How is this book different from other books on the design of graphics? The second edition of Graphics for learning is
Evidence-based—It shows how research evidence can be used to help you design graphics that help people learn.
Theoretically grounded—It shows you how the science of learning can be used to help you design graphics that are consistent with how people learn.
Practically relevant—It shows how research evidence and cognitive theory can be used to design graphics that help people learn in real learning situations.
Clearly presented—It is presented in a clear and consistent style containing many useful, concrete examples.
Current—It provides up-to-date coverage and lets you know the current state of the field.
Thus, the distinguishing features of this book are that the guidelines it presents are based on rigorous empirical research, are consistent with the cognitive theories of how people learn, are tied to realistic learning situations, are presented clearly with concrete examples, and reflect the current state of knowledge in the field.
Of course, it is not possible to provide design principles that apply in all situations because you have to adapt instructional graphics to the needs of individual learners, specific content, and particular learning contexts. Thus, Graphics for Learning helps you understand which kinds of graphics are best for helping which kinds of learners with which kinds of learning material under which kinds of learning conditions.
This new edition of the book adds coverage of exciting new research—particularly on animation and video—that has appeared since the previous edition was published in 2003. This new edition also expands coverage of graphics using new media such as mobile learning and virtual worlds. You will also find that this new edition is more concise and visually appealing than the previous edition; yet it retains the same basic structure and message.
The power of computer graphics is impressive and growing, but there is more than cutting-edge technology involved in designing graphics that actually help people learn. Graphics for Learning gives you an excellent survey of evidence-based principles for how to design effective instructional graphics.
Richard E. Mayer
Santa Barbara, California
INTRODUCTION: GETTING THE MOST FROM THIS RESOURCE
THE LOST POTENTIAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL VISUALS
More often than not, the potential of visuals to increase learning and improve work performance is unrealized. Some training materials are a wall of words where visuals are almost nonexistent. (See Figure I.1.) At the other extreme, some e-learning lessons wrap lesson content in visually rich thematic edutainment treatments to improve motivation. Both of these options defeat learning. Alternatively, many instructional materials, in print and on computers, add visuals for merely decorative purposes. Although decorative visuals may not depress learning, they do not promote it either. When we settle for a decorative graphic, we lose opportunities to increase learner comprehension. (See Figure I.2.)
Why is the potential of visuals to improve learning so under-realized? We believe that a root cause is our educational emphasis on words. We have all spent years learning verbal language skills. From the early grades through graduate school, we spend much of our instructional time learning the production and analysis of language. In contrast to language arts, the visual arts are generally considered an elective or a relief activity to offer an occasional break from the serious skills of reading, writing, and mathematics. It’s not surprising then that most of us find it much easier to express our ideas with words, even though we may respond more readily to pictures.
Related to this emphasis on verbal language is a general misconception that visual literacy belongs to the domain of a talented few. After the instruction is analyzed, designed, and developed, training professionals who want to include graphics often have someone else create them. If the project or company is large, they are likely to have the luxury of a graphic artist to create the visuals. More frequently, those without professional graphics support use the clip art and stock photographs abundantly available on the Internet to spice up their pages or screens. Other times, training professionals are forced to use existing graphics from the source materials or some other set prescribed by the client or production team.
Figure I.1. A Wall of Words Lesson.
No matter the source, in many cases the graphics are added as something either to decorate (Figure I.3) the interface or to provide a picture of what is being discussed. All too often visuals are planned haphazardly late in the course development process. The result is a product that does not fully utilize the potential of graphics to improve learning or, worse yet, uses visuals in ways that actually defeat learning.
Figure I.2. A Thematic Treatment Used to Motivate Learners.
Credit: Mark A. Palmer.
This is a book about how to improve learning through the effective use of visuals. We draw our guidelines from two main sources: research evidence and a systematic design process. First, there is a wealth of recent research that illustrates what kinds of visuals are best to communicate instructional messages and to support psychological learning processes. As relevant as this research is to instructional professionals, it is buried in diverse academic journals and often presented in difficult-to-understand language. Throughout this book we summarize this research to help you make good decisions about visuals and explain your decisions to others. Second, we offer a visual design process that will help you plan your graphics in a systematic manner. Our guidelines and examples apply to a variety of media, including books, presentation slides, and online learning screens. Finally, while our guidelines can apply to any learning setting, our focus is graphics to support the building of job knowledge and skills in organizational work settings.
Figure I.3. A Decorative Visual. Decorative visuals like this one are related to the topic but serve no useful instructional purpose.
Credit: Mark A. Palmer.
WHAT MAKES OUR BOOK DIFFERENT FROM OTHER BOOKS ON GRAPHICS?
Our guidelines for graphics are all based on empirical research studies. For “how-to,” we suggest numerous other resources that offer instruction about layout, design, and human interface factors. These suggested materials focus on the elements of graphics: contrast, line, color, perspective, depth, arrangement, and composition. They even zero in on how to use them to communicate specific points, ideas, images, or moods for advertising, communication, or training. However, here we talk about how to select or plan visuals effectively to illustrate specific instructional content as well as to support psychological processes of learning.
IS THIS BOOK FOR YOU?
This book is written for anyone involved in either the selection or the production of instructional materials. Some readers may work alone to produce training handouts or slides for their own presentations. Others may be part of project teams involved in production of e-learning courses. Some readers may be skilled in instructional design processes. Others may be graphic professionals who have unique visualization skills but wonder what the best ways are to use their skills to support learning. Alternatively, other readers might be involved in the selection rather than production of instructional materials for their organizations. Our book answers the following questions that these individuals typically have when planning instructional materials:
Visuals add time and cost to any instructional project. Is there any evidence that the investment pays off in better learning?
Besides showing pictures of objects such as system screen captures, what other kinds of visuals can I use to promote learning?
What is the best way to display words and visuals together?
What is wrong with using visuals to illustrate dramatic themes or puzzles to build interest in the training?
I think visuals are great, but I have no graphics talent! When should I start to think about my visuals and how do I begin?
When should I use animations, and when are stills more effective?
Who profits the most from visuals in instructional materials?
AN OVERVIEW OF OUR BOOK
Our book has four sections, as illustrated in Figure I.4. Section One includes three chapters that serve as the foundation for the book. The first chapter defines instructional graphics and identifies their value. By summarizing three unique views of visuals, the second chapter lays the conceptual foundation. The third chapter lays the practical groundwork with an overview of our visual design model that you can apply to systematically plan and design graphics in your instructional projects.
Section Two builds on this foundation. It begins by summarizing research evidence for the design of visuals that support human psychological learning processes. Chapter 4 outlines human learning processes, followed by six chapters, one on each of the six critical learning stages. Specifically, Chapters 5 through 10 review research and illustrate how to use graphics to support attention, awaken prior knowledge, manage cognitive load, build mental models, support transfer of learning, and motivate learners in ways that do not defeat learning. Chapter 11 describes psychological differences in individuals that shape how they process visuals and recommends ways to design visuals of optimal value for all learners.
Section Three looks at how to visualize five common content types found in organizational training. These are procedures, concepts, facts, processes, and principles. Each chapter describes the content type and provides several guidelines for visualizing that content. Examples are drawn from paper materials such as manuals as well as online courseware and help screens.
Section Four turns to the practical side of planning your instructional visuals. The chapters in this section expand on the visual design model introduced in Chapter 3. Examples and checklists are provided to help you (1) define your instructional context early in the process, (2) decide what visual approach will work best within your instructional context, (3) develop individual visuals, and (4) communicate your visual ideas to graphic artists who will implement them.
Our last chapter uses two different types of tasks, procedures and principles, to illustrate how to apply the design model and the research of all of the earlier chapters in a systematic way. Look to this chapter for running examples that model the processes and guidelines described throughout the book. Here you will see alternative treatments of the same content for different media such as paper versus computer; for different instructional strategies, such as directive versus guided discovery; and for different learning contexts, such as high and low bandwidth, visual and text dominant layouts, as well as serious and light styles.
To see many of our graphics in color, please check www.pfeiffer.com/go/ruthclark.
Figure I.4. A Visual Map of Graphics for Learning
Introduction to Section One: The Foundation
The three chapters in this section provide an overview of the major themes of the book. In Chapter 1 we begin the case for our premise that graphic effectiveness depends on graphic functionality. Most of us think of graphics in terms of their surface features such as line art or animation To expand the utility of visuals for learning, we propose two additional categories based on their functions. One focuses on the communication functions of graphics and the second focuses on ways graphics support psychological learning processes. In Chapters 1 and 2 we introduce these three views of graphics. We also summarize three guiding principles that reflect our most basic assumptions about what kinds of visuals are most effective for learning.
The second theme of our book focuses on a process for designing effective visuals for instructional purposes. Often visuals are considered late in the lesson development process and therefore must be compromised as a result of not considering the entire instructional context up-front. In Chapter 3 we overview a visual design process that includes the following major phases:
Define instructional goals
Define learning environment
Design the visual approach
Identify visuals to match lesson content
Apply psychological learning guidelines to visual design decisions
We augment this overview in Section Four that elaborates on the visual design-process in greater detail.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
The Unrealized Potential of Visuals
What Is a Graphic?
Which Visuals Are Best? No Yellow Brick Road
Factor 1: Functions of Visuals
Surface Features of Visuals
Communication Functions of Visuals
Psychological Functions of Visuals
Factor 2: Instructional Goals and Lesson Content
Factor 3: Visuals and Learner Differences
Graphics in the Instructional Landscape
CHAPTER 1The Power of Visuals
In this chapter we define instructional graphics as pictorial expressions of information designed to promote learning and improve performance in work settings. The learning value of any visual will depend on three interactive factors: (1) the features of the visual, (2) the content and goal of the lesson, and (3) characteristics of the learners. We introduce three views of graphics based on their surface features, their communication functions, and their interactions with important psychological learning processes. We know that your decisions about graphics cannot be based on psychological factors alone. You must also take into consideration the entire instructional landscape including delivery media, learning environment, and pragmatic factors such as schedules and budget.
THE UNREALIZED POTENTIAL OF VISUALS
Words and graphics are your two basic tools to help learners build new knowledge and skills. Of these two, most of us have greater expertise with words since we are trained to read and to write from an early age. The use and interpretation of graphics is a more neglected skill. Often graphics in instructional materials are after-thoughts used primarily to add visual interest to the page or screen. Consequently, the power of illustrations to promote learning is often unrealized. In fact, some instructional materials include graphics that actually depress learning!
How effective are the graphics in your organizations’ reference and training materials? Mayer, Sims, and Tajika (1995) and Woodward (1993) independently found that only a small proportion of the visuals included in textbooks serve any important instructional purpose. More often than not, graphics are either underutilized or misapplied in a range of instructional materials from books to e-learning.
This book is about graphics and learning. Our goal is to help you plan or select the types of visuals that have proven to improve learning and work-place performance and to avoid the types of visuals shown to disrupt learning. Although a great deal of research has been done on visuals and learning in the last thirty years, most guidelines published prior to 1990 are ambiguous. For example, a summary of hundreds of research experiments conducted in the 1970s and 1980s that involved over 48,000 students offered the rather vague conclusion that “visuals are effective some of the time under some conditions” (Rieber, 1994, p. 132).
In the last twenty years, however, research on visuals has yielded significantly more helpful guidelines. Unfortunately, most of this research is scattered in diverse academic journals not typically read by practitioners. To make this knowledge accessible we summarize guidelines based on recent research that direct you toward graphics that have proven effective and away from visuals that are proven to depress learning. The increasing use of highly visual media such as computers, combined with easy to use video and screen capture tools as well as cheap access to professional visuals through online art sites, make this an ideal time to translate this research for individuals who plan, develop, or select instructional materials.
WHAT IS A GRAPHIC?
For the purposes of this book, we use the terms graphics, pictures, visuals, and illustrations interchangeably. Graphics specialists of course have a very specific meaning for these terms. But we will use them here interchangeably to reference most any non-textual element added to training materials. We include a wide range of iconic displays commonly found in instructional materials, including photographs, line drawings, animations, graphs such as pie charts, and video. Specifically, we focus on visuals designed to improve learning and performance on the job.
We define instructional graphics as iconic expressions of content that are designed to optimize learning and performance in ways that improve the bottom-line performance of organizations. Our definition incorporates three ideas.
1.
By
iconic
we refer to expressions of content that are pictorial. As shown in
Table 1.1
, the surface features of such visuals may be static or dynamic and they may have high or low degrees of correspondence to real things. Thus a photograph is a highly realistic static representation, while an animation is a dynamic visual that may be realistic or abstract.
2.
The second point in our definition, “designed to optimize learning and performance, ” refers to the purpose of the visual. We focus on graphics that are intended to support learning or improve performance in the workplace. Thus we include examples from a range of instructional materials such as text pages and online screens as well as from work aids such as online help and web screens designed to help workers complete job tasks more effectively.
3.
Finally, by “bottom line performance” we mean visuals that improve learning or performance in ways that pay off in improved organizational results. Visuals, especially original art, are often more expensive to produce than words. To achieve a return on investment from your training or work aids, you must be sure that they fill a gap in knowledge or skills or support work tasks that align with organizational goals. All too often training is used as a silver bullet to solve organizational problems that have little to do with knowledge and skills. As we describe the best use of visuals for learning, we assume that a performance analysis has shown that training or performance support is an appropriate solution.
WHICH VISUALS ARE BEST? NO YELLOW BRICK ROAD
There is no simple formula you can use to design or select visuals that improve learning and performance in all situations. Instead, the learning value of a visual will depend on three interactive factors summarized in Figure 1.1, including: (1) properties of the visual itself, including its surface features, communication functions and psychological functions, (2) the goal of the instruction, and (3) differences in prior knowledge of the learners.
Table 1.1. Surface Features of Graphics
Types
Salient Feature
Definition
Example
Static Art
Illustration
Depiction of visual elements, using various media and techniques such as pen and ink, watercolor, and computer drawing packages
Pen and ink outline art; Two-dimensional watercolor of flower parts; Diagrams and charts
Photographic
Captured image, using photographic or digital technologies
Screen capture of a software screen; Photo of person answering phones
Modeled
Computer-generated (CG)—A faithful reproduction of reality, using various media, included computer assisted drawing packages
Three-dimensional representation of an office; Three-dimensional representation of combustion engine
Dynamic Art
Animation
Series of images that simulate motion
Demonstration of steps in a software procedure; Process of ammunition detonation shown through line art
Video
Series of images, captured as they occur, digitally or on film or magnetic tape, displayed serially, over time
Capture of the hydrogen bomb test explosion at White Sands, New Mexico; Film of human resources director interviewing a job applicant
Virtual Reality
Interactive three-dimensional world that dynamically changes as the “user” moves through and views it
Simulated walkthrough of the human heart
Figure 1.1. Factors That Shape the Effectiveness of Graphics.
Factor 1: Functions of Visuals
In describing graphics, most of us use terms such as line art or photograph that refer to their surface features. But for learning purposes, the functional characteristics that affect how the illustration communicates information or how it facilitates psychological learning processes are as important as its surface features. Therefore, we present three different views of visuals based on their (1) surface features that focus on what they look like and how they are created, (2) communication functions that focus on how they convey information, and (3) psychological functions that focus on how they facilitate human learning processes. Table 1.2 summarizes these three views. The three views are interrelated. For example, different surface features such as static or animated visuals will influence their psychological effects. Additionally, different communication functions will have different psychological effects.
Surface Features of Visuals
We have new evidence that the surface features of visuals influence their psychological effectiveness. For example, do you think you should illustrate motion with a series of static visuals or with an animation? Which would be better for learning? It turns out that a series of still visuals can be more effective for some learning goals such as teaching how things work (Mayer, Sims, & Tajika, 2005). On the other hand, animations are more effective for teaching skills involving motion (Ayres, Marcus, Chan, & Qian, 2009). Therefore, we cannot ignore surface features of visuals—either from a pragmatic production standpoint or from a psychological effectiveness perspective.
Table 1.2. Three Views of Graphics for Instruction
View
Classification based on:
Surface
The salient features of visuals such as static art (illustration, rendered, photograph), dynamic art (video, animation), and true virtual reality
Communication Function
The communication purpose to show motion or represent illustrate quantitative relationships
Cognitive Psychological Function
Interactions. How visuals interact with human learning processes such as attention or retrieval from memory
Communication Functions of Visuals
Just as we rely on language grammars to help us assemble words correctly, we need classification systems for visuals that go beyond surface features. To help you plan graphics based on their functional properties, we describe our adaptation of a taxonomy of illustration summarized by Carney and Levin (2002) and illustrated by Lohr (2007). The taxonomy is summarized in Table 1.3. This taxonomy will help you plan visuals based on their communication functions—not just their surface features. In Chapter 2, we describe the communication taxonomy in greater detail.
Psychological Functions of Visuals
In addition to communicating effectively, your visuals also must support critical psychological learning processes. Visuals that disrupt these processes have been shown to depress learning. For example, Harp and Mayer (1998) found that adding visuals and text that were topically related to the lesson but extraneous to the learning goal depressed learning. They created two versions of a lesson that taught the process of lightning formation. The basic lesson version used words and relevant visuals to depict the process. The enhanced lesson version added short narrative vignettes with visuals such as a video of lightning striking trees, an ambulance arriving near the trees, and a lightning victim being carried in a stretcher to the ambulance. At the same time, the narrator said: “Approximately 10,000 Americans are injured by lightning every year. . . .” (p. 415). Learning was about 30 percent better for students using the basic lesson version lacking the graphic enhancements. The enhancements actually depressed learning because they distracted attention from the main content aligned to the learning goal.
Table 1.3. Communication Functions of Graphics
Function
A Graphic Used to
Examples
Decorative
Add aesthetic appeal or humor
Art on the cover of a book Visual of a general in a military lesson on ammunition
Representational
Depict an object in a realistic fashion
A screen capture of a software screen A photograph of equipment
Mnemonic
Provide retrieval cues for factual information
A picture of a stamped letter in a shopping cart to recall the meaning of the Spanish word, Carta (letter)
Organizational
Show qualitative relationships among content
A two-dimensional course map A concept tree
Relational
Show quantitative relationships among two or more variables
A line graph A pie chart
Transformational
Show changes in objects over time or space
An animation of the weather cycle A video showing how to operate equipment
Interpretive
Illustrate a theory, principle, or cause-and-effect relationships
A schematic diagram of equipment An animation of molecular movement
To promote the design and planning of graphics that work with rather than against
