48,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Essentials of Psychological Assessment
- Sprache: Englisch
Part of Wiley's Essentials of Psychological Assessment series, this book covers the administration, scoring, and interpretation of the CVLT-C, CVLT-II, and CVLT-3. Additionally, readers will find a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the assessment, a review of the CVLT's performance in clinical populations, and illustrative case reports. Each chapter ends with a Test Yourself section for enhanced learning. Essentials of the California Verbal Learning Test: CVLT-C, CVLT-2, & CVLT3 is a perfect resource for anyone who needs to understand and use the CVLT assessments.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 330
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
One OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
OVERVIEW AND ORGANIZATION OF THE CVLT-C
OVERVIEW AND ORGANIZATION OF THE CVLT-II
OVERVIEW AND ORGANIZATION OF THE CVLT3
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
RESEARCH FOUNDATION
COMPREHENSIVE REFERENCES ON TEST
A NOTE ON CVLT NOMENCLATURE
Two HOW TO ADMINISTER THE CVLT-C, CVLT-II, AND CVLT3
APPROPRIATE TESTING CONDITIONS
TRIAL ADMINISTRATION SEQUENCE
ADMINISTERING CVLT-II OR CVLT3 SHORT FORM
ADMINISTERING CVLT VIA TELEPRACTICE
DEVELOPING RAPPORT WITH EXAMINEES
TESTING INDIVIDUALS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
RULES OF ADMINISTRATION
SPECIFIC TRIAL ADMINISTRATION GUIDELINES
Three HOW TO SCORE THE CVLT-C, CVLT-II, AND CVLT3
CLASSIFYING RESPONSES ON RECALL TRIALS
DERIVING PRIMARY RAW SCORES
DERIVING STANDARDIZED SCORES FOR PRIMARY MEASURES
DERIVING CVLT PROCESS SCORES
Four INTERPRETATION OF THE CVLT
FACTORS THAT AFFECT INTERPRETATION
UNDERSTANDING SCORES FROM THE CVLT
INTERPRETATION OF CVLT PRIMARY SCORES
LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS
RECALL ERRORS
PERFORMANCE VALIDITY (CVLT-II AND CVLT3)
Five STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF CVLT
CVLT STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CVLT-C
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CVLT-II
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CVLT3
Six CVLT PERFORMANCE IN CLINICAL POPULATIONS
CVLT-II AND CVLT3 IN CLINICAL POPULATIONS
CVLT-C IN CLINICAL POPULATIONS
Seven ILLUSTRATIVE CASE REPORTS
CASE 1 (S.R.)—TYPICAL MEMORY
CASE 2 (D. B.)—PROBABLE ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
CASE 3 (J. L.)—PARKINSON'S DISEASE
CASE 4 (N.C.)—MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
CASE 5 (G. G.)—MILD TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY: PEDIATRIC CASE
CONCLUSION
References
Author Index
Subject Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 CVLT3 Performance for S. R.
Table 7.2 CVLT-II Performance for D. B. – Probable Alzheimer's
Table 7.3 CVLT3 Performance for J. L.
Table 7.4 CVLT3 Performance for N. C. (Multiple Sclerosis)
Table 7.5 CVLT-C Performance for G. G.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.3 Memory processes measured in the CVLT.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 CVLT standardized scores on the normal curve.
Figure 4.2 Proactive interference displayed as mean recall of shared and uns...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Pages
ii
iii
iv
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
Essentials of the California Verbal Learning Test
Series Editors, Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman
Essentials of 16PF® Assessment
by Heather E. P. Cattell and James M. Schuerger
Essentials of Adaptive Behavior Assessment of Neurodevelopmental Disorders
by Celine A. Saulnier and Cheryl Klaiman
Essentials of ADHD Assessment for Children and Adolescents
by Elizabeth P. Sparrow and Drew Erhardt
Essentials of Assessing, Preventing, and Overcoming Reading Difficulties
by David A. Kilpatrick
Essentials of Assessment Report Writing, Second Edition
by W. Joel Schneider, Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Nancy Mather, Nadeen L. Kaufman, and Alan S. Kaufman
Essentials of Assessment with Brief Intelligence Tests
by Susan R. Homack and Cecil R. Reynolds
Essentials of Autism Spectrum Disorders Evaluation and Assessment
by Celine A. Saulnier and Pamela E. Ventola
Essentials of Bayley Scales of Infant Development-II Assessment
by Maureen M. Black and Kathleen Matula
Essentials of Behavioral Assessment
by Michael C. Ramsay, Cecil R. Reynolds, and R. W. Kamphaus
Essentials of Career Interest Assessment
by Jeffrey P. Prince and Lisa J. Heiser
Essentials of CAS2 Assessment
by Jack A. Naglieri and Tulio M. Otero
Essentials of Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, Second Edition
by Linda Wilmshurst
Essentials of Cognitive Assessment with KAIT and Other Kaufman Measures
by Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Debra Y. Broadbooks, and Alan S. Kaufman
Essentials of Conners Behavior Assessments™
by Elizabeth P. Sparrow
Essentials of Creativity Assessment
by James C. Kaufman, Jonathan A. Plucker, and John Baer
Essentials of Cross-Battery Assessment, Third Edition
by Dawn P. Flanagan, Samuel O. Ortiz, and Vincent C. Alfonso
Essentials of DAS-II® Assessment
by Ron Dumont, John O. Willis, and Colin D. Elliott
Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Intervention
by Nancy Mather and Barbara J. Wendling
Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventions
by Barbara J. Wendling and Nancy Mather
Essentials of Executive Functions Assessment
by George McCloskey and Lisa A. Perkins
Essentials of Forensic Psychological Assessment, Second Edition
by Marc J. Ackerman
Essentials of Gifted Assessment
by Steven I. Pfeiffer
Essentials of IDEA for Assessment Professionals
by Guy McBride, Ron Dumont, and John O. Willis
Essentials of Individual Achievement Assessment
by Douglas K. Smith
Essentials of Intellectual Disability Assessment and Identification
by Alan W. Brue and Linda Wilmshurst
Essentials of KABC-II Assessment
by Alan S. Kaufman, Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, and Nadeen L. Kaufman
Essentials of KTEA™- 3 and WIAT® -III Assessment
by Kristina C. Breaux and Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger
Essentials of MCMI®- IV Assessment
by Seth D. Grossman and Blaise Amendolace
Essentials of Millon™ Inventories Assessment, Third Edition
by Stephen Strack
Essentials of MMPI-A™ Assessment
by Robert P. Archer and Radhika Krishnamurthy
Essentials of MMPI-2® Assessment, Second Edition
by David S. Nichols
Essentials of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® Assessment, Second Edition
by Naomi L. Quenk
Essentials of NEPSY®- II Assessment
by Sally L. Kemp and Marit Korkman
Essentials of Nonverbal Assessment
by Steve McCallum, Bruce Bracken, and John Wasserman
Essentials of PAI® Assessment
by Leslie C. Morey
Essentials of Planning, Selecting, and Tailoring Interventions for Unique Learners
by Jennifer T. Mascolo, Vincent C. Alfonso, and Dawn P. Flanagan
Essentials of Processing Assessment, Third Edition
by Milton J. Dehn
Essentials of Psychological Assessment Supervision
by A. Jordan Wright
Essentials of Psychological Testing, Second Edition
by Susana Urbina
Essentials of Response to Intervention
by Amanda M. VanDerHeyden and Matthew K. Burns
Essentials of Rorschach® Assessment
by Tara Rose, Michael P. Maloney, and Nancy Kaser-Boyd
Essentials of Rorschach Assessment: Comprehensive System and R-PAS
by Jessica R. Gurley
Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment, Third Edition
by Daniel C. Miller and Denise E. Maricle
Essentials of Specific Learning Disability Identification, Second Edition
by Vincent C. Alfonso and Dawn P. Flanagan
Essentials of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5) Assessment
by Gale H. Roid and R. Andrew Barram
Essentials of TAT and Other Storytelling Assessments, Second Edition
by Hedwig Teglasi
Essentials of Temperament Assessment
by Diana Joyce
Essentials of Trauma-Informed Assessment and Interventions in School and Community Settings
by Kirby L. Wycoff and Bettina Franzese
Essentials of WAIS®- IV Assessment, Second Edition
by Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman
Essentials of WISC®- IV Assessment, Second Edition
by Dawn P. Flanagan and Alan S. Kaufman
Essentials of WISC-V® Assessment
by Dawn P. Flanagan and Vincent C. Alfonso
Essentials of WISC-V Integrated Assessment
by Susan Engi Raiford
Essentials of WJ IV® Cognitive Abilities Assessment
by Fredrick A. Schrank, Scott L. Decker, and John M. Garruto
Essentials of WJ IV® Tests of Achievement
by Nancy Mather and Barbara J. Wendling
Essentials of WMS®- IV Assessment
by Lisa Whipple Drozdick, James A. Holdnack, and Robin C. Hilsabeck
Essentials of WNV™ Assessment
by Kimberly A. Brunnert, Jack A. Naglieri, and Steven T. Hardy-Braz
Essentials of Working Memory Assessment and Intervention
by Milton J. Dehn
Essentials of WPPSI™- IV Assessment
by Susan Engi Raiford and Diane L. Coalson
Essentials of WRAML2 and TOMAL-2 Assessment
by Wayne Adams and Cecil R. Reynolds
Essentials of Treatment Planning, Second Edition
by Mark E. Maruish
Essentials of the California Verbal Learning Test
by Thomas J. Farrer and Lisa Whipple Drozdick
Essentials of the California Verbal Learning Test
CVLT-C, CVLT-II, & CVLT3
Edited by
Thomas J. Farrer
Lisa Whipple Drozdick
This edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Thomas J. Farrer and Lisa Drozdick to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
Editorial Office
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Farrer, Thomas J. (Thomas Jeffrey), 1983- editor. | Drozdick, Lisa Whipple, editor. | John Wiley & Sons.
Title: Essentials of the California Verbal Learning Test : CVLT-C, CVLT-2, & CVLT3 / edited by Thomas J Farrer & Lisa Drozdick. Other titles: Essentials of psychological assessment series.
Description: First Edition. | Hoboken : Wiley, 2020. | Series: Essentials of psychological assessment | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019051999 (print) | LCCN 2019052000 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119578567 (Paperback) | ISBN 9781119578604 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119578451 (ePub)
Subjects: LCSH: Verbal learning—Testing—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Memory—Testing—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Neuropsychological tests—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC LB1060 .E86 2020 (print) | LCC LB1060 (ebook) | DDC 370.15/23—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019051999
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019052000
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Greg Kuchik/Getty Images
OneOVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
During development in childhood, verbal learning and memory are key to success in school and language acquisition and development. A large portion of time is spent in activities requiring retention of verbal information, such as conversations with parents and peers, reading, and interacting with digital devices. The ability to encode and retain verbal information remains elemental throughout the lifespan as much learning and social interaction requires adequate verbal learning and memory ability. Therefore, the assessment of verbal memory is an essential component of clinical and neuropsychological evaluations. This is particularly relevant for evaluations of individuals with known or suspected cognitive or language impairments. Many developmental, neurological, and psychiatric disorders involve disruption or impairment of memory processes (e.g., attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, dementia, traumatic brain injury). Although some areas of memory decline normally with age (Salthouse, 1996; Tromp, Dufour, Lithfous, Pebayle, & Després, 2015), the prevalence of memory disorders increases with age and memory complaints are a frequent concern cited by older adults. Evaluation of memory processes can assist in differentiating normative development and decline across the lifespan from memory deficits related to insidious origins.
The California Verbal Learning Test, Third Edition (CVLT3; Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 2017) provides a detailed look into verbal learning and memory processes for individuals ages 16–90. It introduced some major scoring changes and updates from the CVLT, second edition (CVLT-II; Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 2000). However, since the CVLT-II is still widely used in clinical and research settings, both editions are described in this book. The CVLT children's version (CVLT-C; Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 1994) provides a similar assessment of memory for individuals ages 5–16. This book provides an easy-to-use reference for individuals learning the essentials of administration, scoring, and interpretation of the CVLT3, CVLT-II, or the CVLT-C. It maintains the direct, systematic approach to presenting material that is characteristic of the Essentials series. In addition, guidelines for selecting the best CVLT product for a specific client and administrative and interpretive guidelines are provided. The latest research on the CVLT products and on verbal memory processes is also included throughout the chapters to assist in applying results obtained with the most recent CVLT editions.
Essentials of California Verbal Learning Test: CVLT-C, CVLT-II, & CVLT3 covers topics that emphasize the appropriate administration, scoring, interpretation, and application of each test. Each chapter includes several “Rapid Reference,” “Caution,” or “Don't Forget” boxes to highlight important points for easy reference and clarification. At the end of each chapter, a short “Test Yourself” quiz is provided to help you solidify what you have read. The information in this book is provided to help you understand the nuances of each of the CVLT instruments and become a proficient user.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
Although the concept of investigating the processes underlying memory is standard in memory assessment instruments today, at the time the original CVLT (Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 1987) was developed in 1987 it was a novel approach to assessment. The authors combined research and clinical experience with patients with memory deficits to create a novel approach to assessing learning and memory processes. Memory deficits were linked to specific tasks within a 16-word memory recall and recognition test. The 16 words were derived from four semantic categories, allowing the examinee to group words semantically as an aid to recalling the words. This approach allows examination of not only how much an individual can learn and retain but also the strategies used to learn and recall information and the types of memory errors made. These additional measures provide detailed information on the processes involved in learning and memory to aid in diagnosis and intervention planning.
In the original CVLT, the examiner read a Monday shopping list that contained 16 items to the examinee. The 16 items consisted of four words from four different semantic categories (tools, fruit, clothing, spices, and herbs). The Monday shopping list was repeated in five learning trials, followed by an interference list trial. A Tuesday shopping interference list also comprised 16 words from four categories. Two of the categories overlapped with categories from the Monday list and two were novel categories. Following recall of the Tuesday list, the examinee was asked to recall the Monday list in both a free-recall and a cued-recall trial. During the cued-recall trial, the examiner provided each of the four semantic categories and asked the examinee to name the items from each. The examiner than waited 20 min before administering delayed free- and cued-recall trials, as well as a delayed recognition trial (see Figure 1.1). The examiner was encouraged to administer nonverbal tasks during this 20-min delay. Scores derived on the CVLT assessed attention, learning strategies, recall accuracy, interference effects, recall errors, and recognition. The original normative sample consisted of 273 neurologically intact individuals (104 males, 169 females) recruited from other research studies being conducted at the time of data collection.
Since 1987, three revisions and expansions of the CVLT have been published, although the administration has remained remarkably stable. The expansion and evolution of the CVLT reflect the growing influence and use of the process approach to memory assessment. Its wide use in research on memory also ensures several editions of the CVLT will remain in use for a long time. The currently available editions include the CVLT3 (published in 2017), the CVLT-II (published in 2000), and the CVLT-C (published in 1994). Each of the editions reflects the knowledge and theories of memory at the time of its development as well as the developmental needs of the population assessed. This chapter provides an overview of the content of each of the currently available CVLT instruments, and later chapters provide a review of the research literature related to memory and learning as measured by the CVLT.
Learning trials
Interference trial
Short-delay
Long-delay (follows 20-min delay)
Yes/No recognition
Forced-choice recognition (follows 10-min delay)
a
Trial 1 Free RecallTrial 2 Free RecallTrial 3 Free RecallTrial 4 Free RecallTrial 5 Free Recall
List B Free Recall
Short-Delay Free RecallShort-Delay Cued Recall
Long-Delay Free RecallLong-Delay Cued Recall
Yes/No Recognition
Forced-Choice Recognition
a Only on CVLT-II and CVLT3.
Figure 1.1 CVLT-C, CVLT-II standard and alternate, and CVLT3 standard and alternate forms structure.
OVERVIEW AND ORGANIZATION OF THE CVLT-C
The CVLT was expanded to younger ages with the publication of the CVLT-C. It not only extended the age downward to 5, it also modified the content to be more relevant for children. The word list was shortened to 15 words derived from three semantic categories. The semantic categories reflect categories common in childhood. Two of these categories overlap with the semantic categories contained in the adult forms. Similar to the administration of the original CVLT, the child is read the list of 15 words across five learning trials, followed by an interference list trial. Just as in the original CVLT, the lists are presented as Monday and Tuesday shopping lists. Following the interference trial, the child recalls the original list in both short-delay free- and cued-recall trials. The examiner then completes nonverbal testing for 20 min before administering long-delay free- and cued-recall trials, as well as a delayed recognition trial (see Figure 1.1). All trials are required to derive the primary scores. Scores derived on the CVLT-C assess auditory attention, learning strategies and characteristics, recall accuracy and consistency, proactive and retroactive interference, recall errors, and recognition.
A T score is derived for the learning trials (Trials 1–5 Total) with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. The process scores provided in the CVLT-C provide detailed information about the learning and memory processes required to recall verbal information. For these scores, age-corrected z scores are provided with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. The scores derived in CVLT-C are listed in in Rapid Reference 1.1 by condition. Detailed information on calculating scores is provided in Chapter 3.
Rapid Reference 1.1
Primary Scores Derived in CVLT-C, by Condition
Learning trials
Recall scores
Recognition scores
Trial 1 Free-Recall CorrectTrial 5 Free-Recall CorrectTotal Trials 1–5 (
T
score)List B Free-Recall TrialList B Recall vs. List A Trial 1 Recall (difference score)Semantic Cluster RatioSerial Cluster RatioExpected Serial ClusteringPercent of Total Recall from Primacy RegionPercent of Total Recall from Middle RegionPercent of Total Recall from Recency RegionLearning SlopeRecall Consistency
Short-Delay Free RecallShort-Delay Cued RecallShort-Delay Free Recall vs. List A Trial 5 (difference score)Long-Delay Free RecallLong-Delay Cued RecallLong-Delay Free Recall vs. Short-Delay Free Recall (difference score)Total PerseverationsTotal Free-Recall IntrusionsTotal Cued-Recall IntrusionsTotal Intrusions
Recognition HitsDiscriminabilityDiscriminability vs. Long-Delay Free RecallFalse PositivesResponse Bias
Difference scores compare performance on one task to performance on another task. On CVLT-C, difference scores are derived using two methods (see Chapter 3 for detailed information on calculating the change scores): raw percentage change and scaled score difference. The raw percentage change scores are not normed due to the heavy influence of the raw scores on the calculation of percentage retained, such that low overall recall can result in higher retention percentages. Difference (or savings) scores utilize the age-corrected scaled scores. Means and standard deviations for the normative sample are provided to provide context for these scores. Change and difference scores should not replace the primary scores but are used to guide the interpretation of differences observed across conditions. Detailed information on the interpretation of scores is provided in Chapter 4.
OVERVIEW AND ORGANIZATION OF THE CVLT-II
The CVLT-II was the first major revision to the CVLT. The revision was guided by neuropsychological and cognitive research on memory, feedback from users and reviewers of the CVLT (both personal and published), and clinical experience by the authors. One of the major criticisms of the CVLT was the small, nonrepresentative sample used for the norms. Multiple studies demonstrated that the norms resulted in lower than expected scores in individuals with average to low educational attainment (Paolo, Troster, & Ryan, 1997; Wiens, Tindall, & Crossen, 1994). A large representative sample of the population aged 16–89 was collected to update the norms across seven age bands. In terms of content, the 16 items used in the word lists were modified to be easier to understand and were not presented as a shopping list. The word lists were derived using high-frequency words commonly spoken within the United States from four different semantic categories. The interference list also comprised 16 words from four categories, two of which overlapped with the original list. In addition, a forced-choice recognition trial was added to assess insufficient effort. Two new forms were also introduced with the CVLT-II: an Alternate Form and a Short Form. The Alternate Form is equated to the Standard Form, utilizes the same administration format, and provides the same scores as the Standard Form but uses alternate word lists from the Standard Form. The Short Form uses a nine-word list with a shortened format to accommodate use as a screener or with individuals that cannot tolerate lengthy testing. The Standard and Alternate Forms take 30 min to administer (in addition to the 20-min delay and an optional 10-min delay to administer the forced-choice recognition condition), whereas the Short Form takes around 20 min (in addition to the 10-min delay).
The development of the CVLT-II incorporated analysis of the performance of each score to evaluate the influence of demographic variables and general cognitive ability on performance, reliability and stability, score range and distribution for floor and ceiling problems, and clinical utility. Norms are corrected for age and sex because these demographic factors contributed more than 5% of the variance in primary scores. Detailed information on the psychometric properties and the clinical utility of the CVLT-II are described in the CVLT-II Manual (Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 2000).
Just as on the original CVLT, for the Standard and Alternate Forms, the examinee is read a list of 16 words across five learning trials, followed by an interference list trial. Following the interference trial, the examinee recalls the original list in both free-recall and cued-recall trials. The examiner then completes nonverbal testing for 20 min before administering delayed free-recall and cued-recall trials, as well as a delayed yes/no recognition trial. The examiner may then administer an optional forced-choice recognition trial following a 10-min delay (see Figure 1.2). All trials except the forced-choice recognition trial are required to derive the primary scores. It is highly recommended that examiners routinely administer the forced-choice recognition condition to assess performance validity.
For the Short Form, the examinee is read a list of nine words (from three semantic categories) across four learning trials, followed by a 30-s distractor task. Following the distraction task, the examinee is asked to recall the list in a short-delay free-recall trial. The examiner than completes nonverbal testing for 10 min before administering long-delay free- and cued-recall trials, as well as a delayed yes/no recognition trial. The examiner may then administer an optional forced-choice recognition trial following a 5-min delay (see Figure 1.3). All trials except the forced-choice recognition trial are required to derive the primary scores. See Rapid Reference 1.2 for an overview of differences between the Standard/Alternate Forms and the Short Form.
Learning trials
30-second distractor task
Short-delay
Long-delay (follows 10-min delay)
Yes/No recognition
Forced-choice recognition (follows a 5-min delay)
Trial 1 Free RecallTrial 2 Free RecallTrial 3 Free RecallTrial 4 Free Recall
Short-Delay Free Recall
Long-Delay Free RecallLong-Delay Cued Recall
Yes/No Recognition
Forced-Choice Recognition
Figure 1.2 CVLT-II and CVLT3 structure, brief form.
Rapid Reference 1.2
Differences Between the CVLT-II Standard/Alternate Forms and the Short Form
Standard/alternate form
Short form
Administration
16-word list from 4 categories5 Learning TrialsInterference List and RecallShort-Delay Free and Cued Recall20-min delayLong-Delay Free and Cued RecallLong-Delay Yes/No Recognition10-min DelayForced-Choice Recognition
9-word list from 3 categories4 Learning Trials30-s distraction taskShort-Delay Free Recall10-min delayLong-Delay Free and Cued RecallLong-Delay Yes/No Recognition5-min DelayForced-Choice Recognition
Scoring
18 Hand-Scored Variables66 Normed Variables (Software)Multiple Raw Scores (Software)
15 Hand-Scored Variables51 Normed Variables (Software)
Scores derived on the CVLT-II assess attention, learning strategies, recall accuracy and consistency, proactive and retroactive interference, recall errors, recognition, and performance validity. Normative data are provided for 27 primary scores and 39 expanded scores in the scoring software. Eighteen of the primary variables can be hand scored. For the Short Form, 23 primary scores are provided along with 28 expanded scores in the scoring software. Fifteen of the primary variables can be hand scored. In addition, the scoring software provides raw data for numerous nonnormed variables in a research report.
A T score is derived for the learning trials (Trials 1–5 for Standard/Alternate Forms and Trials 1–4 for the Short Form) with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. The process scores provided in the CVLT-II provide detailed information about the learning and memory processes required to encode, recall, and recognize verbal information. For these scores, age- and gender-corrected z scores are provided with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. In addition, cumulative percentages are provided for some scores with highly skewed distributions. The normative scores derived in CVLT-II are listed in Rapid Reference 1.3 by condition.
Rapid Reference 1.3
Primary Scores Derived in CVLT-II, by Condition
Learning trials
Recall scores
Recognition scores
Trial 1 Free-Recall Correct
a
Trial 2 Free-Recall Correct
a
Trial 3 Free-Recall Correct
a
Trial 4 Free-Recall Correct
a
Trial 5 Free-Recall Correct
a
,
b
Trials 1–5 Free-Recall Correct (T score)
a
List B Free-Recall Correct
a
,
b
List B vs. Trial 1 (contrast score)Semantic Clustering (Chance-Adjusted)Semantic Clustering Bidirectional (Chance-Adjusted)
Short-Delay Free-Recall Correct
a
Short-Delay Cued Recall Correct
a
,
b
Short-Delay Free Recall vs Trial 5 (contrast score)Long-Delay Free-Recall Correct
a
Long-Delay Cued Recall Correct
a
Long-Delay Free Recall vs. Short-Delay Free Recall (contrast score)Free-Recall Intrusions
a
Cued-Recall Intrusions
a
Long-Delay Yes/No Recognition Total Hits
a
Long-Delay Yes/No Recognition Total False Positives
a
Total Recognition Discriminability (
d'
)Total Recognition Discriminability vs. Long-Delay Free Recall (contrast score)Total Response BiasLong-Delay Forced-Choice Recognition Percent Total Accuracy
a
Subjective Clustering (Chance-Adjusted)Percent Recall from PrimacyPercent Recall from MiddlePercent Recall from RecencyTotal Learning Slope Trials 1–5Across-Trial Recall Consistency
Total Intrusions
a
Total Repetitions
a
Total Recall Discriminability
aScores that are easily hand scored.
bScores not on the Short Form.
Difference scores compare performance on one task to performance on another task. On CVLT-II, difference (or savings) scores are derived using the sex- and age-corrected z-scores. Change and difference scores should not replace the primary scores but are used to guide interpretation of differences observed across conditions. Detailed information on the interpretation of scores is provided in Chapter 4.
OVERVIEW AND ORGANIZATION OF THE CVLT3
The CVLT3 is the most recent revision to the CVLT. The revision was guided by the need for updated normative data, feedback from users and reviewers of the CVLT-II (both personal and published), and research utilizing the CVLT-II. In terms of content, the administration instructions and word lists were not modified but remain the same as in the CVLT-II. However, a few items on the forced-choice recognition trial were modified to increase sensitivity as a measure of performance validity. The alternate and short forms were also retained with similar modifications made to the forced-choice recognition trial.
The CVLT3 addressed many needs identified in the research literature and customer feedback. Revisions made in the CVLT3 included:
updated norms for ages 16–90, using a nationally stratified sample matched to the U.S. population;
application of a scaled score metric (mean = 10, SD = 3) over the
T
score and
z
-score metric to allow easier comparison to other measures;
introduction of index scores (mean = 100, SD = 15) on the key memory and learning scores (Trials 1–5, total delayed recall, total recall);
updated intrusion measures to reflect different types of memory errors;
digital administration, recording, and scoring; and
provision of demographic adjustments to age-adjusted scores for education and sex presented as
T
scores in the scoring software.
Detailed information on the modifications and improvements to the content, psychometric properties, and clinical utility of the CVLT3 are described in the CVLT3 Manual. An overview of the changes is provided in Rapid Reference 1.4.
Rapid Reference 1.4
Changes from CVLT-II to CVLT3
New normative sample reflective of 2015 U.S. Census data
Increased age range to 90
Index scores on standard score metric (mean = 100, SD = 15)
Primary scores on scaled score metric (mean = 10, SD = 3)
Trials 1–5 Total score computed by summing scaled scores for Trials 1–5
Norms provided are age corrected only
Demographic adjustments to normative scores available for sex and education, presented as
T
scores
Forced-choice recognition items modified to include only concrete distractors (abstract distractors were removed)
New measures of across- and within-trial intrusions
New measures of intrusion error types
New yes/no recognition scores that describe the types of recognition errors
The CVLT3 introduced significant changes to the scoring of the CVLT-II. Although scores still measure the processes underlying attention, learning, and memory, the traditional T score and z-score metrics were changed to standard and scaled scores. This allows direct comparison to other measures commonly used in evaluations. Three index scores are derived by summing the scaled scores for the learning trials (Trials 1–5), for the delayed recall trials (free and cued recall), and for all recall trials (learning, interference, short delay, and long delay). For the primary process scores, age-corrected scaled scores were derived with a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3. In addition, cumulative percentages are provided for some scores that had highly skewed distributions. The normative scores derived in CVLT3 are listed in Rapid Reference 1.5 by condition.
Contrast scores are utilized for difference scores in CVLT3. Contrast scaled scores provide information about performance on one task adjusted for performance on another relevant task. Similar to the manner in which demographic adjustments are derived for normative scores, one score is adjusted to account for performance on a related but separate score. For example, the Long-Delay Free-Recall Correct vs. Short-Delay Free-Recall Correct Contrast Scaled Score adjusts the long-delay score based on performance on short-delay recall. This accounts for differences in performance on delayed memory due to differences in immediate recall. The new score represents the examinee's performance on delayed memory in comparison to individuals of similar immediate memory ability. Because contrast scores utilize age-adjusted scaled scores, they are not further adjusted by age. Contrast scaled scores are provided at the scaled score level and are presented as scaled scores with a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3. Contrast scores are used to interpret scores in relation to similar ability peers; they do not replace subtest scaled scores and should not be substituted for primary scores in reports or to compute index scores. Detailed information on the interpretation of contrast scaled scores is provided in Chapter 4.
The CVLT3 introduces the use of demographic adjustments to norms. In addition to the age-adjusted normative scores, education, and sex adjustments are provided in the scoring software. The demographic adjustments are applied to the normative scores to produce T scores that account for education and sex differences.
Rapid Reference 1.5
Primary Scores Derived in CVLT3, by Condition
Learning trials
Recall scores
Recognition scores
Trial 1 Correct
a
Trial 2 Correct
a
Trial 3 Correct
a
Trial 4 Correct
a
Trial 5 Correct
a
,
b
Trials 1–5 Correct (standard score)
a
List B Correct
a
,
b
List B Correct vs. Trial 1 Correct (contrast score)
Short-Delay Free-Recall Correct
a
Short-Delay Cued-Recall Correct
a
,
b
Short-Delay Free-Recall Correct vs. Trial 5 Correct (contrast score)Long-Delay Free-Recall Correct
a
Long-Delay Cued-Recall Correct
a
Delayed Recall Correct (standard score)Total Recall Correct (standard score)Total Recall Responses (standard score)
Long-Delay Yes/No Recognition Total Hits
a
Long-Delay Yes/No Recognition Total False Positives
a
Recognition Discriminability (
d'
)Recognition Discriminability NonparametricLong-Delay Free-Recall vs. Recognition Discriminability (
d'
) (contrast score)Long-Delay Forced-Choice Recognition Hits
a
Long-Delay Free-Recall Discriminability vs. Recognition Discriminability (
d'
) (contrast score)
Long-Delay Free-Recall Correct vs. Trial 5 Correct (contrast score)Long-Delay Free-Recall Correct vs. Short-Delay Free-Recall Correct (contrast score)Total Intrusions
a
aScores that are easily hand scored.
bScores not on the Short Form.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
Learning and memory have long been of interest to psychologists, with William James first proposing the concepts of short-term and long-term memory in 1890. Short-term memory was described as finite with low durability unless it was encoded into long-term memory that was more lasting and of infinite capacity. Ebbinghaus' (1885) famous experiments on memory described the processes of learning and forgetting and introduced the concepts of the learning curve (rate at which information is acquired over repeated trials), serial position effects (how position within a series of words impacts recall), and the forgetting curve (rate at which one forgets information with most decay occurring within the first 20 min after learning). These early descriptions and investigations into memory laid the groundwork for modern memory assessment.
Despite Ebbinghaus' experiments on the processes of learning and memory, the assessment of these concepts has historically focused on the amount of information an individual could encode, consolidate, and recall. Encoding is the process of taking external information and transforming it into mental representations or memories. Consolidation is the process through which information in immediate memory is moved into long-term memory, and retrieval is the process of recalling information from storage. Focus on the amount of recalled information allows a global picture of memory ability, including the determination of the presence of memory disorders.
With the use of immediate and delayed recall, memory assessments often provide scores for short-term memory and long-term memory, again measuring the amount of information retained. Short-term memory is the momentary storage of information, lasting from a few seconds to a few minutes. Memories lasting from hours to years are considered stored in long-term memory. Long-term memory can be categorized as either implicit or explicit memory. Implicit or procedural memory involves involuntary learning from experiences without conscious awareness, such as learning to ride a bike or drive a car. Explicit or declarative memory involves the purposeful storage and retrieval of information. Explicit memory can further be divided into semantic (factual) and episodic (personal events and context) memory. When described in these terms, the CVLT versions are measures of explicit episodic verbal memory.
Processes of Memory
Edith Kaplan and colleagues introduced the process approach to cognitive assessment (Kaplan, 1988; Libon, Swenson, Ashendorf, Bauer, & Bowers, 2013) through their work at the Boston Veterans Administration Medical Center. This approach places importance on assessing not just what an individual is able to do but also how they do it. The approach utilizes overall test scores to assess the severity of impairment but emphasizes the analysis of the process through which test scores are achieved and errors made. Similar overall test scores can be obtained through very different processes. The development of the CVLT applied this process approach to learning and memory. Through studies involving individuals with brain injuries or disorders, strengths and weaknesses of memory processes were identified that differed across and within clinical populations. The instrument was refined to capture these processes and allow further investigation. So, although importance is placed on the primary measures of recall accuracy; critical attention is also given to the processes underlying performance.
Performance on memory specific measures is not only influenced by learning and memory processes but also by other cognitive functions. For example, attentional processes and learning strategies have an impact on the encoding and retrieval of verbal information. The interrelated nature of processes utilized across cognitive abilities requires that the assessment of memory include the assessment of these related processes. The CVLT versions measure the specific processes of learning and memory and processes related to the success and failure of encoding and retrieval of information. This allows examiners to examine differences in performance due to specific cognitive deficits. Figure 1.3 displays the processes measured directly within the CVLT editions.
The ability to encode information is highly dependent upon the ability to perceive and attend to information. Auditory attention is a key precursor for adequate memory retention. Individuals who have difficulty focusing on information long enough to encode it will not be able to retain that information over time. The first trial of the CVLT provides information on auditory attention span. It correlates highly with other measures of attention and is impaired in clinical groups with known attentional deficits, such as those with anxiety or mood disorders. Most individuals improve in overall recall across the learning trials, so comparison of performance across trials can assist in teasing out the influence of attention on memory problems.
Learning is the acquisition of new information. Historically it has been measured through overall recall across learning trials or by assessing the learning slope, the amount of information gained after the initial learning trial. These measures are included in the CVLT editions but the CVLT editions go further to evaluate learning strategies and characteristics and consistency of recall. Learning involves both passive and active strategies. Rote repetition is a passive strategy for recalling information that increases consolidation but does not involve increasing efficiency of encoding information. Repetition requires that information is repeated multiple times for encoding to occur. This type of learning strategy is represented in serial clustering or recalling words together that were close serially in the original list. Alternatively, active strategies of organizing information into meaningful groups aid the encoding and retrieval of information. The semantic grouping of words by an examinee represents utilization of this active learning strategy. Information on strategies used to encode information can aid in developing interventions for improving active learning.
Figure 1.3 Memory processes measured in the CVLT.
