Essentials of Behaviour Modification: A Text for Tertiary Institutions and Families E-Book

Obi Osorochi Patricia

• Herausgeber: BookRix
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

THE BOOK

This book, Essentials of Behaviour Modification: A Text for Tertiary Institutions and Families is borne out of several years of practice and research in the area of behaviour modification. The ten chapters embodied essential features of behaviour modification including conceptualization of basic terminologies, theoretical bases of behaviour modification, principles, properties and processes of behaviour modification. The book covers techniques derived from the theories as well as the development of deviant behaviour and other relevant concepts. 

This book was written for a diverse audience with reader-friendly font. It is recommended for all stakeholders in Education including students in tertiary institutions and families.

Leseprobe

Obi Osorochi Patricia

Essentials of Behaviour Modification: A Text for Tertiary Institutions and Families

DEDICATION TO ALL STUGGLING WITH ANY CHALLENGE; KNOW THAT POSITIVE CHANGE IS POSSIBLE BookRix GmbH & Co. KG81371 Munich

Inside Cover

ESSENTIALS OF BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION:

A TEXT FOR TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS AND FAMILIES

Obi Osorochi Patricia 

Dedication

DEDICATION

TO ALL STUGGLING WITH ANY CHALLENGE;

KNOW THAT POSITIVE CHANGE IS POSSIBLE

Acknowledgements

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

No project can be completed without the grace and mercy of God. I will start my personal testimonies of gratitude by giving God all the glory for the enablement to complete this book project. I appreciate my students whose frequent requests for texts in behaviour modification prompted me to contemplate this project. Your gentle nudge paid off.

To my clients, especially those I encountered at the University during my work as a University counsellor, thank you. Your challenges made me to reflect on the origin of behaviour and the possibility of positive change. Your challenges challenged me to seek for the best practices to serve you better.

I am indebted to my teachers and mentors (they know themselves) for exposing me to this profession. Whatever that is valuable you see in me is your product. The shortcomings are mine. To my colleagues who created conducive work environment for me, I appreciate you all. The priests and pastors that I have come across in the course of my work, your spiritual guidance and prayers strengthened me. Keep praying. It is work in progress.

Lastly, I appreciate my family for their unending and unflinching support. I am what I am today because my husband believes in me. I cannot thank him enough. He and our last born, Toochukwu did the preliminary editing of this text. To our children, Sunny, Ucheoma, Chisom, Chimauche and Iheanachor (John the Beloved) and their families, I remain ever indebted for filling the gap my physical and psychological absence created. I thank Chinwe for her assistance during the period of this work.

To my late father, Nze Stephen Obasi Korie and my mother, Nneoma Lucy Korie, my first behaviour modifiers, you are honoured. My brothers and sister and my brothers and sisters-in-law and their families, knowing that you are there for me in thick and thin strengthened me. Thank you all.

Preface

PREFACE

Human behaviour is a very complex phenomenon. Development of positive behaviour is challenging. Parents wish to have children with adaptive behaviours. However, their actions and inactions often discourage such outcomes stifling them rather than fostering them. The need for behaviour modification becomes inevitable. This text takes an in-dept review of key features of behaviour modification and reflect the most recent research and development in the field of Psychotherapy. The aim of this text is to expose the basic requirements of behaviour modification procedures to enable students as well as parents and change agents appreciate how environmental events influence human behaviour and how they could be manipulated to alter behaviour. This text is basically written at an introductory level to enable professionals as well as non-professionals to quickly grasp the subject matter.

Overview of the Material

This book has ten chapters. Each chapter embodies learning objectives and quizzes at the beginning and end of the chapter, respectively. Chapter references reflecting the latest edtion of American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style (Seventh Edition) appears at the end of each chapter. Chapter one presents a general overview of behaviour and behaviour modification. The benefits of behaviour modification as well as its need in the society, basic assumptions and properties of behaviour modification are captured in this chapter. Chapter two captures types of human behaviour while chapter three presents principles of behaviour modification. The theories that underpin the practice of behaviour modification appears in chapter four. Chapter five and six expose the techniques of behaviour modification derived from classical and operant conditioning, respectively. Evidence-based data were provided to buttress the efficacy of the techniques in changing behaviour. An in-dept coverage of reinforcement appears in chapter seven while chapter eight deals with the process of behaviour modification. The development of deviant behaviour, its characteristics, common risk and protective factors and explanations for how deviant behaviour develops is captured in chapter nine. The last chapter covers the historical development of behaviour modification in general as well as its development in Nigeria.

Audience

This book can serve as a primary text for university undergraduate and graduate students in training programmes in Guidance and Counselling. This book is also intended for practicing counsellors in a variety of settings such as individual homes or group residences; public or private facilities; schools; hospitals, community, or clinic settings and correctional facilities.  Parents who inadvertently rear children with problematic behaviours may find this book valuable. 

Most importantly, this text does not claim to be comprehensive or exhaustive. For instance, practical use of the techniques in actual behaviour change process was omitted. It may feature in subsequent texts. Gaps in knowledge create opportunities for further research.

Favorite quote

“Your life does not get better by chance;

it gets better by change.”

Jim Rohn

Chapter One: Understanding Behaviour Modification

CHAPTER ONE

UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, readers are expected to:

Have an overview of the effect of global trends on behaviour.Conceptualize human behaviour.Identify factors that can determine human behaviour.Discuss the concept of human behaviouras articulated in this chapterOutline some behaviourproblems of children and adolescents.Identify the aims of behaviourOutline the benefits of behaviourDiscuss the need for behaviour modification in the society.Distinguish between behaviour modification and behaviour therapy.Identify the basic assumption of behaviourOutline the properties of behaviour

INTRODUCTION

The world has collapsed into a global village flattening boundaries but ironically widening gaps in families and societies. Globalization, information communication technology and internationalization of trade have created challenges for families. Adaptation to industrialization and computerization in the 21st century have seriously challenged the social order and disorganized the family dynamics thereby forcing families to lose their primary responsibility of socialization of their young. This is further complicated by ‘absentee’ parenting in the present generation of social media explosion. In many families currently, both parents spend greater part of their day working to make ends meet. When they eventually get home, they are too tired to meaningfully engage their children or both parties are engrossed in various social media platforms. These leave limited time for actual parenting. Children are denied the actual training and upbringing to become responsible members of the society. The resultant effect is manifestation of deviant behaviour of sorts, hike in crime wave and insurgency.

There is the need for a systematized behaviour modification programme to address the challenges created by the current world order. The gap created by the inability of families to carry out their primary responsibilities need to be adequately filled. Therefore, it becomes imperative that professionals use behavioural techniques to assist normal as well as disturbed children and adults to lead more fruitful and meaningful ways of life. This herculean task can not be successfully executed without proper sensitization and creation of awareness as well as provision of resources in the form of books simplified so that families can utilize them to identify and to assist their children and wards change their maladaptive behaviours. This book is, therefore, apt.

THE CONCEPT OF BEHAVIOUR

Human behaviour is what people say and/or do. These include actions of all sorts, performances, responses and reactions. Behaviour can be defined as the actions or reactions of an individual. Behaviour is any activity that can be observed, recorded and measured. Behaviour can be understood by looking at how authorities have conceptualized it. Dombrowski et al (2012) see human behaviour as anything a person does in response to internal or external stimuli. Ekpang & Esuabana (2016) conceptualize behaviour in a broader sense as overt behaviour that is readily observable, covert behaviour such as thoughts that are generally inferred from what the person tells us, various emotions, and subtle activities of the nervous system as objectively as possible within the confines of the reality of the situation and the limits of our technology. Overt behaviour is the observable behaviour that can be seen like physical actions (example walking, dancing, talking, eating, crying), verbal behaviour (anything we say), and facial expressions and bodily gestures (example smiling, frowning, blinking) and others. Covert behaviours are behaviours that are not immediately observable which can be deduced only by the individual. Some examples are reasoning, thinking, remembering, perceiving and dreaming. Most covert behaviours play vital roles in overt behaviour. An individual’s behaviour patterns are acquired experiences learned through exposure which gradually culminate into internalization of facts that become part and parcel of the individual (Ahmad & Lawan, 2017).

Human behaviour is a product of the nature-nurture dynamics. However, manifestations of human behaviour, whether covert or overt, are socially learned skills acquired right from birth. That is to say how people behave is a reflection of what those around them compose it to be. The most innate and instinctual behaviour is the ability to group and learn from the behaviour of those around us. Everything that we are as individuals comes from others; our food, clothing, housing, language, knowledge, and even our emotional expressions are provided by society. How we express ourselves is how we have been environmentally programmed to do so. Human behaviour is what the environment makes of our inherited traits. Human behaviour is an environmentally learned response. A baby is not born bad, allit does is what it learns in life.

Several factors play different roles in determining a person’s behaviour. These factors could be biological, social, environmental, cultural and psychological. Biological factors are the traits an individual is born with, otherwise known as inherited traits. Such behaviours are inherent in an individual at the time of birth. They may or may not manifest depending on the nurture they receive. Unlike physical traits, inherited behavioural traits are the product of interaction of multiple genes and thus studying them becomes very difficult. However, inherited traits, especially the undesirable ones can be unlearned through behaviour modification.

Other factors such as social, cultural, environmental, and psychological factors make up the nurture component of the nature-nurture dynamics. They are otherwise called learned behaviour. Some schools of thought posit that all behaviour is learned. However, some scientists have found that some behaviours are inherited through genetic studies and the study of monozygous twins raised in different environments. The bottom line is that any behaviour can be unlearned. Social factors constitute interactions that exist within the immediate and extended family and society. Environmental factors are diverse ranging from the uterine environment including maternal psychological dispositions during pregnancy, diets, smoking or exposure to someone else smoking, stress level, birth complications, maternal bonding, parenting style, child nutrition, adverse childhood experiences (ACE), all forms of child abuse, various disabilities, and many more. Cultural factors are the peculiar cultural milieu where the individual finds himself/herself. Psychological factors are the emotional make up of the individual, his/her temperaments, attitudes, interests, perceptions, and other related aspects. Behaviour is strongly influenced by the interpersonal relationships and people usually learn to adapt to a situation by observing other individuals, hence the term ‘learned behaviour’.

Behaviour is affected both by the genes that we inherit and the environment in which we live. These factors gradually influence and shape the behaviour of people. As persons grow from infancy through childhood to adulthood, behaviour is regularly and cumulatively influenced by these factors. However, these factors have different effects on individuals. This is the basis for individual differences. No two individuals are exactly the same, not even monozygous twins.

Behaviour is also dynamic. The learning and unlearning of behaviour continues throughout life. Nonetheless, the basic ingredients of a person’s behaviour, the judgement of right or wrong; good or bad; fair and unfair; are usually formed before the age of eight. After this age, most of the learned behaviour will be built on the foundation already laid. This principle is not entirely absolute. The process of modifying or unlearning them is incredibly difficult after that age and might require professional assistance. However, with the right amount of effort and appropriate approach, such behaviour can be modified to better suit the individual or help them adjust to social requirements.

Behaviour can be adaptive meaning that it conforms with societal expectations, norms and values or maladaptive meaning that it does not conform to societal expectations, norms and values. Behaviour is maladaptive if it does not allow a person to function effectively with other members of the society; if it does not permit the person to meet his or her own goals; and if the behaviour has a negative effect on the well-being of others. The factors that influence behaviour have been highlighted earlier. For behaviour to change, those factors have to be manipulated or altered. It is this process that facilitates the growth from childhood to adulthood, to become a responsible or irresponsible member of the society. Attempts to foster adaptive behaviour or try to change maladaptive behaviour is called behaviour modification. 

THE CONCEPT OF BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Psychology is the scientific study of human and animal behaviour and mental processes such as thoughts, perceptions, memory and reasoning. Its major goal is to describe and measure behaviour; to understand and explain it, predict behaviour to be able to control it. The beginning of family life signifies the inception of behaviour modification. This has been the process through which cultures initiated their young into adulthood. However, the scientific procedure employed by professional therapists differentiates behaviour modification from traditional behaviour modification. All those who try to change behaviour draw heavily frompsychological principles. This will be expatiated later in this book. 

Behavior modification is the generic term given to any process derived from learning principles where the goal is to change an individual’s behaviour or the way he or she interacts with the world. Behaviour modification is the application of experimentally established principles of behaviour to problems of behaviour. Behaviour modification refers to almost any practice that alters human behaviour. Scott and Cogbum (2019) consider behaviour modification as a psycho-therapeutic intervention primarily used to eliminate or reduce maladaptive behaviour in children or adults and to foster adaptive behaviour. Maladaptive behaviour can be learned and unlearned in the same way as adaptive behaviour. Thus, behaviour modification can be achieved through systematic and gradual introduction of changes in the environment using appropriate techniques to modify unwanted behaviours that are deleterious to the achievement of goals (Osakinle & Falana, 2011). Behaviour modification refers to the technique or treatment procedure used to change behaviour by altering a person’s current environment to help the person function better in everyday life (Alpatanni, 2018).

Behaviour modification refers to the techniques used to decrease or increase a particular type of behaviour or reaction (Achi & Eremie, 2018). Behaviour Modification uses a scheduled approach that rewards desired behaviour and punishes undesirable behaviour (Hapler, 2015). Behaviour modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behaviour change techniques aimed at increasing or decreasing the frequency of behaviours (Ekpang & Esuabana, 2016). Behaviour modification alters an individual's behaviour and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behaviour and/or the reduction of behaviour through the use of extinction, punishment and/or satiation.

Behaviour modification techniques aim to manipulate the antecedents and consequences of behaviour so that the likelihood of appropriate behaviour is increased and inappropriate behaviour is decreased. Usually all behaviours are maintained, changed, or shaped by the consequences of that behaviour. These modification strategies generally work on observable and measurable behaviours. Behaviour modification is a means of changing behaviour through various techniques used to replace undesirable behaviours with desirable ones. Behaviour modification techniques have been used to treat both adults and children for various problems, such as enuresis (bed-wetting), separation and general anxiety, various phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Indeed, any behaviour that can be observed, recorded and measured can be changed following experimentally-established principles of behaviour modification.

Many maladaptive behaviours including tobacco and alcohol consumption, unhealthy dietary habits, physical inactivity and risky sexual practices, play a key role in many of the leading causes of death in developing and developed countries (Parkin et al, 2011). Understanding these behaviours and the contexts in which they occur is essential for developing effective evidence-based health behaviour change interventions and policies and for reducing avoidable morbidity and mortality (House of Lords, 2011). Despite the relatively small investment in preventive health and behavioural science, there is evidence for the effectiveness of behaviour change interventions at individual, community and population levels (Michie & West, 2013). A behaviour change method is considered to be any process that has the potential to influence individual’s behaviour.

The aim of behaviour modification is to extinguish, or stop or replace an unwanted behaviour with a desired one. Behaviour modification involves making specific behaviour occur more or less often by systematically managing its cues and consequences (Boundless Business, 2015). In behaviour modification, extinction eliminates the incentive for unwanted behaviour by withholding the expected response.

Ultimately, the goal of behaviour modification is to modify or reduce the problematic behaviour and learn or increase desirable behaviour. Behaviour modification involves changing the behaviour of the clients to reduce the dysfunction and to improve the quality of life. It aims to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours and teach or increase acceptable behaviours. This is accomplished through the use of behavioural techniques and strategies. Compared to many other types of psychotherapy, one of the primary advantages of behaviour modification is that it is a relatively short-term treatment. This makes it a more cost-effective treatment approach than longer-term therapies. The techniques and strategies used in behaviour modification are also fairly straightforward and easy for most clients to understand and to learn. Behaviour modification techniques include the use of positive and negative reinforcements, flooding, systematic desensitization, aversion therapy, modelling, extinction and others. The specific techniques and strategies used in behaviour modification will depend on the presenting problem and goals of treatment. Behaviour Modification techniques can be used with both children and adults. Adult behaviour modification is the method of changing the way an adult reacts either physically or mentally to a given stimulus. This process can be applied to anything from stopping drug addiction to making your bed each morning. Behaviour modification techniques can work in any situation.

Behaviour modification may not be able to eliminate retardation, but it can help the retarded person lead the most fulfilling life possible. Similarly, many problems that were hitherto treated by purely medical approaches are now seen to be best treated by coupling the medical approach with behaviour modification. Behaviour modification has been successfully used to treat anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), enuresis (bed-wetting), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism or oppositional defiant disorder. Furthermore, the fundamentals of behaviour modification can be used to increase desired behaviours in any individual, regardless of functional level. For example, an individual who wants to quit smoking cigarettes, or a parent who wants the child to consistently make the bed, may use behavioural techniques to help achieve those goals. Behaviour modification can also be implemented on a systematic scale to increase productivity within organizations and businesses. Administrators, policymakers and practitioners are increasingly aware of how transforming individual and collective trends of behaviour is essential to achieve their goals. Tackling the challenges in environmental and social sustainability that our planet currently faces cannot be done without important and long-term transformations on the everyday behaviours of individuals (Bicchieri, 2017). Behaviour modifiers can spread their tentacles to meet the vital need for environmental sustainability through both individual and group processes.

Many problems involve behaviours that the person has not learned, but needs to learn, such as how to study, relax, handle anxiety, or be more assertive. Behaviour modification then draws strongly on learning and motivation, and much of the practice consists of helping people reduce undesired learned behaviours and learn new desired behaviours. Working with behaviour problems often involves a variety of different components. In some cases, there is a need for education or for clearing up misconceptions. This is common in the treatment of sexual problems. Sometimes the client needs encouragement, permission, or a good listener. Sometimes the client needs medical aid, vocational training, driving lessons, or a new set of teeth. But beyond all of these, the behaviour modifier has a practical approach of what to do to deal with a range of behaviours that need to be increased or decreased. This underscores the importance for all practitioners to systematically investigate and, if possible, alter any environment in which they place their clients. Thus, behaviour modification does not only depend on understanding, insight, or being able to interpret behaviour from some theoretical model. Rather, people may need help in learning alternative behaviours or skills that are not in their repertoire.