Efficiency in Learning E-Book

Ruth C. Clark

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 442

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Efficiency in Learning offers a road map of the most effective ways to use the three fundamental communication of training: visuals, written text, and audio. Regardless of how you are delivering your training materials--in the classroom, in print, by synchronous or asynchronous media--the book's methods are easily applied to your lesson presentations, handouts, reference guides, or e-learning screens. Designed to be a down-to-earth resource for all instructional professionals, Efficiency in Learning's guidelines are clearly illustrated with real-world examples.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

About This Book

Why is Efficiency in Learning important?

What can you achieve with this book?

How is this book organized?

About Pfeiffer

Title Page

Copyright Page

Table of Figures

List of Tables

Dedication

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Purpose

Audience

Package Components

Product Description

Explanation of Cognitive Load Theory

PART ONE - An Introduction to Efficiency in Learning

On the CD

Chapter 1 - Cognitive Load and Efficiency in Learning

The Costs of Inefficient Instruction

What Is Cognitive Load Theory?

Types of Cognitive Load

No Yellow Brick Road: The Relativity of Cognitive Load

Cognitive Load Theory and Human Learning

Evidence-Based Practice

Quantifying Efficiency

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Reading

Chapter 2 - The Psychology of Efficiency

Harnessing Human Learning Processes

Our Memory Partners

Working Memory and the Significance of the Number 7 ± 2

Long-Term Memory and Expertise

Visual and Auditory Centers in Working Memory

Cognitive Load and Learning

How Learning Happens

Automaticity: A Working Memory Bypass

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Readings

PART TWO - Basic Guidelines for Managing Extraneous (Irrelevant) Cognitive Load

On the CD

Chapter 3 - Use Visuals and Audio Narration to Exploit Working Memory Resources

Accelerate Expertise with Dual Modalities

Guideline 1: Use Diagrams to Optimize Performance on Tasks Requiring Spatial Manipulations

Guideline 2: Use Diagrams to Promote Learning of Rules Involving Spatial Relationships

Guideline 3: Use Diagrams to Help Learners Build Deeper Understanding

Guideline 4: Explain Diagrams with Words Presented by Audio Narration

When to Use Audio to Explain Visuals

Using Audio to Describe Text Rather Than Diagrams

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Readings

Chapter 4 - Focus Attention and Avoid Split Attention

Attention and Working Memory

Guideline 5: Use Cues and Signals to Focus Attention to Important Visual and ...

Guideline 6: Integrate Explanatory Text Close to Related Visuals on Pages and ...

Integrate Words and Visuals for Teaching Computer Applications in One Delivery ...

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Readings

Chapter 5 - Weed Your Training to Manage Limited Working Memory Capacity

The Misconceptions of More

Guideline 8: Pare Content Down to Essentials

Guideline 9: Eliminate Extraneous Visuals, Text, and Audio

Guideline 10: Eliminate Redundancy in Content Delivery Modes

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Readings

Chapter 6 - Provide External Memory Support to Reduce Working Memory Load

Bypassing Working Memory

Guideline 11: Provide Performance Aids as External Memory Supplements

Guideline 12: Design Performance Aids by Applying Cognitive Load Management Techniques

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Chapter 7 - Use Segmenting, Sequencing, and Learner Pacing to Impose Content Gradually

Training Design and Cognitive Load

Guideline 13: Teach System Components Before Teaching the Full Process

Guideline 14: Teach Supporting Knowledge Separate from Teaching Procedure Steps

Design Alternatives at the Course Level

Guideline 15: Consider the Risks of Cognitive Overload Before Designing Whole ...

Guideline 16: Give Learners Control Over Pacing and Manage Cognitive Load When ...

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Readings

Chapter 8 - Transition from Worked Examples to Practice to Impose Mental Work Gradually

Does Practice Make Perfect?

Guideline 17: Replace Some Practice Problems with Worked Examples

Guideline 18: Use Completion Examples to Promote Learning Processing

Guideline 19: Transition from Worked Examples to Problem Assignments with ...

Guideline 20: Display Worked Examples and Completion Problems in Ways That ...

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Readings

PART THREE - Instructional Guidelines for Imposing Relevant Cognitive Load

On the CD

Chapter 9 - Put Working Memory to Work with Germane Load

Shifting from Extraneous to Relevant (Germane) Load

Guideline 21: Use Diverse Worked Examples to Foster Transfer of Learning

Guideline 22: Help Learners Exploit Examples Through Self-Explanations

Guideline 23: Help Learners Automate New Knowledge and Skills

Guideline 24: Promote Mental Rehearsal of Complex Content After Mental Models ...

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Readings

PART FOUR - Tailoring Instruction to Learner Expertise

On the CD

Chapter 10 - Accommodate Differences in Learner Expertise

Beyond Learning Styles: Which Differences Matter?

How Cognitive Load Changes with Greater Expertise

Expertise Reversal Applied

Evidence for Expertise Reversal

Guideline 25: Write High Coherent Texts for Low Knowledge Readers

Guideline 26: Avoid Interrupting Reading of Low Skilled Readers

Guideline 27: Eliminate Redundant Content for More Experienced Learners

Guideline 28: Transition from Worked Examples to Problem Assignments as ...

Guideline 29: Use Directive Rather Than Guided Discovery Learning Designs for ...

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Reading

Chapter 11 - Use Rapid Testing to Adapt e-Learning to Learner Expertise

e-Learning and Adaptive Training

A New Method for Rapid Testing

Rapid Tests to Adapt Instruction to Learner Expertise

Applying Rapid Assessment to Your e-Learning

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Recommended Readings

PART FIVE - Cognitive Load Theory in Perspective

On the CD

Chapter 12 - Applying Cognitive Load Theory

Applying Cognitive Load Theory to Instructional Planning

Training Development and Cognitive Load Theory

Challenges Implementing Cognitive Load Theory with Many Authoring Software Packages

Applying Cognitive Load Theory to Training Implementation

Evaluating Courseware for Efficiency

The Bottom Line

On the CD

Chapter 13 - The Evolution of Cognitive Load Theory

Origins

Early Years—Problems with Problem Solving

Middle Years—The Importance of Failed Experiments

Recent Years—The Internationalization of Cognitive Load Theory

Current Work

Conclusions

APPENDIX: ALL ABOUT THE NUMBERS

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

INDEX

Table of Figures

Figure 1.1 . An Assignment in an Excel Lesson That Imposes Moderate Intrinsic Cognitive Load.

Figure 1.2 . A Screen from a Lesson on Excel with Many Sources of Extraneous Cognitive Load.

Figure 1.3 . A Graph of Temperature Changes over Time.

Figure 1.4 . Audio Explanations Result in Better Achievement Than Textual Explanations on Complex Questions.

Figure 1.5 . Hypothetical Efficiency Plots on the Efficiency Graph.

Figure 2.1 . Number of Referrals Needed to Reproduce a Mid-Play Chess Board.

Figure 2.2 . Number of Referrals Needed to Reproduce a Random Chess Board.

Figure 2.3 . An Overview of Cognitive Learning Processes.

Figure 2.4 . An Instructional Display That Imposes Extraneous Load.

Figure 2.5 . An Instructional Display That Minimizes Extraneous Load.

Figure 2.6 . A Virtual Classroom Excel Lesson Incorporates Demonstrations of Excel Applications.

Figure 3.1 . Working Memory Includes a Phonetic (Auditory) and Visual Component.

Figure 3.2 . A Simple and Complex Assembly Task Explained with Text and with Diagrams.

Figure 3.3 . Diagrams on Performance Aids Lead to Faster Task Performance.

Figure 3.4 . Diagrams Are More Efficient Than Text as Work Aids.

Figure 3.5 . A Text and Diagram Version of a Chemistry Compound Suffix Rule.

Figure 3.6 . Diagrams Are More Efficient Than Text for Learning of More Complex Suffix Problems.

Figure 3.7 . Text and Text Plus Diagram Versions from the Bicycle Pump Lesson.

Figure 3.8 . A Representational and an Explanatory Illustration of Gas Pressure.

Figure 3.9 . A Visual-Only Version from an Electrical Test Lesson.

Figure 3.10 . Learning Is Better from Audio-Visual Presentations.

Figure 3.11 . A Learning Agent from an Excel Lesson.

Figure 3.12 . A Graph of Temperature Changes over Time for Two Days.

Figure 3.13 . Audio Explanations Result in Better Achievement on Complex Questions.

Figure 3.14 . Exercise Directions Displayed in Text Rather Than Audio.

Figure 3.15 . A Geometry Problem and Solution Example Presented in Combinations of Text, Diagram, and Audio.

Figure 3.16 . Diagrams and Text Explained by Audio Lead to Faster Performance.

Figure 4.1 . First Paragraphs from Unsignaled Version of Passage on Airplane Lift.

Figure 4.2 . First Paragraphs from Signaled Version of Passage on Airplane Lift.

Figure 4.3 . Signaled Versions Led to Better Learning.

Figure 4.4 . A Structured Abstract for a Journal Article.

Figure 4.5 . A Separated Text Version from an Electrical Test Lesson.

Figure 4.6 . Two Self-Explanatory Information Sources That Would Not Lead to Split Attention.

Figure 4.7 . An Integrated Text Version from an Electrical Test Lesson.

Figure 4.8 . Text Separated from the Visual Led to Split Attention and Less Learning.

Figure 4.9 . A Screen from Three e-Lesson Versions on How Lightning Forms.

Figure 4.10 . Audio Description of Visuals Led to Best Learning, Followed by Integrated Text, Which Was Better Than Separated Text.

Figure 4.11 . Taking Notes Leads to Split Attention Unless the Lecture Is Signaled.

Figure 4.12 . Placement of Text and Use of Pointers to Minimize Split Attention.

Figure 4.13 . Having to Refer Back to These Directions During Practice Will Lead to Split Attention.

Figure 4.14 . Displaying Training Content in Two Media Leads to Split Attention.

Figure 4.15 . A Computer Training Manual That Minimizes Split Attention by Integrating Text and Visuals.

Figure 4.16 . A Computer-Based Training Lesson That Minimizes Split Attention by Integrating Text and Visuals on the Computer.

Figure 4.17 . Integrated Materials Led to Faster Learning of Complex Software Skills.

Figure 4.18 . Integrated CBT Leads to Better Learning of High-Complexity Skills Than Manuals Plus Software.

Figure 4.19 . Integrated CBT Leads to More Efficient Learning Than Manuals Plus Software.

Figure 5.1 . A Screen from Our Overloaded Excel e-Learning Lesson on the CD.

Figure 5.2 . A Screen with Overly Wordy Text.

Figure 5.3 . A Concise Version of the Text in from Our Excel Load Managed Lesson on Our CD.

Figure 5.4 . Two Captioned Illustrations from the Summary Lesson Version.

Figure 5.5 . Learning Is Best from Concise Explanations of Visuals.

Figure 5.6 . Learning Is Better from Concise Lessons That Omitted Quantitative Details, Regardless of Media.

Figure 5.7 . Learning Is Better from Lessons That Omit Seductive Details.

Figure 5.8 . Ratings of Cognitive and Emotional Interest of Lessons with and Without Seductive Details.

Figure 5.9 . Learning Is Better Without Auditory Additions.

Figure 5.10 . An Airline Safety Card with Self-Explanatory Visuals.

Figure 5.11 . Learning Was Better and Faster with Self-Explanatory Diagrams Alone.

Figure 5.12 . A Graph of Temperature Changes Over Time for Two Days.

Figure 5.13 . A Self-Explanatory Version of the Graph in .

Figure 5.14 . Adding Audio to Self-Explanatory Diagram Depresses Learning of Complex Tasks.

Figure 5.15 . A Worked Example Using Audio to Explain How to Interpret the Diagram.

Figure 5.16 . As Learners Gained Expertise, the Diagram Alone Led to Best Learning.

Figure 5.17 . Fusion Diagram Explained by On-Screen Text.

Figure 5.18 . Diagrams Explained by Audio Are More Efficient Than Diagrams Explained by Text or by Text and Audio.

Figure 5.19 . Audio Followed by Text Leads to Better Learning in Instructionally Paced Lessons.

Figure 5.20 . Two Experiments Comparing Learning from Audio Alone with Audio and On-Screen Text.

Figure 5.21 . Integrated CBT Led to Better Learning of Complex Computer Skills Than Redundant or Split Attention Versions.

Figure 6.1 . An Airline Performance Aid.

Figure 6.2 . A Wall Chart from an Instructional Design Class.

Figure 6.3 . Memory Support Embedded in Instructional Materials.

Figure 6.4 . A Text-Dominant Working Aid.

Figure 6.5 . Visual Representations in Performance Aids Led to Faster Performance.

Figure 6.6 . An Inefficient Performance Aid with Text Added to a Self-Explanatory Visual.

Figure 6.7 . Learning Is Better (Left Bars) and Instructional Time Shorter (Right Bars) from Diagrams Alone.

Figure 6.8 . A Performance Aid with Separated Text and Diagram.

Figure 6.9 . A Performance Aid with Integrated Text and Diagram.

Figure 6.10 . Integrated Computer-Based Training Led to Better Learning of High Complexity Skills.

Figure 6.11 . An Online Performance Aid Integrates Text with Application.

Figure 6.12 . An Online Performance Aid Shows Steps Out of Context of Application.

Figure 6.13 . A PowerPoint Performance Aid Aligned Next to the Running Application.

Figure 7.1 . Pretraining Sheet Presenting Parts and Functions of Parts in a Car Braking Process.

Figure 7.2 . One Frame from Multimedia Pretraining Presenting Parts and Functions of Parts in a Car Braking Process.

Figure 7.3 . Learning from Process Lessons with and Without Pretraining in Three Experiments.

Figure 7.4 . The Segmented Lesson Version Teaching an Insulation Resistance Test.

Figure 7.5 . The Unsegmented Lesson Version Teaching an Insulation Resistance Test.

Figure 7.6 . Segmented Lessons Are More Efficient for Learning Complex Content.

Figure 7.7 . A Typical Directive Course Architecture.

Figure 7.8 . A Virtual Office Setting for Bank Loan Whole Task Course.

Figure 7.9 . A Directive and Whole Task Outline for a Course on Use of Virtual Classroom Software.

Figure 7.10 . Learning from Concise Training Is Better in Paper Version That Is Learner Controlled.

Figure 7.11 . Learning Is Better from Learner-Paced Multimedia Training.

Figure 8.1 . Part of a Worked Example from Asynchronous e-Lesson on Constructing Formulas in Excel from the CD.

Figure 8.2 . An Algebra Worked Example Displayed in Text.

Figure 8.3 . Part of a Completion Example from an Asynchronous Load-Managed Lesson on Excel on the CD.

Figure 8.4 . A Faded Worked Example from the Asynchronous Excel Lesson on the CD.

Figure 8.5 . A Conceptual Model of Backwards Faded Completion Examples.

Figure 8.6 . The Plan of an Experiment Comparing Worked Examples-Practice Pairs to All Practice as Learners Gain Expertise.

Figure 8.7 . Worked Examples Are More Efficient for Novices; AllProblems Are More Efficient for Experts.

Figure 8.8 . A Sample Completion Problem with Backwards Fading.

Figure 8.9 . Instructor Explains the Demonstration Verbally in Virtual Classroom

Figure 8.10 . A Print-Based Worked Example That Integrates Text into Diagram to Minimize Split Attention.

Figure 8.11 . A Print-Based Worked Example That Splits Attention Between Diagram and Related Text.

Figure 8.12 . Examples Described with Integrated Text or Audio Improve Learning.

Figure 9.1 . The Fortress Story.

Figure 9.2 . Three Problems Used in Worked Examples Research.

Figure 9.3 . Lessons with Worked and Completion Examples Resulted in Better Learning of Far Transfer Test Problems Than All-Problem Lessons.

Figure 9.4 . Efficiency Is Greatest for High Variable Worked Examples.

Figure 9.5 . A Student Self-Explanation of a Physics Problem.

Figure 9.6 . A Worked Example with First Worked Step Requiring a Self-Explanation.

Figure 9.7 . Learning Is Better from Faded Worked Examples with Added Questions That Promote Self-Explanations.

Figure 9.8 . A Question in Excel Lesson Requires Learner to Identify Rule Associated with Worked Step.

Figure 9.9 . Better Learning of Complex Content from Study in Initial Sessions and Rehearsal in Later Sessions.

Figure 9.10 . Study Followed by Rehearsal Results in Better Learning of Complex Content.

Figure 10.1 . A Disordinal Interaction Between Method Y and Z for Type A and Type B Learners.

Figure 10.2 . A Generalized Plan of a Staged Experiment.

Figure 10.3 . Excerpts from Low and High Coherent Texts (edits are underlined in the coherent version).

Figure 10.4 . Opposite Learning Outcomes from High and Low Coherent Text by High and Low Prior Knowledge Readers.

Figure 10.5 . Answering Questions During Reading Had Opposite Learning Effects Among Readers of Different Expertise.

Figure 10.6 . Text Plus Diagram Lesson Version of How a Brake Works.

Figure 10.7 . Lesson Versions with Diagrams Aid Understanding of Low but Not High Prior Knowledge Learners.

Figure 10.8 . Diagrams Alone Resulted in Better Learning with More Expert Learners.

Figure 10.9 . A Worked Example Using Audio to Explain How to Use the Diagram to Determine Cutting Speeds for Drills.

Figure 10.10 . Diagrams Plus Words Are More Efficient for Novices; Diagrams Alone Are More Efficient for Experts.

Figure 10.11 . Lessons with All Problems Led to Better Learning of Experienced Learners.

Figure 10.12 . A Comparison of Directive with Guided Discovery Lesson Design on Learning and Training Time of Novice Learners on Simple Tasks.

Figure 10.13 . A Comparison of Directive and Guided Discovery Lesson on Learning of Complex Tasks by Novice and Experienced Participants.

Figure 11.1 . Alternative First Steps to Solve an Algebra Problem Among Learners of Diverse Experience.

Figure 11.2 . Levels of Algebraic Equation Problems That Incorporate Increasing Numbers of Skills.

Figure 11.3 . The First of a Three-Item Pretest in an Excel Lesson on the CD.

Figure 11.4 . The Third of a Three-Item Pretest in an Excel Lesson on the CD.

Figure 11.5 . A Diagnostic Test Given After Completion of Topic 1.

Figure 11.6 . An Overview of an Adaptive Testing Learning Sequence.

Figure 11.7 . A Summary of the Instruction Methods at Each Level of an Adaptive Training Plan.

Figure 12.1 . An Asynchronous Course with Lines Used to Integrate Text.

Figure 12.2 . The Screen Used in a Synchronous Course Includes On-Screen Memory Support.

Figure 12.3 . A Handout That Summarizes Procedural Steps.

Figure A.1 . What Is a Z Score?

Figure A.2 . The Efficiency Graph with Hypothetical Plots.

Figure A.3 . A Worked Example of Efficiency Calculation.

Figure A.4 . Efficiency Graph for Worked Example in .

Figure A.5 . Data from Experiment Comparing Text and Audio Explanations of a Visual (Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 1997).

Figure A.6 . Efficiency Graph for Data in .

List of Tables

Table 1.1 . A Summary of Experiments Demonstrating a Modality Effect.

Table 7.1 . Four Architectures of Instruction.

Table 8.1 . Worked Example Problem Pairs Result in Faster Learning and Performance.

Table 8.2 . Worked Examples and Completion Examples Are More Efficient Than All-Practice Lessons.

Table 12.1 . Applying Cognitive Load Theory to Your Training.

Table A.1 . Data from Tindall-Ford, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) Study Converted to Z Scores.

About This Book

Why isEfficiency in Learningimportant?

The biggest expense in organizational training today is the time the participants spend away from the job. Instructional professionals can maximize a return on investment in training by developing efficient learning environments that result in faster learning, better learning, or both. Unlike other resources for training tips and techniques, we offer evidence-based guidelines based on over twenty-five years of experimental research on cognitive load theory. Whether you are a classroom or online instructor or a designer of training for classroom or multimedia delivery, by reading this book, you will learn how to create efficient instructional environments and why they work.

What can you achieve with this book?

By applying the guidelines in this book, you can create efficient instructional environments. Specifically you will learn the most efficient ways to use the three fundamental tools available to all training professionals: visuals, written text, and audio. Whether you are working in the classroom or in print, synchronous, or asynchronous media, you will be able to apply our guidelines to your lesson presentations, handouts, reference guides or e-learning screens. You will be able to accelerate learning by avoiding the pitfalls of split attention and redundancy in your presentation modalities or content. You will see how to save learning time and improve learning by reducing practice exercises. Because we summarize the research evidence as well as the psychological reasons for our guidelines, you will know not only what to do but why you are doing it so you can apply these instructional principles to a variety of contexts as well as explain your instructional decisions to your colleagues and clients.

How is this book organized?

This book is divided into five parts. In Part I we introduce cognitive load theory, which is the basis for all of our guidelines. Part II offers you specific guidelines and examples for ways to avoid irrelevant cognitive load that burdens memory but does not contribute to learning. Part III shows you how to use the memory capacity you have saved to best promote learning. Part IV addresses ways you should modify your training for novice and experienced learners. In Part V, we integrate all of the previous chapters into a cognitive load instructional design model and hope to expand your understanding and appreciation of our guidelines through a personal discussion by John Sweller of the research that has led to cognitive load theory.

More details on the book’s organization are included in the Introduction: Getting the Most from This Resource.

About Pfeiffer

Pfeiffer serves the professional development and hands-on resource needs of training and human resource practitioners and gives them products to do their jobs better. We deliver proven ideas and solutions from experts in HR development and HR management, and we offer effective and customizable tools to improve workplace performance. From novice to seasoned professional, Pfeiffer is the source you can trust to make yourself and your organization more successful.

Essential Knowledge Pfeiffer produces insightful, practical, and comprehensive materials on topics that matter the most to training and HR professionals. Our Essential Knowledge resources translate the expertise of seasoned professionals into practical, how-to guidance on critical workplace issues and problems. These resources are supported by case studies, worksheets, and job aids and are frequently supplemented with CD-ROMs, websites, and other means of making the content easier to read, understand, and use.

Essential Tools Pfeiffer’s Essential Tools resources save time and expense by offering proven, ready-to-use materials—including exercises, activities, games, instruments, and assessments—for use during a training or team-learning event. These resources are frequently offered in looseleaf or CD-ROM format to facilitate copying and customization of the material.

Pfeiffer also recognizes the remarkable power of new technologies in expanding the reach and effectiveness of training. While e-hype has often created whizbang solutions in search of a problem, we are dedicated to bringing convenience and enhancements to proven training solutions. All our e-tools comply with rigorous functionality standards. The most appropriate technology wrapped around essential content yields the perfect solution for today’s on-thego trainers and human resource professionals.

Essential resources for training and HR professionals