How Structures Work E-Book

David Yeomans

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 558

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Structural engineering is central to the design of a building. How the building behaves when subjected to various forces – the weight of the materials used to build it, the weight of the occupants or the traffic it carries, the force of the wind etc – is fundamental to its stability. The alliance between architecture and structural engineering is therefore critical to the successful design and completion of the buildings and infrastructure that surrounds us. Yet structure is often cloaked in mathematics which many architects and surveyors find difficult to understand.

How Structures Work has been written to explain the behaviour of structures in a clear way without resorting to complex mathematics. This new edition includes a new chapter on construction materials, and significant revisions to, and reordering of the existing chapters. It is aimed at all who require a good qualitative understanding of structures and their behaviour, and as such will be of benefit to students of architecture, architectural history, building surveying and civil engineering. The straightforward, non-mathematical approach ensures it will also be suitable for a wider audience including building administrators, archaeologists and the interested layman.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Preface

1 Brackets and Bridges

Cooper’s tragedy

The Forth Bridge

Members in compression

The Quebec Bridge

Forces in a bracket

The design process

Stresses

2 Stiffening a Beam – Girder Bridges

The simple truss

Tension trusses

Girder bridges: The Forth Bridge

3 Arches and Suspension Bridges

Building an arch

Blackfriars Bridge

Pontypridd Bridge

The forces in an arch

Practical issues

Forces within the arch ring

Edwards’s failure

An unexpected failure

Arch with point load

Iron and concrete arches

The suspension bridge

Arches in buildings: Flying buttresses

Arches in walls

4 Bringing the Loads to the Ground – The Structural Scheme

Introduction

The alternatives

Nature of the loads

Choices

‘Flow of forces’ or action and reaction

Describing the structure

Structures are three-dimensional

Statically indeterminate structures

5 Safe as Houses? – Walls

Bricks and mortar

Point loads and openings

Cavity walls

Thick walls

Foundation loads

Horizontal loads

Rafter thrusts

Foundation stresses

6 Frames – A Problem of Stability

Timber framing

Construction of a barn

Bracing forces

Bending in the post

Light frame construction

The coming of iron

The frame today

The multistorey frame

Columns

7 Floors and Beams – Deflections and Bending Moments

The need for science

Floors and deflections

The forces in the beam

Strain

Galileo’s cantilever

Finding the stresses

From cantilever to beam

Iron and steel beams

Cast iron

Reinforced concrete beams

Continuous beams

Shear

Two-way floors

Other structures in bending

Prestressing

8 Providing Shelter – Roofs

Common rafter roofs

Purlin roofs

Longitudinal stability

The roof truss

The coming of iron

Three-dimensional roofs

9 Structures in a Three-Dimensional World

Vaults

The pointed vault

Elaborations on the basic vault form

Building vaults

Domes

Some historical examples

The modern three-dimensional structure

Anticlastic forms

Structures in tension

Structures for their time and place

10 Materials and Workmanship

Walling materials

Timber

Iron and steel

Compatibility of materials

Material development and design

Appendix: Some Elements of Grammar

Algebra

Loads and forces

Static equilibrium

The laws of equilibrium

Moments of forces

Components of forces

Triangle of forces

Parallelogram of forces

Stress

Strain

Modulus of elasticity

Determinate and Indeterminate Structures

Glossary

Index

Advert Page

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 07

Table 7.1 Sizes of timbers from Francis Price,

The British Carpenter

, 1733.

List of Illustrations

Preface

Figure 0.1 The force supporting a lorry.

Figure 0.2 A human model of a Gothic cathedral.

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 Failure of the Dee railway bridge, 1846.

Figure 1.2 Tacoma Narrows Bridge twisting in the wind.

Figure 1.3 The Forth Bridge.

Figure 1.4 Baker’s demonstration of the Forth Bridge.

Figure 1.5 The cantilever support forces with (a) self-weight alone and (b) load of the suspended span alone.

Figure 1.6 Column buckling.

Figure 1.7 Column cross sections of equal area.

Figure 1.8 Quebec Bridge showing dimensions.

Figure 1.9 The virtual movement of a bracket under load.

Figure 1.10 The forces on a see-saw.

Figure 1.11

Figure 1.12 Two different brackets.

Figure 1.13 Principal forces in a bracket of the Forth Bridge.

Figure 1.14 Stress.

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Todentanzbrucke, Lucerne, by Frank Brangwyn.

Figure 2.2 Caesar’s military bridge according to Palladio.

Figure 2.3 Strutting of a simple timber deck.

Figure 2.4 The forces at the end of the struts.

Figure 2.5 Restraining the top of the struts.

Figure 2.6 Bassano Bridge designed by Palladio.

Figure 2.7 Strutting a simple beam bridge.

Figure 2.8 Four-bar chain.

Figure 2.9 Deflections caused by a point load.

Figure 2.10 Effect of a point load on the strut forces.

Figure 2.11 (a) Two-member and (b) three-member top chords.

Figure 2.12 Cismone Bridge by Palladio.

Figure 2.13 Deconstruction of the Cismone Bridge.

Figure 2.14 A bridge by the Grubenmann brothers.

Figure 2.15 Deconstruction of the Grubenmanns’ bridge.

Figure 2.16 Squire Whipple’s bridge.

Figure 2.17 A braced panel of Squire Whipple’s bridge.

Figure 2.18 Turning a structure upside down reverses the forces.

Figure 2.19 A simple girder.

Figure 2.20 Movement of the girder following failure of either a lower chord member or an upper chord member.

Figure 2.21 Movement of the girder following failure of an internal member.

Figure 2.22 A girder with diagonals in compression.

Figure 2.23 A beam and point load.

Figure 2.24 Use of the method of sections to find the lower chord force.

Figure 2.25 Use of the method of sections to find the force in an internal member.

Figure 2.26 The Forth Bridge, distinguishing between compression and tension members.

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 Ponte Rotto by Frank Brangwyn.

Figure 3.2 The Pont du Gard.

Figure 3.3 Mylne’s centring for Blackfriars Bridge.

Figure 3.4 A flat arch formed accidentally in the coping of a wall.

Figure 3.5 Simple forces in an arch.

Figure 3.6 Half arches, supported by weights over pulleys.

Figure 3.7 Finding the centre of gravity.

Figure 3.8 The arch weights correctly placed.

Figure 3.9 The failure mechanism of the Pontypridd Bridge.

Figure 3.10 The triangle of forces applied to half of a bridge arch.

Figure 3.11

Figure 3.12 The effect of abutment movement on an arch.

Figure 3.13 Lines of thrust in an arch compared with a hanging chain.

Figure 3.14 The loads and forces on a half arch.

Figure 3.15 Successive addition of the arch forces.

Figure 3.16 The diagram for adding all the forces on a half arch.

Figure 3.17 Edwards’s Pontypridd Bridge with holes to lighten the spandrels.

Figure 3.18 Increasing an eccentric load until sufficient hinges form to produce failure.

Figure 3.19 A three-hinged arch with a point load.

Figure 3.20 A Maillart bridge.

Figure 3.21 Effect of a point load on the Garabit Viaduct.

Figure 3.22 Finley’s experiments to determine the forces in a suspension bridge.

Figure 3.23 The triangle of forces and Finley’s experiment.

Figure 3.24 Proportions for the bridge using Finley’s method.

Figure 3.25 A point load on a heavy chain.

Figure 3.26 Lines of forces in a flying buttress.

Figure 3.27 Finding the shape of a parabolic arch.

Figure 3.28 The arches of the Doge’s Palace.

Figure 3.29 Restraining arches at the corner of a building.

Figure 3.30 Upper cloisters of Toledo Cathedral.

Figure 3.31 Lion couchant adding weight to the centre of the arch to hold it down.

Chapter 04

Figure 4.1 In a simple masonry building, it is not always a straightforward matter to identify the load-bearing walls.

Figure 4.2 Alternative floor spanning directions.

Figure 4.3 Alternative roof pitches.

Figure 4.4 Dimensions of the Wheat Barn, Cressing Temple.

Figure 4.5 A simple arrangement of floor joists.

Figure 4.6 Possible floor spanning in steel and concrete frame buildings.

Figure 4.7 Ove Arup’s suggested layouts for concrete frame of flats.

Figure 4.8 Forces supporting a weight on a stand.

Figure 4.9 The forces on the foot of a stand.

Figure 4.10 Plan of stand.

Figure 4.11 An arrangement of roof timbers.

Figure 4.12 Increasing rigidity and post stiffness in a simple frame.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1

Brick bonding

: (a) English, (b) Flemish and (c) English garden wall.

Figure 5.2 The structure of a cardboard box.

Figure 5.3 Wind forces on a roof and wall.

Figure 5.4 Load distribution in brickwork.

Figure 5.5 Stresses in a wall from a point load.

Figure 5.6 Balancing a corbel.

Figure 5.7 Spanning an opening with toy bricks.

Figure 5.8 Arching action within a corbelled opening.

Figure 5.9 Floor joists resting on a timber plate.

Figure 5.10 The section of a drystone wall.

Figure 5.11 Nepalese construction of floor and wall.

Figure 5.12 Foundations for a wall and pier.

Figure 5.13 A plain wall with wind loads.

Figure 5.14 Resistance of a serpentine wall to wind loads.

Figure 5.15 Resistance of a dam to overturning.

Figure 5.16 Resistance to overturning of a modern retaining wall.

Figure 5.17 Restraining a wall plate against horizontal load.

Figure 5.18

Figure 5.19 Areas of the wall resisting rotation of a buttress.

Figure 5.20 The response of foundations to loads.

Figure 5.21 Stresses under a wall with varying horizontal load.

Figure 5.22 Stresses under the wall represented as a single force.

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 Bracing a simple frame.

Figure 6.2 Mortice and tenon joint.

Figure 6.3 A basic timber-framed building.

Figure 6.4 Bearing areas in mortice and tenon joints for (a) a post and beam and (b) a brace.

Figure 6.5 A timber-framed aisled barn.

Figure 6.6 Two kinds of frame reacting to horizontal loads.

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8 Forces on a braced post (see Figure 6.6).

Figure 6.9 Deflections in a braced frame.

Figure 6.10 Bracing of light stud construction.

Figure 6.11 Balloon framing.

Figure 6.12 Deflection of a frame with rigid corners depending upon the relative stiffness of the members.

Figure 6.13 Wind resistance of the Crystal Palace.

Figure 6.14 The Crystal Palace under construction.

Figure 6.15 (a) Lifting a girder with a gin pole and (b) the connection detail.

Figure 6.16 (a) Section and (b) detail of the Sheerness Boat Store.

Figure 6.17 Bracing of a pin-jointed frame.

Figure 6.18 A triangular-section truss.

Figure 6.19 Centre Pompidou, Paris, typical section (left) and end framing (right).

Figure 6.20 Tower Building, New York.

Figure 6.21 Wind bracing of (a) Bank of China, Hong Kong, and (b) John Hancock Centre, Chicago.

Figure 6.22 Structural scheme of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank Building.

Figure 6.23 Estimated horizontal forces at the top and bottom of inclined columns.

Figure 6.24 Bending of columns of a ‘soft storey’ under earthquake loads.

Chapter 07

Figure 7.1 Early floor layout.

Figure 7.2 Load tracing for the floor in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.3 Floor plan by Francis Price.

Figure 7.4 (a) Single and (b) double floors.

Figure 7.5 Deflections under load.

Figure 7.6 Deflection of two planks.

Figure 7.7 Methods for keying two beams together.

Figure 7.8 Forces on the ‘teeth’ of two beams keyed together.

Figure 7.9 Bending a pack of cards.

Figure 7.10

Figure 7.11 Galileo’s cantilever.

Figure 7.12 Forces on the cantilever.

Figure 7.13 Forces across an imagined cut in the beam.

Figure 7.14

Figure 7.15 Distribution of stresses in a beam.

Figure 7.16

Figure 7.17 Combining two cantilevers.

Figure 7.18 A beam on two supports carrying a point load.

Figure 7.19 Forces in a steel beam.

Figure 7.20 Forces and stresses in a beam cast with unequal flanges.

Figure 7.21 Graphs of bending moments on cantilevers.

Figure 7.22 Graph of bending moments on a beam.

Figure 7.23 Bending moments for a beam carrying a uniformly distributed load.

Figure 7.24 Stress in a reinforced concrete beam.

Figure 7.25 Deflections of simply supported and continuous beams.

Figure 7.26 Deflection of a three-span beam with different loads.

Figure 7.27 A continuous beam can be divided into separate beams at the points of contraflexure.

Figure 7.28

Figure 7.29

Figure 7.30

Figure 7.31 Two planks to support a load.

Figure 7.32 A flat slab divided into the supported slab plus supporting beam strips.

Figure 7.33 A so-called ‘mushroom’ column head.

Figure 7.34 Cross section of the New York University Student Dormitory.

Figure 7.35 Structural diagram of Figure 7.34.

Figure 7.36 Eladio Dieste’s church of San Pedro, Durazno, Uruguay.

Figure 7.37 Deflections and bending moments of portal frames.

Figure 7.38 Simple axial prestressing to eliminate tensile stresses.

Figure 7.39

Figure 7.40 Axial prestressing force plus a moment = eccentric prestressing force.

Figure 7.41

Figure 7.42

Figure 7.43 Floor layout of the Richards Medical Research Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania.

Chapter 08

Figure 8.1 Lean-to roof rafters.

Figure 8.2 Putting up a ladder.

Figure 8.3 Rafters with a plumb cut at the top.

Figure 8.4 Rafters riding over the arris of a plate at the top.

Figure 8.5 Rafters with a birdsmouth at the top.

Figure 8.6 Rafters braced by a collar.

Figure 8.7 The porch of Heckington Church, Lincolnshire.

Figure 8.8 (a) Wind loads on a tent. (b)

Scissor bracing

.

Figure 8.9 Deflections in a purlin roof.

Figure 8.10 Roof of Little Whelnetham Church, Suffolk.

Figure 8.11 Hammerbeam and wall post.

Figure 8.12

Figure 8.13

Figure 8.14 Collar as (a) a compression member or (b) as a raised tie.

Figure 8.15

Figure 8.16 Clasped purlin roof.

Figure 8.17 A crown post roof.

Figure 8.18 A king post truss.

Figure 8.19 Wren’s roof for the Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford.

Figure 8.20 A queen post truss.

Figure 8.21 A nineteenth-century warehouse shed in Liverpool.

Figure 8.22 Polonceau roof trusses.

Figure 8.23 Alternative layouts of trusses.

Figure 8.24 Pyramid roofs.

Figure 8.25 Foster Dulles Airport.

Figure 8.26 Skating Rink at Oxford.

Figure 8.27 Fleetguard Centre, Quimper, France.

Figure 8.28 Sketch scheme for Renault Distribution Centre, Swindon.

Figure 8.29 Renault Distribution Centre, Swindon, final structure.

Chapter 09

Figure 9.1 Buttressing a barrel vault.

Figure 9.2 Choisy’s drawing of the Basilica of Maxentius.

Figure 9.3 The form of a cross vault.

Figure 9.4 Reflected plan and forces in a cross vault.

Figure 9.5 Vault with semicircular groins.

Figure 9.6 Forms of pointed vaults.

Figure 9.7 Pol Abraham’s drawing of cracking in a vault.

Figure 9.8 English ribbed vaulting.

Figure 9.9 Fan vault geometry.

Figure 9.10 King Henry VII’s chapel in Westminster Abbey drawn by Willis.

Figure 9.11 Trulli houses of Italy.

Figure 9.12 Sensing the forces in a dome.

Figure 9.13 The forces acting on a dome.

Figure 9.14

Figure 9.15 Cracking in an unrestrained dome.

Figure 9.16 Cross section of the Pantheon, Rome.

Figure 9.17 Forces in a cone.

Figure 9.18 Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence.

Figure 9.19 St Peter’s, Rome, analysis by virtual work.

Figure 9.20 The formation of pendentives.

Figure 9.21 Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.

Figure 9.22 Tapered catenary shells of Candela’s Chemical Sciences auditorium.

Figure 9.23 Beam action in a barrel vault (a) and a folded plate (b).

Figure 9.24 The tribute to Eladio Dieste, Salto, Uruguay, a cantilevered brick shell.

Figure 9.25 Hanging net with edge stiffeners – a model by Heinz Isler.

Figure 9.26 Eduardo Torroja’s market hall in Algeciras.

Figure 9.27 The geometry of a hyperbolic paraboloid – an HP.

Figure 9.28 (a) The surface of an HP generated with straight lines. (b) Directions of tension and compression in an HP.

Figure 9.29 Candela’s Los Manantiales Restaurant assembled from several HP surfaces.

Figure 9.30 Dorton Arena, Raleigh, North Carolina.

Figure 9.31 Munich Olympic stadium.

Figure 9.32 Yoyogi stadium, Tokyo.

Appendix

Figure A.1

Figure A.2

Figure A.3

Figure A.4

Figure A.5

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

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How Structures Work

Design and Behaviour from Bridges to Buildings

Second edition

David Yeomans