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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
The essential guide to environmental control systems in building design
For over 25 years Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Strategies Towards Net Zero Architecture has provided architects and design professionals the knowledge and tools required to design a sustainable built environment at the schematic design stage. This Fifth Edition offers cutting-edge research in the field of sustainable architecture and design and has been completely restructured based on net zero design strategies. Reflecting the latest developments in codes, standards, and rating systems for energy efficiency, Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Strategies Towards Net Zero Architecture includes three new chapters:
- Retrofits: Best practices for efficient energy optimization in existing buildings
- Integrated Design: Strategies for synergizing passive and active design
- Design Tools: How to utilize the best tools to benchmark a building's sustainability and net zero potential
Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Strategies Towards Net Zero Architecture is a go-to resource for practicing professionals and students in the fields of environmental systems technology or design, environmental design systems, construction technology, and sustainability technology.
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Seitenzahl: 1569
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
COVER
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT
FOREWORD TO THE FIFTH EDITION
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PART I: FUNDAMENTALS
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND: ARCHITECTURE IN A WARMING WORLD
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 INDIGENOUS AND VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
1.3 FORMAL ARCHITECTURE
1.4 ARCHITECTURE AND ENERGY
1.5 THE ARCHITECTURAL APPROACH TO LOW-ENERGY DESIGN
1.6 CLIMATE AND ARCHITECTURE
1.7 DYNAMIC VERSUS STATIC BUILDINGS
1.8 FORM, COLOR AND ORNAMENTATION
1.9 BIOPHILIC DESIGN
1.10 RESILIENT DESIGN
1.11 SUSTAINABILITY CODES AND VOLUNTARY PROGRAMS
1.12 THE MORAL IMPERATIVE
1.13 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
NOTES
CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE: THE KEY SUSTAINABILITY ISSUE
2.1 EASTER ISLAND: LEARNING FROM THE PAST
2.2 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND CLIMATE CHANGE
2.3 REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE, AND REGENERATE BY DESIGN
2.4 THE SUSTAINABILITY MOVEMENT
2.5 THE BASIC CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
2.6 GROWTH
2.7 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
2.8 THE AMOEBA ANALOGY
2.9 SUPPLY VERSUS EFFICIENCY
2.10 SUSTAINABLE-DESIGN ISSUES
2.11 EMBODIED ENERGY
2.12 CLIMATE CHANGE
2.13 THE OZONE HOLE
2.14 EFFICIENCY VERSUS RENEWABLE ENERGY
2.15 ENERGY SOURCES
2.16 ENERGY USE IN ANCIENT GREECE
2.17 NONRENEWABLE FOSSIL ENERGY SOURCES
2.18 NUCLEAR ENERGY
2.19 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
2.20 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
NOTES
CHAPTER 3: BASIC PRINCIPLES: THE PHYSICS OF HEAT FLOW FOR HEATING AND COOLING BUILDINGS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 HEAT
3.3 SENSIBLE HEAT
3.4 LATENT HEAT
3.5 EVAPORATIVE COOLING
3.6 CONVECTION
3.7 TRANSPORT
3.8 ENERGY-TRANSFER MEDIUMS
3.9 RADIATION
3.10 GREENHOUSE EFFECT
3.11 EQUILIBRIUM TEMPERATURE OF A SURFACE
3.12 MEAN RADIANT TEMPERATURE
3.13 HEAT FLOW
3.14 HEAT SINK
3.15 HEAT CAPACITY
3.16 THERMAL RESISTANCE
3.17 HEAT-FLOW COEFFICIENT
3.18 TIME LAG
3.19 INSULATING EFFECT OF MASS
3.20 ENERGY CONVERSION
3.21 COMBINED HEAT AND POWER
3.22 OFF-SITE VERSUS ON-SITE RENEWABLE ENERGY
3.23 THE GAME CHANGERS: HEAT PUMPS AND BATTERIES
3.24 NET-ZERO BUILDINGS
3.25 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE: ITS SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON BUILDINGS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 CLIMATE
4.3 MICROCLIMATE
4.4 CLIMATIC ANOMALIES
4.5 CLIMATE REGIONS IN A TIME OF CLIMATE CHANGE
4.6 EXPLANATIONS OF THE CLIMATIC DATA TABLES
4.7 RELATIVE HEATING AND COOLING LOADS
4.8 CLIMATIC DATA TABLES
4.9 DESIGN STRATEGIES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
NOTES
CHAPTER 5: PSYCHROMETRICS: THERMAL COMFORT
5.1 BIOLOGICAL MACHINE
5.2 THERMAL BARRIERS
5.3 METABOLIC RATE
5.4 THERMAL CONDITIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
5.5 THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
5.6 DEW POINT AND WET-BULB TEMPERATURES
5.7 HEAT CONTENT OF AIR
5.8 THERMAL COMFORT
5.9 SHIFTING OF THE COMFORT ZONE
5.10 ADAPTIVE COMFORT
5.11 CLOTHING AND COMFORT
5.12 STRATEGIES
5.13 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: SOLAR GEOMETRY: THE MOST POWERFUL ELEMENT OF DESIGN
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 THE SUN
6.3 ELLIPTICAL ORBIT
6.4 TILT OF THE EARTH'S AXIS
6.5 CONSEQUENCES OF THE ALTITUDE ANGLE
6.6 WINTER
6.7 THE SUN REVOLVES AROUND THE EARTH!
6.8 THE SKY DOME
6.9 DETERMINING ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH ANGLES
6.10 SOLAR TIME
6.11 HORIZONTAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS
6.12 VERTICAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS
6.13 DRAWING SUNBEAMS
6.14 SUN-PATH MODELS
6.15 SOLAR HEAT GAIN
6.16 SOLAR SITE-EVALUATION TOOLS
6.17 HELIODONS
6.18 SUNDIALS FOR MODEL TESTING
6.19 CONCEPTUALLY CLEAR HELIODONS
6.20 SOLAR RESPONSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES
6.20 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PART II: PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES
CHAPTER 7: PASSIVE HEATING SYSTEMS: THE SOLAR POTENTIAL OF NATURAL HEATING
7.1 HISTORY
7.2 SOLAR IN AMERICA
7.3 SOLAR HEMICYCLE
7.4 LATEST REDISCOVERY OF PASSIVE SOLAR
7.5 PASSIVE SOLAR
7.6 DIRECT-GAIN SYSTEMS
7.7 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR DIRECT-GAIN SYSTEMS
7.8 EXAMPLE
7.9 TROMBE WALL SYSTEMS
7.10 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR TROMBE WALL SYSTEMS
7.11 EXAMPLE
7.12 SUNSPACES
7.13 BALCOMB HOUSE
7.14 SUNSPACE DESIGN GUIDELINES
7.15 COMPARISON OF THE THREE MAIN PASSIVE HEATINGSYSTEMS
7.16 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS
7.17 HEAT-STORAGE MATERIALS
7.18 OTHER PASSIVE HEATING SYSTEMS
7.19 MAXIMIZING PASSIVE SOLAR
7.20 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8: SOLAR REJECTION: SHADING AND LIGHT COLORS
8.1 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR REJECTION
8.2 HISTORY OF SHADING AND LIGHT COLORS
8.3 SHADING MYTHS
8.4 SHADING BASICS
8.5 FIXED EXTERIOR SHADING DEVICES
8.6 DYNAMIC (MOVABLE) SHADING DEVICES
8.7 SHADING PERIODS OF THE YEAR
8.8 OVERHANGS
8.9 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL OVERHANGS: BASIC GRAPHICAL METHOD
8.10 SHADING DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR SOUTH WINDOWS
8.11 SHADING DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR EAST AND WEST WINDOWS
8.12 DESIGN OF FINS ON NORTH WINDOWS
8.13 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR EGGCRATE SHADING DEVICES
8.14 SPECIAL SHADING STRATEGIES
8.15 SHADING OUTDOOR SPACES
8.16 USING PHYSICAL MODELS FOR SHADING DESIGN
8.17 GLAZING AS THE SHADING ELEMENT
8.18 INTERIOR SHADING DEVICES
8.19 SOLAR HEAT GAIN COEFFICIENT
8.20 ROOF AND WALL REFLECTIVITY
8.21 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 9: PASSIVE COOLING: NATURAL COOLING, RAISING THE COMFORT ZONE, AND HEAT AVOIDANCE
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO COOLING
9.2 HISTORICAL AND INDIGENOUS USE OF PASSIVE COOLING
9.3 PASSIVE COOLING SYSTEMS
9.4 COMFORT VENTILATION VERSUS NIGHT-FLUSHCOOLING
9.5 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AIRFLOW
9.6 AIRFLOW THROUGH BUILDINGS
9.7 EXAMPLE OF VENTILATION DESIGN
9.8 COMFORT VENTILATION
9.9 NIGHT-FLUSH COOLING
9.10 DOUBLE-SKIN FACADES AND OPERABLE ROOFS
9.11 RADIANT COOLING
9.12 EVAPORATIVE COOLING
9.13 COOL TOWERS
9.14 EARTH COOLING
9.15 DEHUMIDIFICATION WITH A DESICCANT
9.16 SOLAR CHIMNEY
9.17 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 10: SITE ANALYSIS: ORIENTATION, LANDSCAPE AND CONTEXT INNET-ZERO DESIGN
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 ANALYSIS
10.3 SITE SELECTION
10.4 SOLAR ACCESS
10.5 SHADOW PATTERNS
10.6 SITE PLANNING
10.7 SOLAR ZONING
10.8 PHYSICAL MODELS
10.9 WIND AND SITE DESIGN
10.10 PLANTS AND VEGETATION
10.11 VEGETATED ROOFS
10.12 LAWNS
10.13 LANDSCAPING
10.14 COMMUNITY DESIGN
10.15 COOLING OUR COMMUNITIES
10.16 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 11: LIGHT: COLOR, VISION, AND PERCEPTION
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 LIGHT
11.3 REFLECTANCE/TRANSMITTANCE
11.4 COLOR
11.5 VISION
11.6 PERCEPTION
11.7 PERFORMANCE OF A VISUAL TASK
11.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VISUAL TASK
11.9 ILLUMINATION LEVEL
11.10 BRIGHTNESS RATIOS
11.11 GLARE
11.12 EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL ILLUMINATION
11.13 ACTIVITY NEEDS
11.14 BIOLOGICAL NEEDS
11.15 LIGHT AND HEALTH
11.16 THE POETRY OF LIGHT
11.17 RULES FOR LIGHTING DESIGN
11.18 CAREER POSSIBILITIES
11.19 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 12: DAYLIGHTING: ARCHITECTURAL CONTROL FORNATURAL BEAUTY, COMFORT, ANDENERGY REDUCTION
12.1 HISTORY OF DAYLIGHTING
12.2 WHY DAYLIGHTING?
12.3 THE NATURE OF DAYLIGHT
12.4 CONCEPTUAL MODEL
12.5 ILLUMINATION AND THE DAYLIGHT FACTOR
12.6 LIGHT WITHOUT HEAT?
12.7 COOL DAYLIGHT
12.8 GOALS OF DAYLIGHTING
12.9 BASIC DAYLIGHTING STRATEGIES
12.10 BASIC WINDOW STRATEGIES
12.11 ADVANCED WINDOW STRATEGIES
12.12 WINDOW GLAZING MATERIALS
12.13 TOP LIGHTING
12.14 SKYLIGHT STRATEGIES
12.15 CLERESTORIES, MONITORS, AND LIGHT SCOOPS
12.16 SPECIAL DAYLIGHTING TECHNIQUES
12.17 TRANSLUCENT WALLS AND ROOFS
12.18 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AS A SUPPLEMENT TO DAYLIGHTING
12.19 PHYSICAL MODELING
12.20 GUIDELINES FOR DAYLIGHTING
12.21 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
NOTE
CHAPTER 13: THE THERMAL ENVELOPE: KEEPING WARM AND STAYING COOL
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 HEAT LOSS
13.3 HEAT GAIN
13.4 SOLAR REFLECTIVITY (ALBEDO)
13.5 COMPACTNESS, EXPOSED AREA, AND THERMAL PLANNING
13.6 INSULATION MATERIALS
13.7 THE THERMAL ENVELOPE
13.8 HEAT BRIDGES
13.9 WINDOWS
13.10 DYNAMIC INSULATION
13.11 INSULATING EFFECT FROM THERMAL MASS
13.12 EARTH SHELTERING
13.13 INFILTRATION AND VENTILATION
13.14 WATER: THE ENEMY OF ARCHITECTURE
13.15 RADON
13.16 APPLIANCES
13.17 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 14: RETROFITS: ENERGY EFFICIENCY UPGRADES FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.2 GOALS FOR THE ENERGY UPGRADE
14.3 ENVELOPE UPGRADES
14.4 LIGHTING
14.5 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
14.6 HOT WATER
14.7 APPLIANCES
14.8 RENEWABLE ENERGY
14.9 MISCELLANEOUS
14.10 CASE STUDIES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 15: TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE: NOT YOUR TEMPERATE ARCHITECTURE
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.2 TRADITIONAL TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE
15.3 THE TROPICAL CLIMATE
15.4 THE SOLAR GEOMETRY OF THE TROPICS
15.5 SHADING IN TROPICAL CLIMATES
15.6 DAYLIGHTING IN THE TROPICS
15.7 PASSIVE COOLING
15.8 AIR-CONDITIONED BUILDINGS IN THE TROPICS
15.9 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PART III: ACTIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES
CHAPTER 16: ELECTRIC LIGHTING: TO COMPLEMENT DAYLIGHT AND AT NIGHT
16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.2 HISTORY OF LIGHT SOURCES
16.3 LIGHT SOURCES
16.4 INCANDESCENT AND HALOGEN LAMPS
16.5 DISCHARGE LAMPS
16.6 FLUORESCENT LAMPS
16.7 HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE LAMPS
16.8 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)
16.9 COMPARISON OF THE MAJOR LIGHTING SOURCES
16.10 LUMINAIRES
16.11 LENSES, DIFFUSERS, AND BAFFLES
16.12 LIGHTING SYSTEMS
16.13 REMOTE-SOURCE LIGHTING SYSTEMS
16.14 VISUALIZING LIGHT DISTRIBUTION
16.15 ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING
16.16 OUTDOOR LIGHTING
16.17 EMERGENCY LIGHTING
16.18 CONTROLS
16.19 MAINTENANCE
16.20 RULES FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT ELECTRIC LIGHTING DESIGN
16.21 LAWS AND STANDARDS
16.22 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
NOTE
CHAPTER 17: PHOTOVOLTAICS AND SOLAR THERMAL
17.1 INTRODUCTION
17.2 THE ALMOST IDEAL ENERGY SOURCE
17.3 HISTORY OF PV
17.4 THE PV CELL
17.5 TYPES OF PV SYSTEMS
17.6 BALANCE OF SYSTEM EQUIPMENT
17.7 SITE-INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS
17.8 GLAZING AND PV
17.9 ORIENTATION AND TILT
17.10 DESIGN GUIDELINES
17.11 THE PROMISE OF PV
17.12 SIZING A PV SYSTEM
17.13 THE COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF PV VERSUS SOLAR THERMAL APPLICATIONS
17.14 SOLAR THERMAL BASICS
17.15 SOLAR THERMAL SWIMMING-POOL HEATING
17.16 SOLAR HOT-WATER SYSTEMS
17.17 PASSIVE SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS
17.18 SOLAR HOT-AIR COLLECTORS
17.19 PREHEATING OF VENTILATION AIR
17.20 DESIGNING A SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM
17.21 THE FUTURE OF SOLAR THERMAL
17.22 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 18: MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT FOR HEATING AND COOLING
18.1 INTRODUCTION
18.2 HEATING
18.3 THERMAL ZONES
18.4 HEATING SYSTEMS
18.5 ELECTRIC HEATING
18.6 HOT-WATER (HYDRONIC) HEATING
18.7 HOT-AIR SYSTEMS
18.8 COOLING
18.9 REFRIGERATION CYCLES
18.10 HEAT PUMPS
18.11 GEO-EXCHANGE
18.12 COOLING SYSTEMS
18.13 AIR-CONDITIONING FOR SMALL BUILDINGS
18.14 AIR-CONDITIONING FOR LARGE MULTISTORY BUILDINGS
18.15 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
18.16 AIR SUPPLY (DUCTS AND DIFFUSERS)
18.17 VENTILATION
18.18 ENERGY-EFFICIENT VENTILATION SYSTEMS
18.19 AIR FILTRATION AND ODOR REMOVAL
18.20 SPECIAL SYSTEMS
18.21 INTEGRATED AND EXPOSED MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
18.22 LOW-ENERGY HEATING AND COOLING
18.23 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PART IV: INTEGRATED DESIGN
CHAPTER 19: SYNERGIES: WHEN THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF THE PARTS
19.1 INTRODUCTION
19.2 STRATEGIES
19.3 SYNERGIES
19.4 CASE STUDIES
19.5 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ENDNOTES
CHAPTER 20: INTEGRATED DESIGN PROCESS
20.1 INTRODUCTION
20.2 DEFINITION
20.3 DIFFERENCES
20.4 COORDINATION
20.5 DOCUMENTATION
20.6 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ENDNOTES
PART V: TOOLS
CHAPTER 21: CODES
21.1 INTRODUCTION
21.2 SUSTAINABILITY CODES
21.3 HISTORY
21.4 CURRENT MODEL CODES
21.5 REFERENCE STANDARDS
21.6 GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
21.7 NON-GOVERNMENTAL INITIATIVES
21.8 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ENDNOTES
CHAPTER 22: CHECKLIST FOR DESIGNING NET-ZERO BUILDINGS
22.1 INTRODUCTION
22.2 SITE SELECTION
22.3 FORM
22.4 PLAN
22.5 WINDOWS
22.6 DAYLIGHTING
22.7 SHADING
22.8 COLOR
22.9 THERMAL ENVELOPE
22.10 THERMAL MASS
22.11 GLAZING
22.12 AIR BARRIER
22.13 PASSIVE SYSTEMS
22.14 ELECTRIC LIGHTING
22.15 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
22.16 BEHAVIORAL CONTROLS
22.17 RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 23: ASSESSMENT
23.1 INTRODUCTION
23.2 GLOBAL RATING SYSTEMS
23.3 PROCESS
23.4 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ENDNOTES
CHAPTER 24: DIGITAL
24.1 INTRODUCTION
24.2 BUILDING PERFORMANCE ANALYTICS
24.3 METHODOLOGY
24.4 CHALLENGES
24.5 CONCLUSION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ENDNOTES
APPENDIX A: HORIZONTAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS
STEPS FOR CONVERTING SUN-PATH CHARTS FOR USE IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
APPENDIX B: VERTICAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS
STEPS FOR CONVERTING SUN-PATH CHARTS FOR USE IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
APPENDIX C: SOLAR ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH ANGLES
APPENDIX D: METHODS FOR ESTIMATING THE HEIGHT OF TREES, BUILDINGS, AND THE LIKE
D.1 PROPORTIONAL-SHADOW METHOD
D.2 SIMILAR-TRIANGLE METHOD
D.3 45° RIGHT-TRIANGLE METHOD
D.4 TRIGONOMETRIC METHOD
D.5 TOOLS FOR MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLES
APPENDIX E: SUNDIALS
APPENDIX F: SUN-PATH MODELS
F.1 INTRODUCTION
F.2 DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING A SUN-PATH MODEL
APPENDIX G: THE WATER TABLE FOR VENTILATION STUDIES
G.1 INTRODUCTION
G.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A WATER TABLE
APPENDIX H: SITE EVALUATION TOOLS
H.1 INTRODUCTION
H.2 THE SOLAR PATHFINDER
H.3 THE SUNEYE
H.4 THE SUN LOCATOR
H.5 DO-IT-YOURSELF SOLAR SITE EVALUATOR
APPENDIX I: HELIODONS
I.1 INTRODUCTION
I.2 THE SUN SIMULATOR HELIODON
I.3 THE SUN EMULATOR HELIODON
I.4 THE TABLETOP HELIODON
I.5 THE BOWLING BALL HELIODON
APPENDIX J: TABLES OF R-VALUES
APPENDIX K: RESOURCES
K.1 JOURNALS
K.2 VIDEOS
K.3 ORGANIZATIONS
K.4 WEB-BASED RESOURCES
APPENDIX L: CONVERSION FACTORS BETWEEN THE INCH-POUND (I-P) SYSTEM AND THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI)
APPENDIX M: SIZING A PV ARRAY
M.1 FINDING THE PV ARRAY SIZE FOR A STAND-ALONE BUILDING BY THE SHORT CALCULATION METHOD
M.2 EXAMPLE
M.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 The Three-Tier Design Approach
Table 1.2 Building Form Implications
Chapter 2
Table 2.1a Annual CO2/ Emissions of Countries per Capita...
Table 2.1b Cumulative CO2/ Emissions per Country since 1850...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1A Units of Heat and Temperature
Table 3.1B Prefixes Often Used with Energy
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Hours of Daylight Per Day
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Body Heat Production as a Function of Activity
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Out-of-Plane Distortions of Sunbeams
Chapter 7
Table 7.1a Rules for Estimating Optimum Areas of South-Facing Glazing for Direct-...
Table 7.1b Rules for Estimating Required Thermal Mass in Direct-Gain Systems...
Table 7.2 Rules for Estimating the Required Thickness of a Trombe Wall
Table 7.3 Rules for Estimating the Required Thermal Mass in Sunspace Systems
Table 7.4 Comparison of Passive Solar Heating Systems
Table 7.5 Comparison of Various Heat-Storage Materials
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Comparison of the Three Main Shading Systems
Table 8.2 Examples of Fixed Shading Devices
Table 8.3 Examples of Movable Shading Devices
Table 8.4A Comparison of Envelope-Dominated and Internally Dominated Building Typ...
Table 8.4B Overheated and Underheated Periods for Internally Dominated Buildings...
Table 8.4C Overheated and Underheated Periods for Envelope-Dominated Buildings...
Table 8.5 Shading Coefficients (SC) and Solar Heat Gain Coefficients (SHGC) for V...
Table 8.6 Solar Reflectance (Albedo)
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Air Velocities and Thermal Comfort
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Altitude Angles for Drawing Shadow Patterns for December 21
Table 10.2 Useful Trees
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Comparison of the Inch-Pound (I-P) and International System (SI) Light...
Table 11.2 Commonly Experienced Brightness Levels
Table 11.3 Guidelines for Illumination Levels
Table 11.4 Maximum Recommended Brightness Ratios for Indoor Lighting
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Typical Reflectance Factors
Table 12.2A Typical Minimum Daylight Factors
Table 12.2B Average Illumination from Overcast Skies
Table 12.3 Light-to-Solar-Gain (LSG) Ratios for Various Glazing Systems...
Table 12.4 Properties of Translucent Panels and Membranes
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Albedo of Typical Building Surfaces
Table 13.2A Recommended Insulation Levels in R-Value
Table 13.2B Insulation Materials
Table 13.2C I-P to SI Conversion Factors
Table 13.2D R-Values of Air Spaces and Radiant Barrier
Table 13.3A Thermal Bridging's Effect on Insulation
Table 13.3B ASHRAE Correction Factors for Metal Framing
Table 13.4 Time Lag for 1 ft (30 cm) Thick Walls of Common Building Materials
Table 13.5 Air Changes per Hour (ACH)
Table 13.6 Recommended Vent Areas
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 North and South Window Shading in the Tropics
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Maximum Lighting Power Density for an Office
Table 16.2A Comparison of Light Sources
Table 16.2B Comparison of the Major Lamp Groups
Table 16.3 Lighting Fixtures (Luminaires)
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 The Efficiency of Commercial PV Cells
Table 17.2 Approximate Method for Sizing Stand-Alone Systems
a
Table 17.3 Cost Effectiveness of Various Solar Thermal Applications
Table 17.4A Approximate Sizing of a Solar Domestic Hot-Water System
Table 17.4B Approximate Sizing of a Combined Space-Heating and Domestic Hot...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Heating Distribution Systems
Table 18.2A Spatial Requirements for Mechanical Equipment
Table 18.2B Cross-Sectional Area of Supply Ducts (Horizontal or Vertical)a
Appendix J
Table J.1 R-Values for Typical Building Materials
Table J.2 R-Values of Air Spaces
Table J.3 Thermal Resistance for Slab Doors
Appendix M
Table M.1 Typical Appliance Wattage
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1a Buildings are the main cause of climate change because they use ...
Figure 1.1b Zero-energy buildings that produce as much energy as they consum...
Figure 1.2a Massive construction, small windows, and light colors are typica...
Figure 1.2b Many large windows provide ample natural ventilation in hot and ...
Figure 1.2c In hot and humid climates such as in Sumatra, Indonesia, native ...
Figure 1.2d When additional ventilation is desired, wind scoops can be used,...
Figure 1.2e Bay windows are used to capture as much light as possible in mil...
Figure 1.2f In cold climates, compactness, thick wooden walls, and a severe ...
Figure 1.3a The classical portico has its functional roots in the sun- and r...
Figure 1.3b In classical revival buildings, large overhangs supported by col...
Figure 1.3c Roman basilicas and the Christian churches based on them used cl...
Figure 1.3d Daylight gained a mystical quality as it passed through the larg...
Figure 1.3e In the linear central atrium of the Marin County Civic Center, F...
Figure 1.3f The exterior windows of the Marin County Civic Center are protec...
Figure 1.3g The Maison de l'Homme in Zurich, Switzerland, demonstrates the c...
Figure 1.4a Heating, cooling, and lighting are major components of the opera...
Figure 1.4b A building accumulates its significant embodied energy mainly du...
Figure 1.4c Because most people live in hot climates and because the number ...
Figure 1.4d Sustainable design includes a large set of issues, of which ener...
Figure 1.4e The fruits on the solar-responsive design tree represent solar s...
Figure 1.4f Solar-responsive design has a huge potential to save energy beca...
Figure 1.5 Very low-energy and net-zero buildings can be achieved by using t...
Figure 1.6a Heating and cooling degree-days predict how much energy (money) ...
Figure 1.6b It may not be surprising that buildings in New York and Chicago ...
Figure 1.7 Dynamic building facades are often rejected in the belief that ex...
Figure 1.8a The ideal building form is greatly influenced by the local clima...
Figure 1.8b Exterior murals have become quite popular, especially in cities ...
Figure 1.9 Imagine a city where most if not all buildings were covered in gr...
Figure 1.10 As with many other features that create resiliency, placing a ho...
Figure 1.11 What are normally given as causes of climate change are actually...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The mysterious stone heads of Easter Island.
Figure 2.2a Nighttime lights of the world as viewed from satellites clearly ...
Figure 2.2b Where a mountain once stood, a colossal hole now exists. Human b...
Figure 2.3a The size of each tapering block represents the relative importan...
Figure 2.3b Contemporary houses in the United States are much larger than th...
Figure 2.3c Buildings marked for demolition should be either reused through ...
Figure 2.3d The Center for Regenerative Studies at Cal Poly Pomona was estab...
Figure 2.3e Fruit-bearing plants are used for shading at the Center for Rege...
Figure 2.4a Every few years the United Nations publishes “population prospec...
Figure 2.4b The “bathtub ring” visible in this view of Lake Mead indicates t...
Figure 2.4c A good indicator of affluence (i.e. having more than one needs) ...
Fig. 2.4d Would you rather stand on a stool that has one leg or a stool that...
Figure 2.4e The mushroom graphic on the left shows how the rich and well-off...
Figure 2.5 The exponential growth in world energy consumption and population...
Figure 2.6a The exponential growth of an amoeba colony.
Source:
Based on the...
Figure 2.6b The theoretical exponential growth of an amoeba colony.
Source:
...
Figure 2.6c The actual growth of an amoeba colony.
Figure 2.6d Alternate paths for future world energy consumption: (A) histori...
Figure 2.7 A large amount of embodied energy can be saved when exi...
Figure 2.8a The upper graph represents the increase of the global average te...
Figure 2.8b Many phenomena exhibit a tipping effect whereby change is gradua...
Figure 2.8c If or when the climate tips, changes to the environment would be...
Figure 2.8d The atmosphere acts like a greenhouse by allowing most of the so...
Figure 2.9 The depletion of the ozone layer allows greater amounts of the su...
Figure 2.10 Efficiency is the low-hanging fruit. We should not put all our e...
Figure 2.11 Energy consumption by source in the United States. Note that pre...
Figure 2.12 Solar buildings were considered modern in ancient Greece. These ...
Figure 2.13a The age of fossil fuels in the longer span of human history....
Figure 2.13b Air pollution covering New York City is not like this every day...
Figure 2.13c Oil platforms for drilling in deep water are very expensive, ma...
Figure 2.14a Take this quiz: This sign refers to what kind of power plant? (...
Figure 2.14b Nuclear fission is the splitting apart of heavy atoms, yielding...
Figure 2.14c Nuclear fusion consists of the union of very light atoms. For e...
Figure 2.15a The cost of PV electricity has declined dramatically and almost...
Figure 2.15b This windmill in Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia, was used to g...
Figure 2.15c Windmills still pump water on some ranches and farm...
Figure 2.15d Utility-size wind farms like this one in Oklahoma are being bui...
Figure 2.15e The essential components of a wind turbine.
Figure 2.15f Landfill gas can and should be collected to generate electricit...
Figure 2.15g Saving biomass to replenish the soil supports sustainability at...
Figure 2.15h An overshot waterwheel is best used where river water can be di...
Figure 2.15i Undershot waterwheels use the flow of the river for power. Thes...
Figure 2.15j Hydroelectric dams produce pressure (head) and store water (ene...
Figure 2.15k A simple, small-scale hydroelectric system.
Figure 2.16a Because we in the United States have about 4 percent of the wor...
Figure 2.16b To prevent a global warming catastrophe, we must reduce our car...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1a Sensible heat is the random motion of molecules, and temperature...
Figure 3.1b The amount of sensible heat is a function of both temperature an...
Figure 3.2 Latent heat is the large amount of energy required to change the ...
Figure 3.3 The rate of evaporative cooling is a function of both humidity an...
Figure 3.4a Natural convection currents result from differences in temperatu...
Figure 3.4b Stratification results from natural convection unless other forc...
Figure 3.4c Forced convection is caused by wind, fans, or pumps.
Figure 3.5 Warming pans and hot-water bottles were popular in the past to tr...
Figure 3.6 One cubic foot or 1 liter of water can store or transfer the same...
Figure 3.7a Although all objects absorb and emit radiant energy constantly, ...
Figure 3.7b Four different types of interaction are possible between radiant...
Figure 3.7c Part of the radiant energy impinging on an opaque surface is abs...
Figure 3.7d Glass has high transmittance to short-wave radiation (solar radi...
Figure 3.8a The greenhouse effect is a consequence of the fact that glazing ...
Figure 3.8b Note that these two graphs are aligned vertically. The top graph...
Figure 3.9 The equilibrium temperature is a consequence of both the absorpta...
Figure 3.10 The mean radiant temperature (MRT) at any point is the combined ...
Figure 3.11 A water analogy shows how temperature, not heat content, determi...
Figure 3.12 The cooling effect of a heat sink can result from a cold fluid (...
Figure 3.13 If the container of water and the larger concrete block are at t...
Figure 3.14 The heat flow is equal through the two materials because the the...
Figure 3.15 This water analogy illustrates how storage capacity is related t...
Figure 3.16 The “insulating” effect of mass is strongest in the summer in ho...
Figure 3.17 In the conversion of fossil fuel into electricity, about 70 perc...
Figure 3.18a Because combined-heat-and-power (CHP) systems generate electric...
Figure 3.18b Packaged CHP units are self-contained and easily integrated int...
Figure 3.19 In the future, most off-site renewable energy will co...
Figure 3.20a This figure illustrates why storing electricity is so important...
Figure 3.20b Hydrogen can be used to store excess energy for a time when it ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1a The atmosphere is heated mainly by contact with the solar-heated...
Figure 4.1b Because the earth is heated more at the equator than at the pole...
Figure 4.1c The rotation of the earth deflects the north–south air currents ...
Figure 4.1d In certain cases, mountain ranges cause rapid changes from relat...
Figure 4.1e During the day, the air moves up the mountainsides because they ...
Figure 4.1f At night, the land cools rapidly by radiation to space, and the ...
Figure 4.1g The effects described in Figures 4.2e and 4.2f are greatly magni...
Figure 4.1h The temperature differences between land and water create sea br...
Figure 4.1i Since dry climates have little moisture to block radiation, dayt...
Figure 4.1j Water in the form of humidity and especially in the form of clou...
Figure 4.2a South-facing slopes can receive more than one hundred times as m...
Figure 4.2b This photo was taken facing west on an east-west highway. Note t...
Figure 4.2c Since cool air is heavier than warm air, it drains into low-lyin...
Figure 4.2d A delightfully sunny and wind-protected southern exposure can be...
Figure 4.2e A sketch of a typical urban heat-island profile. This profile of...
Figure 4.3 The combination of a low elevation, south-facing slopes, high mou...
Figure 4.4 This map shows how the United States and Canada are divided into ...
Figure 4.5a This key to the Climatic Data Tables shows how each climate is d...
Figure 4.5b On the building bioclimatic chart the climate of a region for an...
Figure 4.5c July normal daily temperature ranges.
Figure 4.5d Surface wind roses, January.
Figure 4.5e Surface wind roses, April.
Figure 4.5f Surface wind roses, July
Figure 4.5g Surface wind roses, October.
Figure 4.5h Wind roses show the direction, wind speed, and the duration of t...
Figure 4.6a This map divides the United States into only five climate zones ...
Figure 4.6b The relative heating and cooling energy consumption of residenti...
Figure 4.6c The relative heating, cooling, and ventilation energy consumptio...
Figure 4.6d Air conditioning loads vary not only with temperature but also h...
Figure 4.6e This pie chart is for the typical U.S. residence where heating a...
Figure 4.7a Use attached buildings to reduce the exposed wall area. Use comp...
Figure 4.7b Build in wind-protected areas such as the side of a hill. Plant ...
Figure 4.7c Orient the building with the long side facing south. Avoid trees...
Figure 4.7d Orient the short side of the building to the east and west and a...
Figure 4.7e Provide many large but shaded windows for ventilation. Provide b...
Figure 4.7f Raise the building above the moisture at ground level and ventil...
Figure 4.7g Use thermal mass to reduce the impact of high temperatures. Use ...
Figure 4.7h Use compact, well-insulated buildings with white roofs and walls...
Figure 4.7i In dry or temperate climates, use fountains, pools, and plants f...
Figure 4.7j Use exhaust fans to remove excess moisture from kitchens, bathro...
Figure 4.7k Use operable and movable wall panels. Create sheltered outdoor s...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1a Methods of dissipating waste heat from an automobile.
Figure 5.1b Methods of dissipating waste heat from a biological machine.
Figure 5.1c The way heat is lost from a body depends on the ambient temperat...
Figure 5.2a The concept of multiple barriers is very appropriate for thermal...
Figure 5.2b The geodesic dome of the U.S. Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal, C...
Figure 5.2c The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, in Milan, Italy, completed 18...
Figure 5.2d The Crystal Palace, built for the Great Exhibition of 1851, crea...
Figure 5.3 The swinging fan provided upper-class people with increased comfo...
Figure 5.4a Each point on the psychrometric chart represents the properties ...
Figure 5.4b Changes in the temperature or moisture content of a sample of ai...
Figure 5.4c If an air sample is cooled, its RH will increase even though the...
Figure 5.4d If an air sample is heated, its relative humidity will drop even...
Figure 5.5a When an air sample is cooled sufficiently, its RH increases unti...
Figure 5.5b The moisture content of the air can be quantified by a sling psy...
Figure 5.6a The psychrometric chart also presents information on the heat co...
Figure 5.6b Heating and humidifying an air sample increases both its sensibl...
Figure 5.6c In evaporative cooling, the increase in latent heat equals the d...
Figure 5.7a The comfort zone and various types of discomfort outside that zo...
Figure 5.7b A more detailed look at the comfort zone shows that it actually ...
Figure 5.8a To compensate for a high MRT, the comfort zone shifts down to th...
Figure 5.8b To compensate for high air velocity, the cooling effect of air a...
Figure 5.8c To compensate for an increase in physical activity, the comfort ...
Figure 5.9 Under certain circumstances, people can be comfortable in conditi...
Figure 5.10 The building bioclimatic chart is a version of the psychrometric...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Part of the year the sun is our friend, and part of the year it i...
Figure 6.2a The surface temperature of the sun determines the type of radiat...
Figure 6.2b The solar spectrum at the earth's surface consists of about 45 p...
Figure 6.3 The earth's axis of rotation is tilted to the plane of the ellipt...
Figure 6.4a The seasons are a consequence of the tilt of the earth's axis of...
Figure 6.4b During the summer solstice (June 21), the sun is directly overhe...
Figure 6.4c During the winter solstice (December 21), the sun is directly ov...
Figure 6.5a On the equinoxes, when the sun is perpendicular to the equator, ...
Figure 6.5b The altitude angle determines how much of the solar radiation wi...
Figure 6.5c A vertical sunbeam with a cross section of 1 ft
2
(1 m
2
), for exa...
Figure 6.6a The sky dome and the three sun paths of June 21, September/March...
Figure 6.6b The part of the sky dome between the December 21 and June 21 sun...
Figure 6.6c An east elevation of the sky dome is shown. The east–west axis i...
Figure 6.7a Definition of altitude and azimuth angles.
Figure 6.7b Diffuse radiation.
Figure 6.8a A model of the sky dome. The sun paths for the twenty-first day ...
Figure 6.8b Derivation of the horizontal and vertical sun-path diagrams.
Figure 6.8c Horizontal sun-path diagram. A complete set of these diagrams is...
Figure 6.8d The azimuth angle measured from a north–south line is used to dr...
Figure 6.9a A vertical sun-path diagram is shown. A complete set of these di...
Figure 6.9b Azimuth angles are used to draw sunbeams in plan, and altitude a...
Figure 6.9c The winter solar window and silhouette of surrounding objects ar...
Figure 6.10a This figure illustrates the distortions that result when a sunb...
Figure 6.10b The key plan shown helps determine which sunbeams should be sho...
Figure 6.10c All sunbeams are shown on plan, but only those in the “yes” zon...
Figure 6.10d When important sunbeams are more than 20° out of the plane of s...
Figure 6.11 Various sun-path models are shown to illustrate how sun angles v...
Figure 6.12a These graphs show how much solar radiation falls on each facade...
Figure 6.12b At 32° N latitude, skylights receive significantly more sun on ...
Figure 6.12c These graphs show how much solar radiation falls on each facade...
Figure 6.12d At 48° N latitude, skylights collect much more sun on June 21 t...
Figure 6.13 A variation on a vertical sun-path diagram is used as part of th...
Figure 6.14a This type of heliodon (“solarscope B”) was developed by Szokola...
Figure 6.14b This tabletop heliodon is a practical, low cost, and appropriat...
Figure 6.15 Sundials can be used to test models either under sunlight or a r...
Figure 6.16a The Sun Simulator heliodon was developed by the aut...
Figure 6.16b The Sun Emulator heliodon was developed for those architecture ...
Figure 6.16c Although the Demonstration Heliodon is too small to test models...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1a The orangery on the grounds of the royal palace in Prague, the C...
Figure 7.1b Conservatories supplied plants, heat, and extra living space for...
Figure 7.2a This is an artistic reconstruction of Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyo...
Figure 7.2b The New England saltbox faced the southern sun and turned its ba...
Figure 7.2c One of the first modern solar houses in America was designed by ...
Figure 7.3a The Jacobs II House was designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright...
Figure 7.3b Plan of the Jacobs II house.
Figure 7.3c Section of the Jacobs II house.
Figure 7.3d This interior view of the Jacobs II House shows the two-story so...
Figure 7.4a The Human Services Field Office, Taos, New Mexico (1979), has al...
Figure 7.4b Integrated passive and hybrid solar multiple housing, Berlin, 19...
Figure 7.5a The three main types of passive solar space-heating systems are ...
Figure 7.5b Passive solar heating is the second tier of the three-tier appro...
Figure 7.6a The greenhouse effect collects and traps solar radiation during ...
Figure 7.6b This direct gain fire station was designed for the high elevatio...
Figure 7.6c A low-mass passive solar building (top) will experience a large ...
Figure 7.6d Use clerestory windows to bring the solar radiation directly to ...
Figure 7.6e The clerestories of the Smith Middle School in Chapel Hill, Nort...
Figure 7.6f The Urban Villa has a large south-facing facade that is 40 perce...
Figure 7.6g The Mount Airy Public Library utilizes direct gain heating throu...
Figure 7.7a Thermal mass can also consist of vertical tubes filled with wate...
Figure 7.7b Massive floors should be medium to dark in color in order to abs...
Figure 7.8 The plan and section used in the direct-gain example problem.
Figure 7.9a The Trombe wall passive-solar heating system collects heat witho...
Figure 7.9b A half-height wall allows controlled direct gain for daytime hea...
Figure 7.9c This synagogue uses many passive strategies, including the under...
Figure 7.9d The Visitor Center at Zion National Park uses both Trombe walls ...
Figure 7.9e The Shelly Ridge Girl Scout Center near Philadelphia, Pennsylvan...
Figure 7.9f The direct-gain windows provide daylighting, views, and heat ear...
Figure 7.9g Because of the slenderness of this Trombe wall, a wooden frame w...
Figure 7.9h In hot climates, a shade screen should be draped over the Trombe...
Figure 7.9i In the lobby (area 4) a stained-glass gnomon projects the time a...
Figure 7.10a Possible relationships of a sunspace to the main building.
Figure 7.10b During the day, the sunspace collects solar radiation and distr...
Figure 7.10c The Beddington Zero (fossil) Energy Development (BedZED) uses s...
Figure 7.10d This section of BedZED shows the passive solar sunspaces on the...
Figure 7.11a One of the first and most interesting sunspace houses is the Ba...
Figure 7.11b A section through the Balcomb House shows the adobe common wall...
Figure 7.11c This plan of the Balcomb House shows how the building surrounds...
Figure 7.11d The performance of both the house and sunspace of the Balcomb H...
Figure 7.12a To prevent overheating in the summer, the sunspace must be vent...
Figure 7.12b In extremely hot or cold climates, the sunspace should be compl...
Figure 7.13 This flowchart helps in choosing and designing a passive solar s...
Figure 7.14a Vertical south glazing is usually the best choice because it tr...
Figure 7.14b Plan view of a combined system of direct gain and Trombe walls ...
Figure 7.14c Because of topography the Blue Ridge Parkway Visitor Center cou...
Figure 7.14d Avoid building projections on the south wall that would cause s...
Figure 7.14e To prevent passive solar from becoming a liability in the summe...
Figure 7.14f Balconies or covered porches that effectively shade windows and...
Figure 7.14g Specular reflectors are much less efficient on narrow than on w...
Figure 7.14h The length of a specular reflector is determined by the winter ...
Figure 7.14i Specular (mirror-like) reflectors can improve the performance o...
Figure 7.15a The volumetric heat capacity of common building materials.
Figure 7.15b The thermal conductivity (reciprocal of resistance) of various ...
Figure 7.15c The ability of a material to store heat is a function of both h...
Figure 7.15d Because the conduction of heat into the interior of a material ...
Figure 7.15e To maximize the exposure area, this PCM material comes ¾ in (2 ...
Figure 7.16a The self-regulating passive convective loop (thermosiphon) syst...
Figure 7.16b The roof radiation trap system was developed by Baruch Givoni i...
Figure 7.16c A lightweight collecting wall can supply additional daytime hea...
Figure 7.17 The benefits of orientation are made clear from this study of he...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 The growth of air conditioning will accelerate as more people can...
Figure 8.2a Ancient Greek architecture made full use of colonnades and porti...
Figure 8.2b Greek Revival architecture was especially popular in the South, ...
Figure 8.2c Postmodernism, with its allusion to classical architecture, coul...
Figure 8.2d Victorian architecture made much use of the porch and the covere...
Figure 8.2e Loggias supported by arcades and colonnades shielded the large w...
Figure 8.2f Much Asian architecture is dominated by large overhangs, as seen...
Figure 8.2g The sliding wall panels can be opened for maximum access to vent...
Figure 8.2h The Gamble House in Pasadena, California, 1908, by Greene and Gr...
Figure 8.2i White Greek villages typically include small areas of bright col...
Figure 8.2j Large overhangs dominate the design of the Robie House, Chicago ...
Figure 8.2k Sunshades known as brise-soleil were retrofitted on the Cité de ...
Figure 8.2L The brise-soleil and parasol roof shade the High Court Building ...
Figure 8.2m The Maharaja's Palace at Mysore, India, illustrates the extensiv...
Figure 8.2n An often-overlooked benefit of the traditional, thick masonry wa...
Figure 8.2o As this architect's rendering indicates, awnings were considered...
Figure 8.3 Shading is often required for northern climates like Helsinki, Fi...
Figure 8.4a The three-tier approach to design is a logical and sustainable m...
Figure 8.4b All orientations except south receive maximum solar radiation in...
Figure 8.4c In the Conoco Headquarters complex in Houston, Texas, Kevin Roch...
Figure 8.4d In humid, polluted, and dusty regions, the diffuse-sk...
Figure 8.4e In dry regions, the solar load consists mainly of the direct and...
Figure 8.4f Glass facades without exterior shading devices reflect much of t...
Figure 8.4g Exterior shading is four times more effective in blocking the su...
Figure 8.5a Each orientation requires a different shading strategy. From a s...
Figure 8.5b These plans illustrate how windows on east and west facades can ...
Figure 8.5c All the windows on this west facade of the library of the Univer...
Figure 8.5d The windows on the west facade of this building in Fe...
Figure 8.5e The windows on the west facade of this building at Ge...
Figure 8.5f Shading on east and west windows is improved when a combination ...
Figure 8.5g Many small elements can create the same shading effect as one la...
Figure 8.5h Skylights (horizontal and near horizontal openings) should usual...
Figure 8.5i Clerestory windows should be used instead of skylights because t...
Figure 8.6a The importance of dynamic south overhangs for buildings with hea...
Figure 8.6b To dispel the myth that fixed overhangs can both effectively sha...
Figure 8.6c The poor performance of a fixed overhang as shown in Figures 8.6...
Figure 8.6d A dynamic shading device with just two simple adjustments per ye...
Figure 8.6e Awnings were a common element on many buildings until air condit...
Figure 8.6f Roll-down exterior fabric shades are very popular in Europe. By ...
Figure 8.6g This type of awning is very popular in Mediterranean ...
Figure 8.6h The retractable hood awning prevents the outflanking ...
Figure 8.6i The amount of shading from trees depends on the species, pruning...
Figure 8.6j Vines can be very effective sunshading devices. Some vines grow ...
Figure 8.6k Since trees grow too slowly to help much on multistory buildings...
Figure 8.6L Medium- to dark-colored walls benefit greatly from a vine cover ...
Figure 8.6m The automated fabric roller shades on the exterior of the east a...
Figure 8.6n Exterior roller shades made of rigid slats move in a vertical pl...
Figure 8.6o Exterior venetian blinds have all of the adjustments possible wi...
Figure 8.6p This installation of adjustable louvers is in the Chiswick Busin...
Figure 8.6q Adjustable exterior louvers are effective sun-control devices, b...
Figure 8.6r Like barn doors, these sliding shutters shade windows and balcon...
Figure 8.6s When sliding shutters provide both shade and protection from hig...
Figure 8.8a Horizontal louvered overhangs both vent hot air and minimize sno...
Figure 8.8b The sun easily outflanks any overhang the same width as the wind...
Figure 8.8c Wide strip windows allow the use of the horizontal overhangs the...
Figure 8.9a Highlight the sun path that is closest to the end of the overhea...
Figure 8.9b Draw the sunray that is perpendicular to the window at the cente...
Figure 8.9c On a section, draw the sunray from the windowsill. Any overhang ...
Figure 8.9d To prevent the sun from outflanking the overhang, in this exampl...
Figure 8.10a The full sun line at angle B determines the maximum allowable p...
Figure 8.10b A fixed overhang, unlike a dynamic overhang, will not work well...
Figure 8.10c Two of the many possible dynamic overhangs are shown in both th...
Figure 8.11a The 33 ft (10 m) overhang needed to shade a 4 ft (1.2 m) window...
Figure 8.11b This plan view illustrates the sweep of the sun's azimuth angle...
Figure 8.11c These plan views of vertical fins on a west (east) facade illus...
Figure 8.11d This photo of west-facing windows was taken on a summer afterno...
Figure 8.11e Dynamic fins would be in their maximum open position (top) unti...
Figure 8.11f Since the depth of an overhang is a function of the height of a...
Figure 8.11g One option for shading east and west windows consists of using ...
Figure 8.12 The shade line at angle D determines the fin design on north win...
Figure 8.13a This marble screen, carved from a single piece of stone, is act...
Figure 8.13b An eggcrate shading device made of metal. Note that the metal s...
Figure 8.13c Small and medium-sized eggcrate shading systems severely block ...
Figure 8.13d In the Unité d'Habitation of Berlin, Le Corbusier used the balc...
Figure 8.13e The shading effect is a function of the ratios
h/d
and
w/d
. It ...
Figure 8.14a The U.S. Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal, Canada, was designed ...
Figure 8.14b The residence that architect Richard Foster built for himself i...
Figure 8.14c Architect Rolf Disch of Freiburg, Germany, has designed his hom...
Figure 8.14d The structure and circulation of the Heliotrope.
Figure 8.14e A shading panel could rotate around the building in phase with ...
Figure 8.14f The Tanfield House in Edinburgh, Scotland, designed by Michael ...
Figure 8.14g The Indian Heritage Center uses shading that spans from buildin...
Figure 8.14h The glass dome of the Singapore Concert Hall is covered with al...
Figure 8.14i A close-up of the shading caps on the Singapore Concert hall
Figure 8.14j This parasol roof in Singapore shades both the actual roof and ...
Figure 8.14k Although the screen used to shade this building is quite effect...
Figure 8.14L The dynamic shading automatically responds to the sun moving ar...
Figure 8.14m Note the “mountain climbers” maintaining the shading system. Al...
Figure 8.15a The public areas in this outdoor mall in Las Vegas are shaded b...
Figure 8.15b The Roman Colosseum, which was built about 80
CE
and seated abo...
Figure 8.15c The toldo (pleated awning) is a beautiful and effective device ...
Figure 8.15d In this unusual instance, the toldo protects an ind...
Figure 8.15e This winter garden in Washington, D.C., is protecte...
Figure 8.15f These trellised outdoor reading areas are part of the public li...
Figure 8.15g This pergola was designed so that most of the shade...
Figure 8.15h This arbor is located in the garden of the Governor's Palace, C...
Figure 8.15i The typical pergola has shading elements that are on edge-like ...
Figure 8.15j Cities can be made much more attractive by providing shade to p...
Figure 8.15k An important element of the revitalization of an ol...
Figure 8.15L Antoine Predock used a trellis of steel bars to shade outdoor w...
Figure 8.15m Fixed, outdoor shading systems should allow hot air to escape i...
Figure 8.16a A model of a south window is placed facing south on the tilt ta...
Figure 8.16b The heliodon now simulates 4 p.m. on September 15. Note how the...
Figure 8.16c The overhang is redesigned by making it wider.
Figure 8.16d The heliodon light is readjusted to simulate the shading for th...
Figure 8.16e The overhang is rotated up until the window is fully exposed to...
Figure 8.16f The model shows that at very large angles of incidence (i.e. gl...
Figure 8.16g No matter how complicated the shading problem is, physical mode...
Figure 8.17a The total heat gain from incident solar radiation consists of b...
Figure 8.17b Since with tinted or heat-absorbing glass a large proportion of...
Figure 8.17c The transmittance of solar radiation through glazing is a funct...
Figure 8.17d The city hall of Tempe, Arizona, is an inverted pyramid inspire...
Figure 8.17e At very large angles of incidence (i.e. glancing), most solar r...
Figure 8.17f The sun only sees the full size of a window when the sunrays ar...
Figure 8.17g The maximum solar gain through a west window occurs at about 4 ...
Figure 8.17h Reflective glazing effectively blocks solar radiation without c...
Figure 8.17i All-glass buildings are not sustainable for many reasons, inclu...
Figure 8.17j All glass facades reflect the sun. Instead exterior light-color...
Figure 8.17k Selective low-e glazing blocks solar heat more than...
Figure 8.18a Some common types of interior shading devices for back-up shadi...
Figure 8.18b White or specular (mirror like) venetian blinds and indoor ligh...
Figure 8.18c When indoor shades are used along with an exterior overhang, th...
Figure 8.20a The solar reflectance, also known as albedo, is given as a rang...
Figure 8.20b The brick walls of this house under construction in the South a...
Figure 8.20c Especially in urban areas, as much sunlight as possible should ...
Figure 8.20d Ordinary finishes (top) reflect the short-wave (solar) infrared...
Figure 8.20e The minimum and maximum solar reflectance (albedo) values are g...
Figure 8.21a The south and east facades of the Biological Sciences Building ...
Figure 8.21b The north and west facades of the same building shown in Figure...
Figure 8.21c The office slab of the United Nations headquarters in New York ...
Figure 8.21d The Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, designed by Frank Lloy...
Figure 8.21e The Samsung Insurance Headquarters building in Seoul, South Kor...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Sustainable cooling is achieved by the three-tier design approach...
Figure 9.2a Hot and dry climates typically have buildings with small windows...
Figure 9.2b Some ancient Egyptian houses used wind scoops to maximize ventil...
Figure 9.2c The wind towers in Hyderabad, Pakistan, all faced the prevailing...
Figure 9.2d The wind towers in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, are designed to ...
Figure 9.2e Some wind towers in hot and dry areas cool the incoming air by e...
Figure 9.2f A mashrabiya is a screened bay window popular in the Middle East...
Figure 9.2g Many traditional courtyard houses have all of their windows and ...
Figure 9.2h The trulli are conical stone houses in Apulia, Italy. Their larg...
Figure 9.2i Dwellings and churches are carved from the volcanic tufa cones i...
Figure 9.2j The cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde, Colorado, benefit from the he...
Figure 9.2k The Navajo hogan, with its thick earthen walls, provides comfort...
Figure 9.2L Spanish missionaries and settlers in the Southwest used thick ad...
Figure 9.2m These wall-less “chickees,” built by the Indians of southern Flo...
Figure 9.2n Ventilation is maximized by movable wall panels in traditional J...
Figure 9.2o The movable wall panels open onto the
engawa
(veranda), which is...
Figure 9.2p This Gulf Coast house incorporated many cooling concepts appropr...
Figure 9.2q The breezy passage of the dogtrot house was a favorite for both ...
Figure 9.2r Shutters with adjustable louvers were almost universally used in...
Figure 9.2s The Waverly plantation near Columbus, Mississippi, has a large b...
Figure 9.2t A strong stack effect is created by the octagonal belvedere over...
Figure 9.2u The Governor's Mansion in Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia, is we...
Figure 9.3a Air flows because of either natural convection or pressure diffe...
Figure 9.3b The four different kinds of airflow.
Figure 9.3c Air flowing around a building will cause uneven positive and neg...
Figure 9.3d The pressure on the leeward side of a roof is always negative, b...
Figure 9.3e Turbulence and eddy currents occur in the high- and low-pressure...
Figure 9.3f The venturi tube illustrates the Bernoulli effect: As the veloci...
Figure 9.3g An airplane wing is like half of a venturi tube. In this case, t...
Figure 9.3h The venturi effect causes air to be exhausted through roof openi...
Figure 9.3i Venturi passive ventilators with adjustable louvers are used at ...
Figure 9.3j Because the air velocity increases rapidly with height above gra...
Figure 9.3k The stack effect will exhaust hot air only if the indoor-tempera...
Figure 9.3L The central stair and geometry of this design allow effective ve...
Figure 9.3m The stack effect causes negative pressure in the lower part of a...
Figure 9.3n A solar chimney increases the stack effect without heating the i...
Figure 9.4a Usually indoor ventilation is better from oblique winds than fro...
Figure 9.4b Acceptable wind directions for the orientation that is best for ...
Figure 9.4c Deflecting walls and vegetation can be used to change airflow di...
Figure 9.4d Cross ventilation between windows on opposite walls is the ideal...
Figure 9.4e Ventilation from windows on adjacent sides can be poor or good, ...
Figure 9.4f Some ventilation is possible in the asymmetric placement of wind...
Figure 9.4g Fin walls can significantly increase ventilation through windows...
Figure 9.4h Poor ventilation results from fin walls placed on the same side ...
Figure 9.4i The greater positive pressure on one side of the window deflects...
Figure 9.4j A fin wall can be used to direct the airstream through the cente...
Figure 9.4k The solid horizontal overhang causes the air to deflect upward....
Figure 9.4L A louvered overhang or a gap in the overhang will permit the air...
Figure 9.4m A solid horizontal overhang placed high above the window will al...
Figure 9.4n All but double-hung and sliding windows have a strong effect on ...
Figure 9.4o For comfort ventilation, openings should be at the level of the ...
Figure 9.4p Mechanical cable used for operating high windows.
Figure 9.4q Each electric motor opens a bank of awning windows by rotating a...
Figure 9.4r A common way to open remote windows is with the rack-and-pinion ...
Figure 9.4s Inlets and outlets should be the same size. If they cannot be th...
Figure 9.4t The resistance to airflow by insect screens can be largely overc...
Figure 9.4u The design of a roof ventilator has a great effect on its perfor...
Figure 9.4v The Building Research Establishment (BRE) office building uses o...
Figure 9.4w The Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED) in London, Engla...
Figure 9.4x The Animal Foundation Dog Adoption Park uses monitors...
Figure 9.4y Monitors on the roofs of the bathing pavilions at Cal...
Figure 9.4z This extension to the Portland Community College uses...
Figure 9.4aa Whole-house or window fans are used to bring in outdoor air for...
Figure 9.4bb In regard to natural ventilation, single-loaded corridor plans ...
Figure 9.4ccFigure 9.4cc In single-story buildings, a double-loaded corridor...
Figure 9.4dd The Unité d'Habitation at Marseilles, France, was designed by L...
Figure 9.4ee Only every third floor has a corridor, and the apartments are a...
Figure 9.4ff The clerestories of the Mount Airy Public Library have many fun...
Figure 9.4gg The slanted walls at each end of both office blocks capture eno...
Figure 9.5a The initial steps for drawing an airflow diagram.
Figure 9.5b The completed airflow diagram has connected all windward and lee...
Figure 9.5c Airflow should also be checked in section. (
Figure 9.5d This water table at Chiang Mai University in Thailand allows eff...
Figure 9.6a The Mayan Indians of the hot and humid Yucatan Peninsula build l...
Figure 9.6b Frank Lloyd Wright's Robie House (1909) in Chicago has whole wal...
Figure 9.7a The performance of night-flush cooling and comfort ventilation i...
Figure 9.7b With night-flush cooling, night ventilation cools the mass of th...
Figure 9.7c During the day, the night-flush cooled mass acts as a heat sink....
Figure 9.7d This perspective section is of the Emerald People's Utility Dist...
Figure 9.7e This detail shows the airflow through the concrete hollow core-s...
Figure 9.7f The dark circles next to the clerestory windows are exhaust fans...
Figure 9.8a Double-skin facades are dynamic in that they control natural ven...
Figure 9.8b A detail for the double-skin facade of the Commerzbank, Frankfur...
Figure 9.8c Many spaces, such as this Best Western Lamplighter Inn, London, ...
Figure 9.9a On clear nights with little humidity, there is strong radiant co...
Figure 9.9b Humidity reduces radiant cooling, and clouds practically stop it...
Figure 9.9c During a summer night, the insulation is removed and the bags of...
Figure 9.9d During a summer day, the water bags are insulated from the sun a...
Figure 9.9e At night, the movable insulation is in the open position so that...
Figure 9.9f During the day, the insulation is in the closed position to keep...
Figure 9.9g The specialized radiator cools air, which is then blown into the...
Figure 9.9h During the day, the radiator is vented outdoors, while the build...
Figure 9.10a Evaporative coolers (swamp coolers) look a great deal like cent...
Figure 9.10b Evaporative coolers are widely used in hot and dry regions. Thi...
Figure 9.10c This indirect evaporative-cooling system uses a roof pond. Note...
Figure 9.10d This nighttime indirect evaporative-cooling system uses floatin...
Figure 9.10e Water that is cooled by both evaporation and radiation to the n...
Figure 9.10f Indirect evaporative coolers reduce the indoor air temperature ...
Figure 9.10g This duct goes out the window and up to the rooftop indirect ev...
Figure 9.11a In cool towers, air is cooled by evaporation, which then sinks ...
Figure 9.11b The Zion National Park Visitor Center in Utah is kept comfortab...
Figure 9.11c The evaporative cool-tower is only one of the many energy effic...
Figure 9.12a Soil temperature varies with time of year and depth below grade...
Figure 9.12b Deep-earth temperatures are approximately equal to these well-w...
Figure 9.12c Insulating the soil around an earth-sheltered building creates ...
Figure 9.12d Indirect earth cooling is possible by means of tubes buried in ...
Figure 9.12e Soil can be cooled significantly below its natural summer tempe...
Figure 9.13a Solar chimneys can be used to prevent odors in outhouses and co...
Figure 9.13b To maximize the stack effect, the solar chimneys at the Sidwell...
Figure 9.13c The extra tall slab is a solar chimney that helps ventilate the...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1a The heating, cooling, and lighting needs of a building as influ...
Figure 10.1b The ancient Greek city of Olynthus was oriented toward the sun....
Figure 10.1c Multistory buildings facing narrow streets create desirable sha...
Figure 10.1d The shading structure over this Moroccan street blocks much of ...
Figure 10.1e This colonnade in Santa Fe, New Mexico, protects pedestrians fr...
Figure 10.1f Farms in the Shimane Prefecture of Japan use L-shaped windbreak...
Figure 10.1g In hot and humid climates, such as that of Tocamacho, Honduras,...
Figure 10.3a In winter, south-sloping land receives the most sunshine becaus...
Figure 10.3b South-sloping land also experiences the least shade.
Figure 10.3c Microclimates around a hill.
Figure 10.3d Preferred building sites around a hill in response to climate f...
Figure 10.4a The solar-access boundary is a conical surface generated by sun...
Figure 10.4b The solar-access boundary determines how high objects can be be...
Figure 10.4c Trees on the south side of a building are problematic, because ...
Figure 10.4d Even without leaves, deciduous trees still block 30 to 60 perce...
Figure 10.4e If large desirable trees exist on the south side in...
Figure 10.5a Shadow patterns demonstrate conflicts in solar access. Notice t...
Figure 10.5b The shadows cast by a vertical pole from sunrise to sunset on D...
Figure 10.5c Plan view of the shadows cast by a pole at 36° N latitude on De...
Figure 10.5d The simplified shadow pattern of a pole on December 21 is deriv...
Figure 10.5e Shadow lengths are determined in section. The sunrays for Decem...
Figure 10.5f To generate the shadow pattern of a building, assume that the b...
Figure 10.5g The morning, noon, and afternoon shadows on December 21 are con...
Figure 10.5h The shadow pattern is the composite of the morning, noon, and a...
Figure 10.5i Sloping land changes the length and shapes of the shadow patter...
Figure 10.5j The quick method for constructing shadow patterns (templates)....
Figure 10.5k The quick method for creating shadow patterns (templates) for t...
Figure 10.6a East–west streets are ideal for both winter solar access from t...
Figure 10.6b With conventional development, north–south streets promote neit...
Figure 10.6c With this arrangement, buildings on north–south streets should ...
Figure 10.6d Flag lots (driveway looks like a flagpole) can achieve a good o...
Figure 10.6e Duplexes can achieve good solar access even on a no...
Figure 10.6f Even on diagonal streets, buildings can be oriented toward the ...
Figure 10.6g This site design shows a prototypical subdivision for solar acc...
Figure 10.6h Uneven setbacks cause both winter and summer problems (i.e. som...
Figure 10.6i Very small setbacks, like those sometimes used in row housing, ...
Figure 10.6j For taller buildings on east–west streets, deep lots are better...
Figure 10.6k Place taller buildings and trees on the south side of east–west...
Figure 10.6L When solar access is not possible for the whole building, clere...
Figure 10.7a The three levels of solar access are shown.
Figure 10.7b Conventional zoning usually defines a rectangular solid within ...
Figure 10.7c Bulk-plane zoning consists of an upper plane sloping down to th...
Figure 10.7d Solar-envelope zoning has upper sloping planes in the four comp...
Figure 10.7e Example of architectural form encouraged by solar-envelope zoni...
Figure 10.7f This development in downtown Denver, Colorado, demonstrates the...
Figure 10.7g During certain hours shadows are limited to the height of the p...
Figure 10.8a Physical modeling is an excellent design tool for providing eac...
Figure 10.8b The shadow for December 21 at 9 a.m. is shown.
Figure 10.8c The shadow for December 21 at 12 noon is shown. Note the dashed...
Figure 10.8d The shadow for December 21 at 3 p.m. is shown. Note...
Figure 10.8e The composite of the three shadows forms the shadow pattern for...
Figure 10.9a A small reduction in wind velocity results in a high reduction ...
Figure 10.9b Wind protection is a function of both the height of a windbreak...
Figure 10.9c At gaps and at ends of windbreaks, the air velocity is actually...
Figure 10.9d Buildings on columns (pilotis) experience very high wind speeds...
Figure 10.9e Tall buildings often generate severely windy conditions at grou...
Figure 10.9f A building extension deflects winds away from ground-level area...
Figure 10.9g Tall buildings placed toward the north of a community not only ...
Figure 10.9h The higher the windbreak, the longer the wind shado...
Figure 10.9i Up to a point, the width of a windbreak also affect...
Figure 10.9j Trees and bushes can funnel breezes through buildings.
Figure 10.9k By preventing the wind from spilling around the sides of a buil...
Figure 10.9L To maximize summer winds, use trees with high canopies.
Figure 10.9m To maximize summer ventilation, place bushes away from the buil...
Figure 10.9n Placing bushes close to the building is good for winter wind pr...
Figure 10.9o In hot and humid climates, buildings should be staggered to pro...
Figure 10.9p Use row or cluster housing for protection against wind in cold ...
Figure 10.9q Large pools of water frequently helped cool Roman villas. The G...
Figure 10.9r This dining terrace in the House of Loreio Tiburtino in Pompeii...
Figure 10.9s At Taliesin West, near Phoenix, Arizona, Frank Lloyd Wright use...
Figure 10.10a Besides the many benefits of trees described in this diagram, ...
Figure 10.10b Plants can reduce winter heating and summer cooling as much as...
Figure 10.10c Deciduous trees vary greatly in the amount of sunlight they bl...
Figure 10.10d This map shows the zones of plant hardiness as listed in Table...
Figure 10.10e Plastic bioretention modules supporting porous pavements allow...
Figure 10.10f Shade from trees is especially effective because trees do not ...
Figure 10.10g Since air is heated by contact with the ground, the air over a...
Figure 10.10h At night, it is warmer under trees than in an open field becau...
Figure 10.10i Plants can soften and diffuse daylight and reduce the glare fr...
Figure 10.10j Quality daylight can be achieved by blocking direct sunlight w...
Figure 10.11a The Hanging Gardens of Babylon should be an inspiration not on...
Figure 10.11b Although the thermal benefits of vegetated roofs are greatest ...
Figure 10.11c An extensive vegetated roof system for growing grass and small...
Figure 10.11d Some vegetated roofs are made of modular trays that come with ...
Figure 10.11e This roof garden, or intensive vegetated roof, is made from mo...
Figure 10.11f A roof-garden design for a cold climate would block the cold n...
Figure 10.11g A roof-garden design for a hot and humid climate would maximiz...
Figure 10.12a The logic for tree planting around a building includes shade t...
Figure 10.12b Landscaping techniques for a temperate climate. Contrary to th...
Figure 10.12c Landscaping techniques for very cold climates.
Figure 10.12d Landscaping techniques for hot and dry climates w...
Figure 10.12e Landscaping techniques for hot and humid climates with cold wi...
Figure 10.12f Bushes can act as vertical fins to block the low sun on north ...
Figure 10.12g Vine-covered trellises are effective devices for creating shad...
Figure 10.12h Landscaping elements for creating shade and/or controlling air...
Figure 10.12i Waterfalls, fountains, and pools can cool the air in all but v...
Figure 10.13a With a circular street layout, every building has a different ...
Figure 10.13b In the community of Village Homes in Davis, California, most s...
Figure 10.13c Cluster housing saves land and energy. The saved land is used ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1a Low sunken relief is ideal for the very bright and direct sun o...
Figure 11.1b High relief is modeled well by the direct sun of Greece.
Figure 11.1c The cloudy and subdued lighting of northern Europe allows highl...
Figure 11.1d High-quality and more sustainable lighting is best achieved via...
Figure 11.2a Light is only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Lig...
