Handbook of Plastics Testing and Failure Analysis E-Book

Vishu Shah

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 781

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

Written in easy-to-read and -use format, this book provides a strong training resource and reference for product designers using plastics in their products – helping them identify, quantify, and confirm whether problems are related to product design or process.

•    Updates coverage of data analysis techniques and examples and expands coverage of failure analysis, key because of increased litigation related to product liability
•    Overviews plastic testing methods and the framework to investigate causes of plastic part failure
•    Provides a strong training resource and reference for product designers using plastics in their products
•    Features a video tour of a plastics testing labroatory on a companion website and has a separate manual of problems and solutions that are appropriate for college professors using the book as a class textbook

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

COVER

TITLE PAGE

COPYRIGHT PAGE

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

BIOGRAPHY OF VISHU SHAH

ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE

1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND ADVANCEMENT IN TESTING TECHNOLOGY

1.1. BASIC CONCEPTS

1.2. SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDS

1.3. PURPOSE OF SPECIFICATIONS

1.4. BASIC SPECIFICATION FORMAT

1.5. ADVANCEMENTS IN TESTING TECHNOLOGY

1.6. NEW DEVELOPMENTS AND TRENDS IN TESTING TECHNOLOGY

REFERENCES

2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

2.1. INTRODUCTION

2.2. TENSILE TESTS (ASTM D 638, ISO 527‐1)

2.3. FLEXURAL PROPERTIES (ASTM D 790, ISO 178)

2.4. COMPRESSIVE PROPERTIES (ASTM D 695, ISO 604)

2.5. CREEP PROPERTIES (ISO 899‐1, ISO 899‐2, ASTM D2990, ISO 16770)

2.6. STRESS RELAXATION

2.7. IMPACT PROPERTIES

2.8. SHEAR STRENGTH (ASTM D 732)

2.9. ABRASION

2.10. FATIGUE RESISTANCE

2.11. HARDNESS TESTS

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

3 THERMAL PROPERTIES

3.1. INTRODUCTION

3.2. TESTS FOR ELEVATED TEMPERATURE PERFORMANCE

3.3. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (ASTM C 177, ISO 8302)

3.4. THERMAL EXPANSION

3.5. BRITTLENESS TEMPERATURE (ASTM D 746, ISO 974)

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

4 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

4.1. INTRODUCTION

4.2. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH (ASTM D 149, IEC 243‐1)

4.3. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT AND DISSIPATION FACTOR (ASTM D 150, IEC 250)

4.4. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE TESTS

4.5. ARC RESISTANCE (ASTM D 495)

4.6. UL REQUIREMENTS

4.7. EMI/RFI SHIELDING (10)

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

5 WEATHERING PROPERTIES

5.1. INTRODUCTION

5.2. ACCELERATED WEATHERING TESTS

5.3. OUTDOOR WEATHERING OF PLASTICS (ASTM D 1435, ISO‐877)

5.4. RESISTANCE OF PLASTIC MATERIALS TO FUNGI (ASTM G 21)

5.5. RESISTANCE OF PLASTIC MATERIALS TO BACTERIA (ASTM G 22)

5.6. LIMITATIONS OF ACCELERATED MICROBIAL GROWTH RESISTANCE TESTING

5.7. OUTDOOR EXPOSURE TEST FOR STUDYING THE RESISTANCE OF PLASTIC MATERIALS TO FUNGI AND BACTERIA AND ITS LIMITATIONS

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

6 OPTICAL PROPERTIES

6.1. INTRODUCTION

6.2. REFRACTIVE INDEX (ASTM D 542, ISO 489)

6.3. LUMINOUS TRANSMITTANCE AND HAZE (ASTM D 1003)

6.4. PHOTOELASTIC PROPERTIES

6.5. COLOR

6.6. SPECULAR GLOSS (ASTM D2457, D523)

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

7 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION TESTS

7.1. INTRODUCTION

7.2. MELT INDEX TEST (ASTM D 1238, ISO 1133)

7.3. RHEOLOGY

7.4. VISCOSITY TESTS

7.5. GEL PERMEATION CHROMATOGRAPHY

7.6. THERMAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

7.7. SPECTROSCOPY

7.8. MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION TESTS FOR THERMOSETS

REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

8 FLAMMABILITY

8.1. INTRODUCTION

8.2. FLAMMABILITY TEST (NONRIGID SOLID PLASTICS) (ASTM D 4804)

8.3. FLAMMABILITY TEST (SELF‐SUPPORTING PLASTICS IN HORIZONTAL POSITION) (D 635)

8.4. FLAMMABILITY TEST (SOLID PLASTICS IN VERTICAL POSITION) (D 3801)

8.5. IGNITION PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS

8.6. OXYGEN INDEX TEST (ASTM D 2863, ISO 4589)

8.7. SURFACE BURNING CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

8.8. FLAMMABILITY OF CELLULAR PLASTICS—VERTICAL POSITION (ASTM D 3014)

8.9. FLAMMABILITY OF CELLULAR PLASTICS—HORIZONTAL POSITION (ASTM D 1692)

8.10. FLAME RESISTANCE OF DIFFICULT‐TO‐IGNITE PLASTICS (FEDERAL STD. NO 406 METHOD 203)

8.11. SMOKE GENERATION TESTS

8.12. UL 94 FLAMMABILITY TESTING

8.13. MEETING FLAMMABILITY REQUIREMENTS

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

9 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

9.1. INTRODUCTION

9.2. IMMERSION TEST (ASTM D 543, ISO 22088)

9.3. STAIN RESISTANCE OF PLASTICS

9.4. SOLVENT STRESS‐CRACKING RESISTANCE

9.5. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS‐CRACKING RESISTANCE (ASTM D 1693, ISO 22088)

REFERENCES

10 ANALYTICAL  TESTS

10.1. INTRODUCTION

10.2. DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY (ASTM D 792, ISO 1183)

10.3. DENSITY‐BY‐DENSITY GRADIENT TECHNIQUE (ASTM D 1505, ISO R 1183‐2)

10.4. BULK (APPARENT) DENSITY TEST (ASTM D 1895)

10.5. WATER ABSORPTION (ASTM D 570, ISO 62)

10.6. MOISTURE ANALYSIS

10.7. SIEVE ANALYSIS (PARTICLE SIZE) TEST (ASTM D 1921)

REFERENCES

11 CONDITIONING PROCEDURES

11.1. CONDITIONING (ASTM D 618, ISO 291)

11.2. DESIGNATION FOR CONDITIONING

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

12 MISCELLANEOUS TESTS

12.1. TORQUE RHEOMETER TEST (ASTM D 2538)

12.2. PLASTICIZER ABSORPTION TESTS

12.3. CUP VISCOSITY TEST

12.4. BURST STRENGTH TEST

12.5. CRUSH TEST

12.6. ACETONE IMMERSION TEST (ASTM D 2152)

12.7. ACETIC ACID IMMERSION TEST (ASTM D 1939)

12.8. END‐PRODUCT TESTING

12.9. ASH CONTENT (ASTM D 5630, ASTM D 2584, ISO 3451)

REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES

13 IDENTIFICATION ANALYSIS OF PLASTIC MATERIALS

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2. ADVANCED METHODS FOR IDENTIFICATION

13.3. IDENTIFICATION OF PLASTIC MATERIALS

REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES

14 TESTING OF CELLULAR PLASTICS

14.1. INTRODUCTION

14.2. RIGID FOAM TEST METHODS

14.3. FLEXIBLE CELLULAR MATERIALS TEST METHODS

14.4. FOAM PROPERTIES

GENERAL REFERENCES

15 FAILURE ANALYSIS

15.1. INTRODUCTION

15.2. TYPES OF FAILURES

15.3. ANALYZING FAILURES

15.4. CASE STUDIES

REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES

16 QUALITY CONTROL

16.1. INTRODUCTION

16.2. STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL

16.3. INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

16.4. QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEM

16.5. GENERAL

16.6. SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION

REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES

17 PRODUCT LIABILITIES AND TESTING

17.1. INTRODUCTION

17.2. PRODUCT/EQUIPMENT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

17.3. PACKAGING CONSIDERATIONS

17.4. INSTRUCTIONS, WARNING LABELS, AND TRAINING

17.5. TESTING AND RECORDKEEPING

17.6. SAFETY STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

18 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING AND MEASUREMENTS

18.1. INTRODUCTION

18.2. ULTRASONIC

18.3. APPLICATION OF ULTRASONIC NDT IN PLASTICS

18.4. GAMMA BACKSCATTER

18.5. BETA TRANSMISSION

18.6. SCANNING LASER

18.7. X‐RAY FLUORESCENCE

18.8. HALL EFFECT

18.9. CT SCANNING (X‐RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY)

REFERENCES

SUGGESTED READING

GENERAL REFERENCES

19 PROFESSIONAL AND TESTING ORGANIZATIONS

19.1. AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE (ANSI)

19.2. ASTM INTERNATIONAL

19.3. FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION (FDA)

19.4. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY (NIST)

19.5. NATIONAL ELECTRICAL MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION (NEMA)

19.6. NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION (NFPA)

19.7. NATIONAL SANITATION FOUNDATION (NSF)

19.8. SOCIETY OF PLASTICS ENGINEERS (SPE)

19.9. PLASTICS INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION

19.10. UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES (UL)

19.11. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION (ISO)

20 UNIFORM GLOBAL TESTING STANDARDS

20.1. INTRODUCTION

20.2. ISO/IEC STANDARDS

20.3. ISO AND ASTM

20.4. TEST DATA ACQUISITION AND REPORTING

20.5. COMPUTER‐AIDED MATERIAL PRESELECTION BY UNIFORM STANDARDS (CAMPUS)

20.6. PLASTIC MATERIAL DATABASES

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A: INDEX OF TEST EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF COMPANIES ADDRESSES, PHONE NUMBERS, AND WEBSITES

APPENDIX B: ABBREVIATIONS: POLYMERIC MATERIALS

APPENDIX C: GLOSSARY

APPENDIX D: TRADE NAMES*

APPENDIX E: STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS

APPENDIX F: LINKS TO RECOMMENDED OPEN SOURCE FOR QUICK LEARNING

APPENDIX G: WEB RESOURCES

APPENDIX H: FIGURE 15‐5. NEW APPLICATION CHECKLIST (Courtesy of Covestro)

INDEX

END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

List of Tables

Chapter 1

TABLE 1‐1. POM Polyoxymethylene (Acetal) Materials, Detail Requirements,

h

Natural ...

Chapter 2

TABLE 2‐1. Characteristic Features of Stress–Strain Curve as It Relates to Po...

TABLE 2‐2. Creep Property Data of a Commercially Available Plastic Material

TABLE 2‐3. Typical Hardness Values of Some Common Plastic Materials

Chapter 3

TABLE 3‐1. Relative thermal indices based upon past field‐test performance an...

TABLE 3‐2. Thermal Conductivity of Different Materials Including Solid and Ce...

TABLE 3‐3. Comparison to Thermal Expansion Values for Some Common Materials

Chapter 4

TABLE 4‐1. Dielectric Strength of Various Plastics

TABLE 4‐2. Dielectric Constant of Various Plastics

TABLE 4‐3. Volume Resistivity of Various Plastics

TABLE 4‐4. Arc Resistance of Various Plastics

TABLE 4‐5. Enclosure Requirement for Fixed or Stationary Equipment

TABLE 4‐6. Shielding Attenuation Levels Required to Produce an Effective Shie...

TABLE 4‐7. Explanation of Adhesion Test Ratings

Chapter 5

TABLE 5‐1. Relative Weather Resistance of Unmodified Thermoplastics

TABLE 5‐2. Weathering Test Method

TABLE 5‐3. Outdoor Accelerated Test Standards and Approvals

Chapter 6

TABLE 6‐1. Refractive Index Values for Plastics

TABLE 6‐2. Colorimeters Versus Spectrophotometers

Chapter 7

TABLE 7‐1. Material Characterization Through Rheology and Thermal Analysis

TABLE 7‐2. Applications of Material Characterization Techniques

TABLE 7‐3. ISO versus ASTM

Chapter 8

TABLE 8‐1. Polymers and Flammability

TABLE 8‐2. Flammability Tests

TABLE 8‐3. Smoke Evolution Tests

TABLE 8‐4. Oxygen Index Rating of Some Materials

TABLE 8‐5. Summary of UL 94 Vertical Burning Test for Classifying Materials V...

TABLE 8‐6. Summary of UL 94 Vertical Burning Test for Classifying Materials, ...

TABLE 8‐7. Standard Cross References

Chapter 10

TABLE 10‐1. Liquid Systems Recommended for Use in Density Gradient Columns

TABLE 10‐2. Water Absorption of Common Plastics

TABLE 10‐3. Immersion Temperature and Periods

Chapter 11

TABLE 11‐1. Conditioning Procedures

Chapter 13

TABLE 13‐1. Identification Techniques for Polymer and Additives [2]

TABLE 13‐2. Solvent Abbreviations

Chapter 14

TABLE 14‐1. Temperature and Relative Humidity Conditions

TABLE 14‐2. Test for Flexible Cellular Materials

TABLE 14‐3. Foam Properties Chart

Chapter 15

TABLE 15‐1. HDT versus Continuous‐Use Temperature (UL Temperature Index)

TABLE 15‐2. Typical Part Design Checklist

TABLE 15‐3. Typical Failure Analysis Checklist

TABLE 15‐1‐1. Zero‐Shear Viscosities (Pa·s)

TABLE 15‐2‐1. Spectral Match Scores for Duplicate Infrared Spectra Acquired f...

TABLE 15‐2‐2. Parameters for the Gas Chromatographic Analysis

TABLE 15‐2‐3. Samples of Individual Components Used in Company A Coating Form...

TABLE 15‐2‐4. Comparison of the Concentrations of Volatile Compounds in the A...

TABLE 15‐2‐5. Comparison of the Major GC Peaks of the A1 and B1 Coating Sampl...

Chapter 16

TABLE 16‐1. Factors for Control Charts

TABLE 16‐2. Sample Size and Code Letters

TABLE 16‐3. Single Sampling Plan for Normal Inspection (Master Table)

TABLE 16‐4. Double Sampling Plan for Normal Inspections

TABLE 16‐5. Reaction Table

Chapter 20

TABLE 20‐1. Participating Members of ISO T61 on Plastics

TABLE 20‐2. Plastic Materials Database Directory (Revised 2019)

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1‐1. Automated test setup.

Figure 1‐2. Automated notcher.

Figure 1‐3. Twin‐bore capillary rheometer.

Figure 1‐4. Instrumented impact tester.

Figure 1‐5. Outdoor weathering box.

Chapter 2

Figure 2‐1. A typical stress–strain curve.

Figure 2‐2. Extension types: (

a

) bond bending, (

b

) uncoiling, (

c

) slippage....

Figure 2‐3. Maxwell model.

Figure 2‐4. (

a

) Types of stress–strain curves.

Figure 2‐5. Stress–strain curve in tension and compression.

Figure 2‐6. Diagram illustrating creep and stress relaxation.

Figure 2‐7. Diagram illustrating creep and cold flow.

Figure 2‐8. Tensile testing machine.

Figure 2‐9. Tensile test specimen (Type I).

Figure 2‐10. (

a

) Diagram illustrating an extensiometer attached to the test ...

Figure 2‐11. Diagram illustrating stress‐strain curve from which modulus and...

Figure 2‐12. The effect of fiberglass orientation.

Figure 2‐13. The effect of the strain rate on the modulus.

Figure 2‐14. The effect of temperature on tensile strength.

Figure 2‐15. Environmental test chamber to study the tensile properties at d...

Figure 2‐16. Forces involved in bending a simple beam.

Figure 2‐17. Close‐up of a specimen shown in flexural testing apparatus.

Figure 2‐18. Schematic of specimen arrangement for flexural testing, (Method...

Figure 2‐19 Universal testing machine for testing of the specimen in either ...

Figure 2‐20. The effect of temperature on flexural modulus.

Figure 2‐21. A typical test set‐up for compression testing.

Figure 2‐22. Generalized creep curve.

Figure 2‐23. Tensile creep curve.

Figure 2‐24. Typical test set‐up for tensile creep testing.

Figure 2‐25. Close‐up of creep rupture test under tensile load.

Figure 2‐26. Percent creep strain versus time.

Figure 2‐27. Creep modulus versus time on Cartesian coordinates.

Figure 2‐28. Creep modulus versus time on logarithmic coordinates.

Figure 2‐29. Creep strain versus time at 1000 hours.

Figure 2‐30. Isochronous stress–strain curve.

Figure 2‐31. Isochronous stress–strain curve for various materials.

Figure 2‐32. Effect of stress on creep modulus.

Figure 2‐33. Creep modulus versus time at different temperatures.

Figure 2‐34. Creep and stress relaxation.

Figure 2‐35. Stress–time curve.

Figure 2‐36. Stress relaxation curve plotted at various levels of constant s...

Figure 2‐37. (

a

) Common failure modes.(

b

) Typical velocities of some imp...

Figure 2‐38. Pendulum impact tester.

Figure 2‐39. Notching machine for impact test bars.

Figure 2‐40. Izod impact test specimen properly positioned in test fixture....

Figure 2‐41. Charpy test set‐up.

Figure 2‐42. Chip impact test setup.

Figure 2‐43. Diagram illustrating the principle of the chip impact test.

Figure 2‐44. Schematic of specimen‐in‐head tensile‐impact machine.

Figure 2‐45. Tensile impact tester.

Figure 2‐46. Mold dimensions of types S and L tensile‐impact specimens.

Figure 2‐47. Drop impact tester.

Figure 2‐48. Falling dart impact tester.

Figure 2‐49 Impact tester specifically designed for impact testing pipe and ...

Figure 2‐50. Load–energy–time curve showing the effect of temperature.

Figure 2‐51. Instrumented impact tester.

Figure 2‐52. (

a

) Load–energy–time curve showing the effect of an impact on a...

Figure 2‐53. Bottle drop impact tester.

Figure 2‐54. Shear strength test setup.

Figure 2‐55. Abrasion tester. (

a

) Rotary platform abrasion tester. (

b

) Linea...

Figure 2‐56. Fatigue endurance (

S

–

N

) curve.

Figure 2‐57. Flexural fatigue tester.

Figure 2‐58. Dimensions of the constant force fatigue specimen.

Figure 2‐59. Tensile fatigue testing machine.

Figure 2‐60. Rockwell hardness tester.

Figure 2‐61. Principle of the Rockwell hardness tester.

Figure 2‐62. Durometer hardness tester.

Figure 2‐63. Barcol hardness tester.

Chapter 3

Figure 3‐1. Dtul/Vicat Tester.

Figure 3‐2. (

a

) Vicat softening point apparatus. (

b

) HDT‐Vicat oil‐free test...

Figure 3‐3. Torsion pendulum. Test equipment (schematic).

Figure 3‐4. Dynamic mechanical properties by torsion pendulum versus tempera...

Figure 3‐5. Plot of typical time–temperature data.

Figure 3‐6. Typical UL yellow card.

Figure 3‐7. Creep modulus versus temperature.

Figure 3‐8. Creep rupture strength versus temperature.

Figure 3‐9. Cross‐sectional view of the guarded hot plate.

Figure 3‐10. Guarded not plate equipment.

Figure 3‐11. Schematic configuration of a quartz‐tube dilatometer.

Figure 3‐12. Typical specimen clamp for a brittleness temperature test.

Figure 3‐13. Motor‐driven brittleness temperature tester.

Chapter 4

Figure 4‐1. Dielectric strength test.

Figure 4‐2. Schematic of the dielectric constant test.

Figure 4‐3. Typical setup for the arc resistance test.

Figure 4‐4. Test setup for the open field technique. (From

EMI/RFI Shielding

...

Figure 4‐5. Shielded box technique. (From

EMI/RFI Shielding Guide

. Reprinted...

Figure 4‐6. Test setup for the coaxial transmission line technique. (From

EM

...

Figure 4‐7. Shielding room technique. (From

EMI/RFI Shielding Guide

. Reprint...

Figure 4‐8. Point‐to‐point resistance measurement.

Figure 4‐9. Adhesion testing.

Chapter 5

Figure 5‐1. UV, light and condensation apparatus.

Figure 5‐2. Cross‐section of a UV, light, and condensation apparatus.

Figure 5‐3. Spectral energy distribution of sunlight and a fluorescent lamp....

Figure 5‐4. Comparison between the energy output of a sunshine carbon‐arc la...

Figure 5‐5. Comparison between the energy output of an enclosed carbon‐arc l...

Figure 5‐6. Interior of a typical twin enclosed carbon‐arc apparatus.

Figure 5‐7. Interior of a typical open flame carbon‐arc apparatus

Figure 5‐8. Spectral power distribution comparison of a “daylight” filtered ...

Figure 5‐9. Log‐scale spectral comparison of the critical low UV region betw...

Figure 5‐10. Interior of a typical xenon‐arc apparatus.

Figure 5‐11. (

a

) Water‐cooled xenon arc weathering instrument with a rotatin...

Figure 5‐12. Comparison of a metal halide global lamp spectra to sunlight....

Figure 5‐13. Large‐scale metal halide environmental chamber weathering instr...

Figure 5‐14. Typical aluminum exposure racks.

Figure 5‐15. Suitably mounted samples.

Figure 5‐16. EMMAQUA Fresnel solar concentrators.

Figure 5‐17. Ultra‐accelerated EMMA Fresnel solar concentrator device.

Chapter 6

Figure 6‐1. Abbe refractometer.

Figure 6‐2. Schematic of a hazemeter.

Figure 6‐3. Hazemeter.

Figure 6‐4. Plane polarized light.

Figure 6‐5. Set‐up for examination of stress‐optical sensitivity.

Figure 6‐6. Typical photoelastic pattern.

Figure 6‐7. Light box for stress‐optical sensitivity examination.

Figure 6‐8. (

a

) Commercially available video polarimeter. (

b

) Commercially a...

Figure 6‐9. Hue value/chroma chart.

Figure 6‐10.

L, a, b,

color space.

Figure 6‐11. Colorimeter.

Figure 6‐12. Spectrophotometer.

Figure 6‐13. (

a

) A typical spectral reflectance curve. (

b

) A portable spectr...

Figure 6‐14. Light booth for visual color evaluation.

Figure 6‐15. Diagram of parallel beam glossmeter showing apertures and sourc...

Figure 6‐16. Glossmeter.

Chapter 7

Figure 7‐1. Schematic of melt indexer.

Figure 7‐2 Melt indexer.

Figure 7‐3 (

a

) A digital programmable viscometer. (

b

) Cone and plate viscome...

Figure 7‐4 (

a

) A quality control graph of a polymer flow curve. (

b

) Apparent...

Figure 7‐5 Capillary rheometer.

Figure 7‐6 Shear stress versus shear rate curve for PVC with two different p...

Figure 7‐7 Apparent viscosity versus apparent shear rate.

Figure 7‐8 Capillary viscometers commonly used for measurement of polymer so...

Figure 7‐9. Example of plot to determine intrinsic viscosity.

Figure 7‐10 Molecular weight distribution curve for material. A represents “...

Figure 7‐11. Schematic of a GPC system.

Figure 7‐12. GPC equipment.

Figure 7‐13. Molecules of various sizes elute from the column at different r...

Figure 7‐14 A sample material GPC curve is compared with a control material ...

Figure 7‐15. Thermal analysis of plastics.

Figure 7‐16. (

a

) Two of the most common types of DSC measuring cells. (

b

) Di...

Figure 7‐17. A typical DSC thermogram.

Figure 7‐18. Thermogravimetric analysis instrument.

Figure 7‐19 A typical TGA thermogram.

Figure 7‐20 Testing by TMA (schematic).

Figure 7‐21. A typical TMA thermal curve.

Figure 7‐22. TMA instrument.

Figure 7‐23. DMA instrument.

Figure 7‐24 Sample spectrometer layout.

Figure 7‐25. Sample analysis process.

Figure 7‐26. Spectrometer.

Figure 7‐27 Apparatus for an apparent density test.

Figure 7‐28. Spiral flow test specimens.

Figure 7‐29 Cup mold.

Figure 7‐30 Bubble viscometers.

Figure 7‐31. Gel time meter.

Chapter 8

Figure 8‐1. Polymer combustion process.

Figure 8‐2. Flammability test set‐up.

Figure 8‐3. Flammability test set‐up for self‐supporting plastics in the hor...

Figure 8‐4. Vertical burning test set‐up.

Figure 8‐5. Flammability test chamber.

Figure 8‐6. Setchkin self‐ignition call and consol.

Figure 8‐7. Cross‐section of hot‐air ignition furnace assembly.

Figure 8‐8. Typical equipment layout for oxygen index test.

Figure 8‐9. Oxygen index tester.

Figure 8‐10. Schematic radiant panel test.

Figure 8‐11. Schematic “tunnel test.”

Figure 8‐12. Apparatus to determine flammability of rigid cellular plastics....

Figure 8‐13. Ignition tester.

Figure 8‐14. Smoke density chamber.

Figure 8‐15. NBS smoke density chamber.

Figure 8‐16. Schematic of smoke generation test.

Figure 8‐17. Commercial test apparatus – radiant panel test.

Figure 8‐18. Horizontal burning test for HB classification.

Figure 8‐19. Vertical burning test for 5V classification.

Chapter 9

Figure 9‐1. Jig for solven stress cracking test.

Figure 9‐2. Nicking jig.

Figure 9‐3. Test specimen, specimen holder, and test assembly.

Figure 9‐4. Simple fixture for the constant strain test.

Chapter 10

Figure 10‐1. (

a

) Specific gravity test.(

b

) Digital version of the appara...

Figure 10‐2. (

a

) Density gradient column. (

b

) Auto density gradient apparatu...

Figure 10‐3. Moisture analyzer employing LOD principle.

Figure 10‐4. Sensor‐based moisture analyzer.

Figure 10‐5. Sieve analysis.

Chapter 12

Figure 12‐1. (

a

) Typical fusion curve. (

b

) Fusion curve, heat and shear stab...

Figure 12‐2. Brabender torque rheometer.

Figure 12‐3. Sigma style mixer for plasticizer absorption test.

Figure 12‐4. Powder mixing process.

Figure 12‐5. Zahn viscosity cup.

Figure 12‐6. Quick burst test apparatus.

Figure 12‐7. Pressure intensifier.

Figure 12‐8. Hydrostatic pressure tester.

Figure 12‐9. Hoop stress versus time to rupture.

Figure 12‐10. Crush tester.

Figure 12‐11. Torque tester.

Figure 12‐12. (

a

) Pull tester.(

b

) Multipurpose tester.

Figure 12‐13. Typical ash content test setup.

Chapter 13

Figure 13‐1. Fisher‐Johns melting point apparatus.

Chapter 14

Figure 14‐1. Schematic, air pychnometer.

Figure 14‐2. Air pychnometer.

Figure 14‐3. Compressive strength (stress at the yield point below 10 percen...

Figure 14‐4. Compressive strength (stress at 10 percent deformation).

Figure 14‐5. Test apparatus – shear property.

Figure 14‐6. Commercial WVT analyzer.

Figure 14‐7. Block specimen—tear resistance test. (Reprinted with permission...

Figure 14‐8. Die for cutting a dumbbell‐shaped specimen for a tension test....

Figure 14‐9. Resilience test apparatus.

Chapter 15

Figure 15‐1. Over‐the‐wall approach to new product development.

Figure 15‐2. Concurrent engineering approach to product development to reduc...

Figure 15‐3. Breakdown of major reasons behind plastic product failures.

Figure 15‐4. A typical failure (stress cracking) resulting from improper mat...

Figure 15‐5. Comprehensive checklist to help with material selection. See ap...

Figure 15‐6. Example of a thermal failure (warped parts) from exposure to ex...

Figure 15‐7. (

a

) A typical expansion loop and (

b

) an expansion joint install...

Figure 15‐8. Effect of crystallinity on chemical resistance.

Figure 15‐9. Premature part failure resulting from exposure to an aggressive...

FLOWCHART 15‐1. Steps for the Robust Part Design Process

Figure 15‐10. The combined effect of stress concentration and molded‐in stre...

Figure 15‐11. The influence of the fillet radius on stress concentration. At...

Figure 15‐12. The effect of notch sensitivity on a very tough material like ...

Figure 15‐13. Typical part failure from a lack of radius in key areas of the...

Figure 15‐14. Part failure from a lack of radius where fan blades join the h...

Figure 15‐15. Failure resulting from excessive wall thickness.

Figure 15‐16. Guidelines for the rib design.

Figure 15‐17. Typical issues (warpage) related due to an improper rib design...

Figure 15‐18. Crazing in polycarbonate barb resulting from contact with inco...

Figure 15‐19. Cracks around metal insert in a part. Heavy stress concentrati...

Figure 15‐20. (

a

) A cracked part as a result of the stresses generated from ...

Figure 15‐21. (

a

) Effect of moisture on the hygroscopic resin pellet. (

b

) Ef...

Figure 15‐22. Part failure from voids as a result of underpacking. Voids gen...

Figure 15‐23. Declining physical properties in a part from successive genera...

Figure 15‐24. A broken wire tie and brittleness from excessive use of regrin...

Figure 15‐25. Failed toilet supply line coupling nut due to over tightening ...

Figure 15‐26. (

a

and

b

) Creep related failure due to overtightening.

Figure 15‐27. Polystyrene part degraded from prolonged contact with gasoline...

Figure 15‐28. Progressive steps in failure due to environmental stress crack...

Figure 15‐29. Failed sprinkler housing as a result of environmental stress c...

Figure 15‐30. Failure occurring in plastic part due to continuous exposure a...

Figure 15‐31. Decomposition of a swimming pool skimmer cover from continuous...

FLOWCHART 15‐2.

Figure 15‐32. Typical photoelastic stress pattern.

Figure 15‐33. Compensator method for quantitative stress measurement.

Figure 15‐34. Residual stresses in medical packaging before and after anneal...

Figure 15‐35. Birefringence comparison of four compact discs with varying de...

Figure 15‐36. Typical stress pattern in the coating after being strained....

Figure 15‐37. The result of a solvent attack in terms of crazing and crackin...

Figure 15‐38. Shrinkage voids.

Figure 15‐39. DSC thermogram showing the clear difference in melting point o...

Figure 15‐40. Branching.

Figure 15‐41. River markings pointing towards the fracture origin.

Figure 15‐42. Wallner lines and initial fracture sites.

Figure 15‐43. Fracture striations emanating from the fracture origin of the ...

Figure 15‐1‐1. TA Instruments AR‐1000 controlled stress rheometer.

Figure 15‐1‐2. Comparison of flow curves of Sample A and Sample B at 190 °C....

Figure 15‐1‐3. Proton NMR spectra of polyacetal resin samples.

Figure 15‐1‐4. Proton NMR spectra of polyacetal resin samples.

Figure 15‐1‐5. FTIR spectra of the two resin films.

Figure 15‐1‐6. ATR‐FTIR spectra of filtered extracts.

Figure 15‐1‐7. The overlay of the two spectra.

Figure 15‐1‐8. The overlay of the GC chromatograms of extracts.

Figure 15‐2‐1. Comparison of duplicate infrared spectra acquired from the sa...

Figure 15‐2‐2. Comparison of the infrared spectra acquired from Sample A1 an...

Figure 15‐2‐3. Gas chromatogram of the A1 coating sample.

Figure 15‐2‐4. Gas chromatogram of the B1 coating sample.

Chapter 16

Figure 16‐1. Interdependence of major variables in controlling product quali...

Figure 16‐2. (

a

) Typical variables control chart. (

b

) Variables control char...

Figure 16‐3. Chart showing the process out of control due to material variat...

Figure 16‐4. An X chart showing a trend.

Figure 16‐5. Ideal sampling plan.

Figure 16‐6. A typical operating characteristic curve.

Figure 16‐7. Double sampling plan.

Figure 16‐8. Switching plan.

Figure 16‐9. Computerized SPC/SQC software.

Figure 16‐10. Visual defect.

Figure 16‐11. Criteria for accepting or rejecting the part.

Figure 16‐12. (

a

) Visual defect summary chart. (

b

) Cosmetic specifications. ...

Figure 16‐13. Mold information form.

Figure 16‐14. Mold history record card.

Figure 16‐15. A typical workmanship standard.

Figure 16‐16. Supplier selection process for certification.

Figure 16‐17. Supplier performance evaluation form.

Chapter 18

Figure 18‐1. Pulse‐echo technique.

Figure 18‐2. Instrument for detecting flaws using the pulse‐echo technique....

Figure 18‐3. Immersion technique.

Figure 18‐4. Transmission technique.

Figure 18‐5. Wall thickness and diameter measurement system.

Figure 18‐6. Thickness tester, using the ultrasonic measurement technique....

Figure 18‐7. Principle of operation – gamma backscatter gauging technique....

Figure 18‐8. Gamma backscatter and optical measurement system with process c...

Figure 18‐9. Beta transmission sensor.

Figure 18‐10. Wall thickness measurement using Hall effect gauging.

Figure 18‐11. CT scanner principle.

Figure 18‐12. Commercially available CT Scanner.

Chapter 20

Figure 20‐1. Trend towards global standardization.

Figure 20‐2. (

a

) Differences between old style, multicavity, unbalanced fami...

Figure 20‐3. Typical page from CAMPUS.

Figure 20‐4. Typical page from CAMPUS.

Guide

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HANDBOOK OF PLASTICS TESTING AND FAILURE ANALYSIS

FOURTH EDITION

VISHU SHAH

ConsultekDiamond Bar, California

This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Edition HistoryJohn Wiley & Sons (1e, 1984)John Wiley & Sons (2e, 1998)John Wiley & Sons (3e, 2007)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Vishu Shah to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyIn view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Shah, Vishu, 1951– author.Title: Handbook of plastics testing and failure analysis / Vishu Shah, Consultek, Diamond Bar, California.Other titles: Handbook of plastics testing technologyDescription: Fourth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2020. | Revision of: Handbook of plastics testing technology. 1998. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020024751 (print) | LCCN 2020024752 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118717110 (hardback) | ISBN 9781118943625 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781118943632 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Plastics–Testing–Handbooks, manuals, etc.Classification: LCC TA455.P5 S457 2020 (print) | LCC TA455.P5 (ebook) | DDC 620.1/9230287–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024751LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024752

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: cover photograph courtesy of Instron

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

Plastics testing technology, like all other evolving technologies, is dynamic in its principle. Even the well‐established tests get continual refinement. The advent of computers, robotics, and other advanced manufacturing technologies has contributed to the simplicity, accuracy, automation, and speed of testing. A lot has evolved since the third edition. Notable and dramatic changes have taken place in test equipment. They are in response to the demand from the material suppliers, compounders, processors, manufacturers, and end‐users. The explosive growth of the plastics industry has left a void in terms of recruiting trained technicians to conduct the tests in a meaningful way. The equipment suppliers have developed comprehensive technology that includes more sophisticated equipment that is capable of performing tests without much intervention and also analyze the data and present results in an easy‐to‐interpret format.

Accordingly, the fourth edition seeks to update the chapters in line with the latest developments that include the revisions to the testing procedures, photographs showing the newer version of commercially available equipment, useful data, and references. The appendix section has been revised extensively. The evolution of science and technology‐based search engines has made finding the listing of standards and comparing property values relatively more straightforward, thus eliminating the need for the printed version. Appendix pointing the readers to information sources on the web along with the Links to Recommended open source for quick learning is added.

Included with the third edition was a DVD containing numerous color photographs, depicting photoelastic analysis, color theory, and animations along with a virtual tour of the plastics testing laboratory. This has been moved to online access with the latest revisions. In line with the primary objective of this book of providing a hands‐on reference for the novice and professionals, a new feature is added. The readers will have access to the supplementary website containing color photographs, animations, videos, and a problem‐solution manual.

Once again, I wish to express thanks to all the users of previous editions for their constructive comments and helpful suggestions for changes and improvements for the next edition and to those who helped with this revision. In particular, I wish to thank Rich Goshgarian, Francesca Pinto of Instron Corporation, Al Zielnik of Atlas Material Testing, Jim Galipeau of Intertek, Mike Bradley of Thermo Fisher Scientific, Joel Feingold and Tim Wilson of Strainoptics, Inc., Patrick Burke of Jordi Labs, and Sandra Weixel of BYK‐Gardner. Many thanks to Dr. Todd Menna of Element Materials Technology for his invaluable contribution and all other companies for providing numerous illustrations and diagrams. Lastly, I would like to thank the publisher and the staff, especially Jonathan Rose and Aruna Pragasam, for guiding me and patiently waiting for me to complete the revision, which took much longer than anticipated.

I would be remiss if I did not by all rights thank my caring, loving, and supportive wife Charlene, my lovely daughter Beejal, and my son Neerav and his soul mate Hiral for their support and encouragement.

Vishu ShahConsultek, LLCDiamond Bar, CA

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

During the period that elapsed between the second edition and the date of writing of this third edition, the author shifted his career from a full‐time molder to a full‐time Consultant/Expert witness/Educator. The opportunity existed for analyzing numerous plastic‐part‐related premature failures. Failure analysis and testing go together. In order to analyze the failure, it is often necessary to conduct tests. In this third edition, therefore, the decision was made to expand the current chapter on failure analysis substantially and alter the title of the book to Handbook of Testing and Failure Analysis to reflect the change appropriately.

Existing books and literature on the subject of failure analysis are too complex, too detailed, sometimes difficult to understand, and more suitable to the persons well‐versed in polymer chemistry and physics. This book attempts to simplify a rather difficult subject of failure analysis by focusing on four major types of failures and key reasons behind failure of plastic parts. A step‐by‐step procedure starting from very basic and simple visual analysis to highly advanced analytical tests is presented. A simple flow chart is included to help with the investigation. To assist with the understanding of the subject matter, several actual case studies are included. This simple approach to analyzing failures is not intended primarily for a specialist but for those who wish to acquire basic knowledge and understanding of the failure mechanism. The author’s aim is not to replace excellent books that are in existence on this subject but to supplement and pave the road for more detailed and sophisticated failure analysis techniques in existence today.

All other chapters in the book have been updated with the latest information, diagrams, and photographs of the test equipment. The Appendix section has been updated. Appendix I, which listed the properties of the most common plastics, elastomers, and rubbers in the early edition, has been replaced with information about four major electronic databases for plastic materials. In order to increase the versatility of the book, numerous color photographs depicting photoelastic analysis and color theory along with various animations have been added on to the compact disk that is included with the book. More importantly, a virtual tour of a prominent Plastics Testing Laboratory is included to give the reader an opportunity to visit the laboratory from his or her desk and learn and understand how the tests are conducted and data are collected.

The author wishes to express thanks to all the users of previous editions for their constructive comments and helpful suggestions for changes and improvements for the next edition and to those who helped with this revision. In particular, he wishes to thank Jim Beauregard and Jim Galipeau of Plastics Testing Laboratory for their invaluable contribution, agreeing to the novel concept of virtual laboratory tour and making it possible. The author also wishes to thank Gerard Nelson of Ceast USA, GE Plastics, Kishor Mehta of Plascon Associates, Bayer Corporation, Dr. Alex Redner of Strainoptics, Inc., Paul Gramann of The Madison Group, Jim Rancourt of Polymer Solutions, and Steve Ferry of Micobac Laboratories. Many thanks to Steve Tuszynski of Algoryx for his contribution and to all other companies for providing numerous illustrations and diagrams. The book by Myer Ezrin, Plastics Failure Guide, Causes and Prevention, has been an important and valuable source of theoretical and practical information, and the author highly recommends his book for more detailed and in‐depth discussion of the subject.

Once again, I would like to thank my family for their encouragement and constant support.

Vishu ShahConsultek, LLC,Brea, CA

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

Since the publication of the first edition, little has changed as far as the basic concepts and methods of plastics testing. What has changed is the manner in which the data is collected and analyzed. Since the advent of computers and digital instruments, data collection and subsequent analysis and interpretation have become much simpler and faster.

This revised edition attempts to update the book in line with the latest developments in the field of testing, data acquisition, and analysis. The photographs depicting the commercially available testing equipment have been replaced with newer versions. A new chapter covering uniform global testing standards has been added. This chapter also includes current information about computerized material selection, which allows the user to compare various test data and material ranking based on the test data with utmost speed and ease. the entire section on impact properties has been rewritten to include an expanded discussion of instrumented impact testing. The chapters on electrical weathering properties and material characteristics have been revised. Owing to significant changes and developments in flammability testing this chapter has also been updated. The chapter on failure analysis is expanded significantly to further satisfy the need of someone trying to determine a failure mechanism. The discussion on SQC/SPC in the chapter on quality control has been expanded along with the current trend toward “supplier certification.” The chapter on nondestructive testing has also been rewritten to include many other NDT techniques and the latest developments. The Appendix has been expanded to include plastics education degree programs and organizations. The list of test equipment suppliers has been updated and now includes appropriate web site addresses. The specification section includes ISO test method designations and ASTM/DOD cross references.

The author wishes to thank all those who helped to make this second edition possible for their constructive and candid comments, support, and guidance. In particular he wishes to thank professor Steven Driscoll (University of Massachusetts Lowell) and Professor Robert Speirs (Ferris State University) for their suggestions and guidance. Special thanks to R. Bruce Cassel of Perkin‐Elmer and Kurt Scott of Atlas Electric Devices Company for reviewing and improving the manuscript and to Steve Caldarola of SGS–U.S. Testing who assisted in updating the chapter on flammability. I wish to thank Peter Grady of Ceast U.S.A., John Dechristofaro of Dynisco–Kayeness, Brookfield Engineering, G.E. Plastics, Society of Plastics Industry, Instron Corporation, Underwriters Laboratories, Strain Optics, D.A.T.A. Publishing, Newport Scientific and many others for providing technical assistance and photographs for reproduction. Many thanks to James Galipeau and Mr. James Beauregard of Plastics Testing Laboratories for providing material on advances in plastics testing and for reviewing the entire manuscript.

Last, but not least, I thank my wife Charlene, my son Neerav, and my daughter Beejal for their understanding and patience during many evenings and weekends when I was wrapped up in the preparation of this revised edition.

Vishu ShahPerformance Engineered Products, Inc.Pomona, California

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

The desire to compile this book was initiated mainly because of the virtual non‐existence of a comprehensive work on testing of plastic materials. The majority of the literature concerning the testing of plastics is scattered in the form of sales and technical brochures, private organizations’ internal test procedures, or a very brief and oversimplified explanation of the test procedures in plastics literature. The main objective of the present book is to provide a general purpose practical text on the subject with the main emphasis on the significance of the test or why and not so much on how without being extremely technical.

Over the years ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) has done an excellent job in providing the industry with standard testing procedures. However, the test procedures discussed in ASTM books lack the theoretical aspects of testing. The full emphasis is not on significance of testing but on procedures of testing. The ASTM books are also deficient in showing the diagrams and photographs of actual, commercial testing equipment. In this book I have tried to bridge the gap between the oversimplified and less explained tests described in ASTM books and the highly technical and less practical books in existence today.

This handbook is not intended primarily for specialists and experts in the area of plastics testing but for the neophyte desiring to acquire a basic knowledge of the testing of plastics. It is for this reason that detailed discussions and excessive technical jargon have been avoided. The text is aimed at anyone involved in manufacturing, testing, studying, or developing plastics. It is my intention to appeal to a broad segment of people involved in the plastic industry.

In Chapter 1 the basic concepts of testing are discussed along with the purpose of specifications and standards. Also discussed is the basic specification format and classification system. The subsequent chapters deal with the testing of five basic properties: mechanical, thermal, electrical, weathering, and optical properties of plastics. The chapter on mechanical properties discusses in detail the basic stress–strain behavior of the plastic materials so that a clear understanding of testing procedures is obtained. Chapter 7 on material characterization is intended to present a general overview of the latest in characterization techniques in existence today. A brief explanation of the polymer combustion process along with various testing procedures are discussed in Chapter 8. An attempt is made to briefly explain the importance of conditioning procedures. A table summarizing the most common conditioning procedures should be valuable. Several tests that are difficult to incorporate into a specific category were placed in the chapter on miscellaneous tests. End‐product testing, an area generally neglected by the majority of processors of plastic products, is discussed along with some useful suggestions on common end‐product tests.

Chapter 13 on identification analysis should be important to everyone involved in plastics and particularly useful to plastic converters and reprocessors. The flowchart summarizes the entire identification technique. Since there are so many different tests in existence on the testing of foam plastics, only a brief explanation of each test is given. The chapter on failure analysis is a compilation of methods commonly used by material suppliers. A step‐by‐step procedure for analyzing product failure should prove valuable to anyone ivolved in failure analysis. Quality control, although not part of the testing, is included in order to explain quality control as it relates to plastics. The section on visual standard, mold control, and workmanship standard is a good example. In this increasing world of product liability, the chapter on product liability and testing should be of value to everyone.

In order to increase the versatility of this book and meet the goal of providing a ready reference on the subject of testing, a large appendix section is given. One will find very useful data: names and addresses of equipment manufacturers, a glossary, names and addresses of trade publications, information on independent testing laboratories, and a guide to plastics specifications. Many useful charts and tables are included in the appendix. Throughout the book, wherever possible, numerous diagrams, sketches, and actual photographs of equipment are given.

A handbook of this magnitude must make inevitable compromises. Depending on the need of the individual user, there is bound to be a varying degree of excess and shortage. In spite of every effort made to minimize mistakes and other short‐comings in this book, some may still exist. For the sake of future refinement and improvements, all constructive comments will be welcomed and greatly appreciated.

Vishu ShahPomona, CaliforniaOctober 1983

BIOGRAPHY OF VISHU SHAH

Vishu Shah is President of Consultek Consulting Group, a fully integrated Management and Technical Consulting firm for the Plastics and Medical Industry with over a hundred years of combined hands‐on experience and a strong Plastics Engineering educational background. His 45 years of extensive practical experience in the Plastics Industry includes positions as president and co‐founder of Performance Engineered Products – a custom injection molder– and Senior Plastics Engineer for Rain Bird Corporation and Nibco Inc. His areas of expertise include product design, processing, automation, materials, rapid prototyping, tooling, failure analysis, and testing. He has taught various plastics‐related subjects throughout his career. Over 1000 professionals have benefited from the Plastics Engineering Certificate Program established in 2003 at Cal Poly, Pomona. An active involved professional, he is a senior member, past president of So. Cal. SPE section, SPE Honored Service Member, and a board member of SPI Western Moldmakers Division. Vishu is a graduate of UMass Lowell, where he received a B.S. and an M.S. degree in Plastics Engineering. He has worked extensively with the legal community as an expert witness and provided technical support with litigation.

ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE

Handbook of Plastics Testing and Failure Analysis is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/Shah/HB_PlasticsTestingFailureAnalysis

The companion website page includes the following items:

Problem‐Solution Manual with answers

Color photographs that are included in the book as color inserts

Color photographs not included in the book

Appendix F with hyperlinks

Appendix G with hyperlinks

Links to the virtual lab tour

1BASIC CONCEPTS AND ADVANCEMENT IN TESTING TECHNOLOGY

1.1. BASIC CONCEPTS

Not too long ago, the concept of testing was merely an afterthought of the procurement process. Now, however, with the advent of science and technology, the concept of testing is an integral part of research and development, product design, and manufacturing. The question that is often asked is, “why test?” The answer is simple. Times have changed. How we do things today is different. The emphasis is on automation, high production, and cost reduction. There is a growing demand for intricately shaped, high‐tolerance parts. Consumer awareness, a subject ignored by the manufacturers once upon a time, is now a major area of concern. Along with these requirements, our priorities have also changed. When designing a machine or a product, the priority in most cases is safety and health. Manufacturers and suppliers are now required to meet a variety of standards and specifications. Relying merely on experience and quality of workmanship is simply not enough. The following are some of the major reasons for testing:

To prove design concepts

To provide a basis for reliability

Safety

Protection against product liability lawsuits

Quality control

To meet standards and specifications

To verify the manufacturing process

To evaluate competitors’ products

To establish a history for new materials

In the last three decades, just about every manufacturer has turned to plastics to achieve cost reduction, automation, and high yield. The lack of history, along with the explosive growth and diversity of polymeric materials, has forced the plastics industry into placing extra emphasis on testing and on developing a wide variety of testing procedures. Through the painstaking efforts of various standards organizations, material suppliers, and mainly the numerous committees of the ASTM International (ASTM), over 10,000 different test methods have been developed. Globalization has also dramatically influenced test method development, specifically through ISO TC61 on Plastics.

The need to develop standard test methods specifically designed for plastic materials originated for two main reasons. Initially, the properties of plastic materials were determined by duplicating the test methods developed for testing metals and other similar materials. The Izod impact test, for example, was derived from the manual for testing metals. Because of the drastically different nature of plastic materials, the test methods often had to be modified. As a result, a large number of nonstandard tests were written by various parties. As many as eight to ten distinct and separate test methods were written to determine the same property. Such a practice created chaos among developers of the raw materials, suppliers, design engineers, and ultimate end‐users. It became increasingly difficult to keep up with various test methods or to comprehend the real meaning of reported test values. The standardization of test methods acceptable to everyone solved the problem of communication between developers, designers, and end‐users, allowing them to speak a common language when comparing the test data and results. As plastic materials are introduced for use in more rigorous applications, such as structural components in automobiles in the form of high strength composites, the need for test methods that are applicable to these new applications will be important and lead to further development.

In spite of the standardization of various test methods, we still face the problem of comprehension and interpretation of test data by an average person in the plastics industry. This is due to the complex nature of the test procedures and the number of tests and testing organizations. The key to overcoming this problem is to develop a thorough understanding of what the various tests mean and the significance of the result to the application being considered (1). Unfortunately, the plastics industry has placed more emphasis on how and not enough on why, which is more important from the standpoint of comprehension of the test results and understanding the true meaning of the values. The lack of understanding of the real meaning of heat deflection temperature, which is often interpreted as the temperature at which plastic material will sustain static or dynamic load for a long period, is one such classic example of misinterpretation. In the chapters to follow, we concentrate on the significance, interpretation, and limitations of physical property data and test procedures. Finally, a word of caution: it is extremely important to understand that the majority of physical property tests are subject to rather large errors. As a general rule, the error of testing should be considered ±5 percent. Some tests are more precise than others. Such testing errors occur from three major areas: (1) material variation, (2) the basic test itself, (3) the operators conducting the tests, and (4) variations in the test specimens. While evaluating the test data and making decisions based on test data, one must consider the error factor to make certain that a valid difference in the test data exists (2).

1.2. SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDS

A specification is a detailed description of requirements, dimensions, materials, and so on. A standard is something established for use as a rule or a basis of comparison in measuring or judging capacity, quantity, content, extent, value, and quality.

A specification for a plastic material involves defining particular requirements in terms of density, tensile strength, thermal conductivity, and other related properties. The specification also relates standard test methods to be used to determine such properties. Thus, standard methods of test and evaluation commonly provide the bases of measurement required in the specification for needed or desired properties (3).

As discussed earlier, the ultimate purpose of a standard is to develop a common language, so that there can be no confusion or communication problems among developers, designers, fabricators, end‐users, and other concerned parties. The benefits of standards are innumerable. Standardization has provided the industry with such benefits as improved efficiency, mass production, superior quality goods through uniformity, and new challenges. Standardization has opened the door to international trade, technical exchanges, and the establishment of common markets. One can only imagine the confusion the industry would suffer without the specific definition of fundamental units of distance, mass, and time and without the standards of weights and measures fixed by the government (4).

Standards originate from a variety of sources. The majority of standards originate from the industry. The industry standards are generally established by voluntary organizations that make every effort to see that the standards are freely adopted and represent a general agreement. Some of the most common voluntary standards organizations are the ASTM International, the National Sanitation Foundation, the Underwriters Laboratories, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, and the Society of Automotive Engineers. Quite often, the industry standards do not provide adequate information or are not suitable for certain applications, in which case private companies are forced to develop their standards. These company standards are generally adapted from modified industry standards.

The federal government is yet another major source of standardization activities. The standards and specifications related to plastics are developed by the U.S. Department of Defense and the General Services Administration under the common heading of Military Standards and Federal Standards, respectively.

After World War II, there was a tremendous increase in international trade. The International Standards Organization (ISO) was established for the sole purpose of international standardization. ISO consists of the national standards bodies of over 145 countries from around the world. The standardization work of ISO is conducted by technical committees established by the agreement of five or more countries. ISO’s Technical Committee 61 on plastics is among the most productive of all ISO committees.

1.3. PURPOSE OF SPECIFICATIONS