Managing Tic and Habit Disorders E-Book

Kieron P. O'Connor

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 337

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

A pioneering guide for the management of tics and habit disorders

Managing Tic and Habit Disorders: A Cognitive Psychophysiological Approach with Acceptance Strategies is a complete client and therapist program for dealing with tics and habit disorders. Groundbreaking and evidence-based, it considers tics and habit disorders as part of the same spectrum and focuses on the personal processes that are activated prior to a tic and habit rather than the tic or habit itself. By drawing on acceptance and mindfulness strategies to achieve mental and physical flexibility in preparing action, individuals can release unnecessary tension, expend less effort and ultimately establish control over their tic or habit.

The authors explain how to identify the contexts of thoughts, feelings and activities that precede tic or habit onset, understand how self-talk and language can trigger tic onset, and move beyond unhelpful ways of dealing with emotions - particularly in taking thoughts about emotions literally. They also explore how individuals can plan action more smoothly by drawing on existing skills and strengths, and overcome shame by becoming less self-critical and more self-compassionate. They conclude with material on maintaining gains, developing new goals, and creating a more confident and controlled lifestyle.

Managing Tic and Habit Disorders is a thoughtful and timely guide for those suffering from this sometimes all-consuming disorder, and the professionals who set out to help them.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

List of Tables and Figures

Tables

Figures

About the Authors

Acknowledgments

About the Companion Website

Introduction

A Cognitive‐Behavioral Psychophysiological Model of Tension Buildup

Structure of the Program

1 The Nature of Tics and Habits

Overview of the Nature of Tics and Habits

Idea of a Tourette or Tic and Habit Spectrum

Current Diagnostic Criteria of Tics and Habits

Current Multidimensional Etiology of Tics and Habits

Social Impact and Consequences

Current Treatment Options

Therapist checklist for information on tics and habits

2 Evaluation and Assessment

Evaluation and Assessment: What are Tics and Habits?

Evaluating the Severity of Tics and Habits and Their Impact on the Client's Life

Assessing Style of Planning and Thinking and Beliefs about Tics or Habits

Therapist checklist for evaluation

3 Motivation and Preparation for Change

Motivation: Ready to Change the Habit

The Pros and Cons of Tics and Habits; and Setting Goals and How to Attain Them

Client's Perception of the Tic or Habit

Dealing with Stigma and Self‐stigma

Control: Micro‐ and Macro‐control

The Contextual Nature of Tic or Habit Onset

Therapist checklist for motivation

4 Developing Awareness

Choosing and Describing the Tic or Habit

Awareness of the Tic or Habit

Discovery of Seeing the Habit Differently

Discovery Exercises

Making a Video: Replaying and Watching the Video

Premonitory Signs

Daily Diary

Tic or Habit Variations

Tics or Habits in Context

Therapist checklist for describing the tic

5 Identifying At‐Risk Contexts

Identifying Variations in the Context of the Tics or Habits

Discovering High and Low Risk Situations or Activities

Evaluating the Situation or Activity

Linking High Risk Activities and Evaluations to Feelings and Thoughts and Assumptions

Therapist checklist for contextual variation

6 Reducing Tension

Tension Before Ticking: How to Use Your Muscles

Conflicting Preparation Versus Coherent Preparation

Unhelpful Attempts at Self‐management of Tics or Habits

Mindful Engagement

Mindfulness Exercises

Therapist checklist for tension before ticking

7 Increasing Flexibility

Discriminating Muscle Contractions

Rationale and Procedure for Discrimination Exercises

Whole Body Muscle Control

Muscle Relaxation

Check the Breathing, Posture, and Flow During Movement

Breathe Better

Relaxation Exercises

Refocusing Sensations

Therapist checklist for discrimination and relaxation

8 Addressing Styles of Planning Action

Style of Planning: Pulling Together Sensory, Emotional, and Motor Aspects of Ticking

Styles of Action

Behavioral Cost

Thoughts associated with Styles of Action: Perfectionism in Personal Standards and Personal Organization

Therapist checklist for styles of action

9 Experiential Avoidance, Cognitive Fusion, and the Matrix

Experiential Avoidance and Cognitive Fusion

Improving Flow and Goal Directed Action Using the ACT Matrix

Discriminating Thoughts, Actions, and Experiences

Using the ACT Matrix to Work with Styles of Action

Therapist checklist for experiential avoidance and the ACT matrix

10 Emotional Regulation and Overcoming the Habit–Shame Loop

The Habit–Shame Loop

Adaptive and Maladaptive Coping

Validating Emotion

Working with Self‐talk

Relational Frame Theory

An RFT‐inspired Link between Dysfunctional Thoughts and Tension

Therapist checklist for dealing with emotions

11 Achieving Goals and Maintaining Gains

Maintaining the New Behavior

New Situations

Reward and Self‐compassion

Relapse Prevention

Achieving Non‐tic Goals

Finally

References

Author Index

Subject Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

c01

Table 1.1 Examples of simple and complex tics

Table 1.2 Examples of body focused repetitive disorder of hair pulling, skin picking, nail biting, neck cracking, body symmetry, and idiosyncratic

Table 1.3 Impact of habits and physical and psychological sequelae

c02

Table 2.1 Classification of tics according to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems Version 10 (ICD‐X) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Version 5 (DSM‐5)

Table 2.2 Therapist interview schedule for assessing tic and habit severity

Table 2.3 Evaluation of actual life functioning for tics and habits (adapted from DSM‐IV‐TR)

Table 2.4 Differential diagnosis

Table 2.5 Example of similar complex mental tics and obsessional compulsions

Table 2.6 Questionnaire for distinguishing obsessive‐compulsive disorder from obsessive‐compulsive disorder with Tourette's syndrome (inspired by George et al., 1993).

Table 2.7 Distinguishing tic disorders and habit disorders

Table 2.8 Different criteria for identifying between habit disorders and harmless habits such as twiddles

Table 2.9 Differentiating tic or habit disorders from harmless habits such as twitches, which can be easily controlled

Table 2.10 Version 1—Hair pulling scale (adapted from Keuthen et al., 2007; Harcherik et al., 1984)

Table 2.11 Version 2—Nail biting scale (adapted from Keuthen et al., 2007; Harcherik et al., 1984)

Table 2.12 Version 3—Scratching scale (adapted from Harcherik 1984; Keuthen et al., 2007)

Table 2.13 Version 4—Skin picking scale (adapted from Keuthen et al., 2007; Harcherik et al 1984)

Table 2.14 Version 5—Individual personalized habits scale (adapted from Harcherik et al., 1984; Keuthen et al., 2007)

Table 2.15 Style of planning (STOP) (from O'Connor et al., 2015)

Table 2.16 Thinking about Tics Inventory form (THAT)

c03

Table 3.1 Expectancy therapy evaluation form (adapted from Devilly and Borkovec, 2000)

Table 3.2 Motivation questionnaire

Table 3.3 B.e.s.t. Buddy form

Table 3.4 Roadblocks and solutions

Table 3.5 Social support

Table 3.6 Quality of social support

Table 3.7 Inconvenience review sheet

Table 3.8 My goals

c04

Table 4.1 Unit of tic description form

Table 4.2 Video monitoring form (the form can be copied and used also as a B.e.s.t. Buddy observations form)

Table 4.3 Premonitory signs

Table 4.4 Daily diary

Table 4.5 Rating table for daily diary diagram

Table 4.6 Measure of urge

Table 4.7 Reactions to self‐monitoring tic behavior

Table 4.8 Summary form of variation over 1 week

c05

Table 5.1 Preliminary grid to extract high and low risk situations

Table 5.2 Grid for classifying activities likely and unlikely to be associated with tics or habits

Table 5.3 Pre‐treatment example

Table 5.4 Post‐treatment example

Table 5.5 Linking thoughts, emotion, and behavior in high risk situations

Table 5.6 Tracing beliefs from feelings and activities

Table 5.7 Anticipations, assumptions, and beliefs about actions or situations linked to tics or habits

c06

Table 6.1 Everyday actions and principal muscles involved

Table 6.2 Flexibility exercises

Table 6.3 Tension scale

Table 6.4A Illustrating the mutual interactions between mind, muscles, and emotion

Table 6.4B Your personal examples

Table 6.5 Sample of self‐sabotaging tension producing strategies to suppress tics or habits

Table 6.6 Overcoming everyday conflicts through mindfulness

c07

Table 7.1 Discrimination exercise

Table 7.2 Diary record of relaxation

c08

Table 8.1 Style of action

Table 8.2 Personal styles of action

Table 8.3 Behavioral benefit and cost calculation for personal styles of action

Table 8.4 Belief behind styles of actions

Table 8.5 Form to check reliance on muscle feedback instead of visual feedback

Table 8.6 Thoughts associated with styles of action

Table 8.7 Thought flexibility; testing alternative thoughts

Table 8.8 Thought flexibility; testing alternative thoughts in a social professional meeting

Table 8.9 Thought flexibility; testing alternative thoughts when preparing for a conference

c09

Table 9.1 Acceptance and Action Questionnaire–II (AAQ‐II) (Bond et al., 2011)

Table 9.2 Tics and Habits Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (THAAQ)

Table 9.3 Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (CFQ) (Gillanders et al., 2014)

Table 9.4 Distinguishing inner and five‐senses experience

c10

Table 10.1 Self‐criticism Self‐judgment Questionnaire

Table 10.2 Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) (adapted from Gratz & Roemer, 2004)

Table 10.3 Affective Regulation Scale (ARS) (Shusterman, Feld, Baer, & Keuthen, 2009)

Table 10.4 Kinder self‐talk and metaphors

Table 10.5 Self‐compassionate exercises

c11

Table 11.1 Follow‐up questionnaire

Table 11.2 Planning for possible triggers for relapse

Table 11.3 Components of the therapy you found useful

List of Illustrations

c01

Figure 1.1 The development of tics

Figure 1.2 Illustration of the main regions affected in Tourette's syndrome Note: Obtained from magnetic resonance imaging, regions in dotted line were found to be negatively correlated with symptom severity, while the solid line areas are the regions that showed positive correlations with symptom severity. Moreover, before tic onset, significant activations were found in the region of the premotor cortex, while at tic onset sensorimotor and supplementary motor cortex activations were observed (Bohlhalter et al., 2006).

c03

Figure 3.1 Reflexes, routines, rituals, and responses

Figure 3.2 Flexibility and adaptation (from O'Connor, 2008)

c04

Figure 4.1 Model of processes preceding tic or habit onset

Figure 4.2 Model of processes preceding tic onset

Figure 4.3 Model of processes preceding habit onset

Figure 4.4 Functional approach

Figure 4.5 Contextual approach

c06

Figure 6.1 Flow of movement organization

Figure 6.2 Frustration–action cycle

c09

Figure 9.1 The ACT matrix example

Figure 9.2 The ACT matrix

Figure 9.3 Hooks worksheet

c10

Figure 10.1 Frustration/action triggers for habit disorders

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Pages

iii

iv

ix

x

xi

xiii

xv

xvii

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

Managing Tic and Habit Disorders

A Cognitive Psychophysiological Approach with Acceptance Strategies

Kieron P. O’Connor

Marc E. Lavoie

Benjamin Schoendorff

This edition first published 2017© 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Kieron P. O'Connor, Marc E. Lavoie and Benjamin Schoendorff to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered Office(s)John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial OfficeThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Is Available9781119167259 [hardback]9781119167273 [paperback]9781119167297 [ePDF]9781119167280 [ePub]

Cover image: © Zoonar RF/GettyimagesCover design: Wiley

List of Tables and Figures

Tables

1.1

Examples of simple and complex tics

1.2

Examples of body focused repetitive disorder of hair pulling, skin picking, nail biting, neck cracking, body symmetry, and idiosyncratic

1.3

Impact of habits and physical and psychological sequelae

2.1

Classification of tics according to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems Version 10 (ICD‐X) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Version 5 (DSM‐5)

2.2

Therapist interview schedule for assessing tic and habit severity

2.3

Evaluation of actual life functioning for tics and habits

2.4

Differential diagnosis

2.5

Example of similar complex mental tics and obsessional compulsions

2.6

Questionnaire for distinguishing obsessive‐compulsive disorder from obsessive‐compulsive disorder with Tourette's syndrome

2.7

Distinguishing tic disorders and habit disorders

2.8

Different criteria for identifying between habit disorders and harmless habits such as twiddles

2.9

Differentiating tic or habit disorders from harmless habits such as twitches, which can be easily controlled

2.10

Version 1—Hair pulling scale

2.11

Version 2—Nail biting scale

2.12

Version 3—Scratching scale

2.13

Version 4—Skin picking scale

2.14

Version 5—Individual personalized habits scale

2.15

Style of planning (STOP)

2.16

Thinking about Tics Inventory form (THAT)

3.1

Expectancy therapy evaluation form

3.2

Motivation questionnaire

3.3

B.e.s.t. Buddy form

3.4

Roadblocks and solutions

3.5

Social support

3.6

Quality of social support

3.7

Inconvenience review sheet

3.8

My goals

4.1

Unit of tic description form

4.2

Video monitoring form for B.e.s.t. Buddy observations

4.3

Premonitory signs

4.4

Daily diary

4.5

Rating table for daily diary diagram

4.6

Measure of urge

4.7

Reactions to self‐monitoring tic behavior

4.8

Summary form of variation over 1 week

5.1

Preliminary grill to extract high and low risk situations

5.2

Grid for classifying activities likely and unlikely to be associated with tics or habits

5.3

Pre‐treatment example

5.4

Post‐treatment example

5.5

Linking thoughts, emotion, and behavior in high risk situations

5.6

Tracing beliefs from feelings and activities

5.7

Anticipations, assumptions, and beliefs about actions or situations linked to tics or habits

6.1

Everyday actions and principal muscles involved

6.2

Flexibility exercises

6.3

Tension scale

6.4A

Illustrating the mutual interactions between mind, muscles, and emotion

6.4B

Your personal examples

6.5

Sample of self‐sabotaging tension producing strategies to suppress tics or habits

6.6

Overcoming everyday conflicts through mindfulness

7.1

Discrimination exercise

7.2

Diary record of relaxation

8.1

Style of action

8.2

Personal styles of action

8.3

Behavioral benefit and cost calculation for personal styles of action

8.4

Belief behind styles of actions

8.5

Form to check reliance on muscle feedback instead of visual feedback

8.6

Thoughts associated with styles of action

8.7

Thought flexibility; testing alternative thoughts

8.8

Thought flexibility; testing alternative thoughts in a social professional meeting

8.9

Thought flexibility; testing alternative thoughts when preparing for a conference

9.1

Acceptance and Action Questionnaire–II (AAQ‐II)

9.2

Tics and Habits Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (THAAQ)

9.3

Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (CFQ)

9.4

Distinguishing inner and five‐senses experience

10.1

Self‐criticism Self‐judgment Questionnaire

10.2

Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS)

10.3

Affective Regulation Scale (ARS)

10.4

Kinder self‐talk and metaphors

10.5

Self‐compassionate exercises

11.1

Follow‐up questionnaire

11.2

Planning for possible triggers for relapse

11.3

Components of the therapy you found useful

Figures

0.1

Local immediate triggers and reinforcing tic or habit cycle

0.2

Why tics happen

0.3

Why habits happen

1.1

The development of tics

1.2

Illustration of the main regions affected in Tourette's syndrome

3.1

Reflexes, routines, rituals, and responses

3.2

Flexibility and adaptation

4.1

Model of processes preceding tic or habit onset

4.2

Model of processes preceding tic onset

4.3

Model of processes preceding habit onset

4.4

Functional approach

4.5

Contextual approach

6.1

Flow of movement organization

6.2

Frustration–action cycle

9.1

The ACT matrix example

9.2

The ACT matrix

9.3

Hooks worksheet

10.1

Frustration/action triggers for habit disorders

About the Authors

Kieron P. O'Connor obtained his doctorate from the Institute of Psychiatry in London. He is currently Director of the Obsessive‐Compulsive Disorder and Tic Disorder Studies Centre at the University Institute of Mental Health at Montreal, and Centre Integré Universitaire de Santé et de Service Sociaux de L'Est de l'Ile de Montréal; Full Professor at the Psychiatry Department of University of Montréal; and Associated Professor at the University of Quebec. He is a Fellow of the Canadian Psychology Association and Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society. His interests include treatment of obsessive‐compulsive disorders, eating disorders, dissociative disorders, delusional disorders, and tic and body focused repetitive disorders. He directs a clinical research program currently funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the Quebec Health Research fund aimed at studying the interaction of cognitive, psychophysiological, psychosocial, and behavioral factors in the management of psychological problems. He is author or co‐author of over 200 scientific articles, reports, and books, and frequently leads formations and workshops on innovative approaches to treating belief disorders.

Marc E. Lavoie investigates the link between cognitive processes and cerebral activity (event‐related potentials), primarily in Tourette's syndrome. He works closely with psychological intervention teams to identify psychophysiological changes that occur following cognitive‐behavioral therapy. He is a Professor of Psychiatry and Neuroscience at the University of Montréal, and is currently Head of the Cognitive and Social Psychophysiology Laboratory, at the research center of the Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, which addresses crucial issues about the relationship between brain functions, behavior, and cognition in various neuropsychiatric disorders.

Benjamin Schoendorff, MA, MSc, is a clinical psychologist and Director of the Contextual Psychology Institute in Montréal, Canada. A renowned international acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) trainer, he has authored and co‐authored several ACT books in French and English. He has co‐edited The ACT Matrix (2014), and co‐authored The ACT Practitioner's Guide to the Science of Compassion (2014) and, most recently, The Essential Guide to the ACT Matrix (2016). He loves traveling with his wife and young son Thomas. www.contextpsy.com.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the therapists who have applied the therapy in practice: Natalia Koszegi, Genevieve Goulet, Veronica Muschang, Genevieve Paradis, Vicky Leblanc, Jeremy Dohan, Vicky Auclair, and Danielle Gareau.

The following people contributed substantially to the realization of the book: Karine Bergeron, Annette Maillet, Nick Delarosbil‐Huard, Julie Leclerc, and Catherine Courchesne. Yuliya and Victoria Bodryzlova helped with the indexing.

We would like to thank the production team at Wiley‐Blackwell.

Finally, we would like to thank our clients who took part in the study, who inspired our treatment and permitted the experimental validation of our model.

About the Companion Website

The electronic supplemental content to support the use of this text is available online at www.wiley.com/go/oconnor/managingticandhabitdsorders

Introduction

Kieron P. O’Connor, Marc E. Lavoie, and Benjamin Schoendorff

Cognitive‐behavioral management complements the neurodevelopmental aspects of tic and habit disorders. In the chapters that follow, we describe a new and improved therapist and accompanying client manual of our tic and habit management program: the cognitive psychophysiological approach (CoPs) (O'Connor, 2005). The program has widened to include psychosocial, metacognitive, and other behavioral aspects, which we combine with acceptance strategies. We have now carried out over 20 years of clinical research dealing with tics or habits, during which time we have conducted a number of clinical trials and neuropsychological work. Our research has informed our opinion that tics or habits are really the tip of the iceberg; that there are background behavioral aspects influencing tics or habits; that tics or habits are embedded in personal activity; that surrounding psychosocial and thought processes define tics or habits; and that tics or habits interact with how we perceive others and our own activities. So, although tics or habits may well serve a short‐term function in reducing stress, so producing reinforcing consequences that immediately maintain them, they are also products of a context of cognitive‐behavioral psychophysiological activity occurring prior to and during their occurrence (see Figure 0.1).

Figure 0.1 Local immediate triggers and reinforcing tic or habit cycle

The program has been validated for both tic and habit disorders (the user friendly term we use for bodily focused repetitive behaviors, BFRBs) so the manual addresses both disorders, which, despite some differences, we consider to be part of the same spectrum of disorders. Tic or habit onset may be an inevitable endpoint of tension built up as a result of the way action is planned and executed. So the tic or habit, often arising locally, is not the focus here—in fact we recommend accepting the tic or habit when it occurs, rather than fighting the tic or habit or holding it in, contracting or disguising it: all self‐sabotaging strategies that tend to exacerbate the underlying tension. Rather, we encourage developing a flow of action and moving past the tic or habit toward goals, and heading smoothly and effortlessly toward goal‐directed planning activity.

The CoPs model is a comprehensive model taking into account, as the name implies, cognitive, physiological, and emotional dimensions, and treating the client holistically. It is predicated on two sound assertions:

That thinking and physiology are interlinked. This is not obvious since clients have often considered the tic or habit problem as purely neurological. But tics or habits are best viewed as psychophysiological, which is to say that the physiological elements of ticking are often modulated by psychological factors, which include: behavior, mood, social setting, and perceived external triggers. The effects are two‐way, and change in behavior can influence change in physiology. In particular, thought processes involved in anticipation and preparation can be triggers for ticking and are a key connection between thoughts and physiology.

There is an important distinction between controlling the tic or habit and achieving a sense of mastery from being able to prevent the tic or habit through mastery over the processes that build up to it. We make the distinction between positive acceptance and mastery, and a negative fighting and containing type of control over the tic or habit.

The cognitive element is also essential to the program in the sense that we encourage exercises to enhance awareness or, as we choose to call it, discovery. In fact awareness is about discovery and bringing new elements into consciousness, but discovery is also actively exploring and integrating new knowledge about the nature of the client's tic or habit, like exploring a new land, sailing down the stream along a new river—a metaphor that fits well within the steps of the program (see client manual).

This manual addresses both tics and what we call habit disorders (the technical name is bodyfocused repetitive behaviors), including hair pulling, nail biting, skin picking, and skin scratching. These problems are distinct and vary on several dimensions, but they seem to respond to the same treatment, namely CoPs, and share features in common. Although BFRBs or habits may require additional strategies, particularly regarding emotional regulation, we decided to deal with tics and habits together since they fall under the same tic or habit‐like spectrum, despite differences in awareness and action motivating people, and clinicians often ask: is the problem a tic or a habit disorder?

We provide guidelines to distinguish tics and habits and other movement disorders. But we do suggest that the client consult a medical professional such as a neurologist to receive a diagnosis.

A Cognitive‐Behavioral Psychophysiological Model of Tension Buildup

So what are the ingredients of the CoPs model of tic or habit onset and maintenance? The CoPs model integrates physiological and behavioral aspects as well as cognitive and emotional experiences. It paints a comprehensive picture of the interactions between the physiological dimensions of muscle tension, ticking, and behavior, and cognitive and emotional patterns that may feed tics and habit disorders. The key theme of the program is developing flexibility in muscles, planning, thinking, emotional coping, self‐talk, and self‐judgment. On the psychophysiological side, heightened sensory awareness, an overactive behavioral style, and impulsive tendencies contribute to the onset and maintenance of tics or habits, while, on the cognitive side, perfectionism regarding self‐image, personal standards, and a dysfunctional way of approaching planning of action are implicated. People with tics or habits often display somewhat perfectionist beliefs about the importance of being efficient, doing as much as possible, and not wasting time or appearing to do so. On the action side, they attempt too much at once, have trouble pacing action, invest more effort than necessary in a given task, and abandon tasks prematurely. They are also unwilling to relax, have trouble being present in the here and now, and tend to overinvest in trying to foresee the unforeseeable. Finally, rather than using visual feedback of a particular action, people with tics or habits may pay more heed to more general proprioceptive information, leading them to tense until they attain a sense of “feeling just right,” or have felt they put the right amount of effort into a task. In fact, tics and habits may be providing just such a muscle focused feedback by occupying the client in a proprioceptive loop, which gives the impression of “doing something” in situations where normal goal directed activity is frustrated. Also people with habit disorders in particular, but also some people with tics or habits, experience a lot of self‐criticism and shame about themselves, and generally find it difficult to cope with negative emotions, which can trigger the habit (see Figures 0.2 and 0.3). So we suggest that more compassionate ways of viewing the self and accepting self and emotions may help with control.

Figure 0.2 Why tics happen

Figure 0.3 Why habits happen

Structure of the Program

In line with our model, the first part of the program describes the history of Tourette's, tic disorders, and habit disorders, current thinking on etiology, and the growing recognition of the utility of behavioral interventions. The second part considers all aspects, both psychosocial and clinical, needed for a comprehensive diagnostic and psychological assessment. The formal semi‐structured interviews are cited but not explored; rather, focus is on evaluations essential to the program. Included in evaluation is a look at how the client and other people judge the problem, and the problem of stigma and living with and communicating about the problem. The third section involves steps of the program, beginning with motivation and education about the close link between thoughts and actions and the way that sometimes how we react to our tics and habits leads to self‐sabotaging strategies. We discuss discovery and awareness exercises to help the client learn about the nature and form of their tic or habit. The role of tension in triggering the tic or habit in action is illustrated, along with exercises to improve muscle flexibility, discrimination between muscles, and relaxation. High and low risk activities/situations for tic onset are evaluated, and how these reveal existing strengths and control and also give us an insight into how evaluations can influence tensions. The importance of obtaining cognitive and physical flexibility is highlighted, with exercises to improve flexibility and efficient muscle use, and showing how to focus on acceptance of the tic or habit whilst avoiding strategies that lead the client away from goals. Rethinking the client's entire style of planning in order to prevent tic or habit onset by using existing strengths in the client's repertoire and planning less effortful action is encouraged, as well as improving emotional regulation and self‐perception, particularly in body focused disorders or habit disorders. We also cover the important role of the B.e.s.t. Buddy and social support, and inform on how to ensure such feedback is helpful. Finally, we provide guidelines on maintaining gains by generalizing control through reference to the program and adopting future lifestyle changes to reinforce the client's new non‐tic or non‐habit life, and better identify and realize the client's goals and values. Each chapter discusses a separate module relevant to the program, but the chapters are planned as cumulative and progress logically.

The book is accompanied by a client manual containing steps and exercises, and designed and structured to accompany the main therapist manual. Throughout the therapist and client manuals we provide exercises, forms, information, and checks on motivation, and emphasize the importance of various forms of feedback in maintaining confidence.

Chapters 1 and 2 cover information on tics and habits, and how to assess and differentiate the two disorders from each other and non‐clinical problems. These chapters are essential parts of the program and provide the knowledge required to progress further.

The third chapter addresses: motivation and goals of seeking treatment; how to maintain confidence throughout the program; surmounting obstacles; entertaining realistic expectations about the end result of the process; and, in particular, maintaining confidence through feedback from others following the program, rewards, changing one's perception of and talking differently about the tic or habit, and understanding the process of control.

Chapter 4 describes the important process of choosing and describing a principal tic or habit. We need to know what it looks like, the muscles implicated, and background activities. The discovery of the tic or habit can involve the B.e.s.t. Buddy, video, or diary. We recommend all three, and particularly the diary, which measures control, intensity, and frequency of tics or habits each day of the program, and gives an idea of progress. In keeping the diary, the client also discovers variations in tic or habit parameters that we systematize later. In monitoring, the client also becomes aware of upstream process preceding the buildup of tension and downstream processes occurring at the same time: as the tic or habit.

In Chapter 5, we systematize the variation in terms of high and low risk activities, in which the tic or habit is likely or unlikely to appear, and then find out how these evaluated differently, and what distinguishes the way the client thinks about high and low risk situations. We show how their anticipation of activities links to different types of often rigid beliefs about how to act.

We provide exercises and examples. We also expand our model, explaining how the principal aim is to address cognitive‐behavioral and physiological processes preceding tension buildup and tic or habit onset, and introducing more flexibility into these processes.

In Chapter 6 we move onto consider flexibility in muscles and how the tension before ticking is often the result of conflicting preparation and unhelpful attempts at self‐management. In line with the previous discussion of flow, we suggest adopting mindfulness, rather than conflict.

In Chapter 7, we continue the quest for flexibility in discrimination exercises, where we discuss the important of developing awareness of tension cues, particularly in the tic or habit affected muscles, and also employing unnecessary affect, particularly where the affect may be a criterion for performance. We move into relaxation in the whole body and the acceptance of sensations rather than fighting them or reacting to them.

In Chapter 8, we address the importance of being flexible in planning: planning in people with tics and habits often involves thinking and acting in an effortful way and investing too much. We discuss the behavioral cost of these tension‐producing strategies and also how often these styles of planning action, typical of high risk situations, are driven by perfectionist thoughts. We then look at how we can plan to do less and be more flexible in planning to do less.

In Chapter 9 we explore how being more flexible can help the client approach rather than avoid their goals, and how often in thinking we may mix up figurative speech with reality: often what seems to be rigid thinking maybe simply taking literally an emotive statement and taking thoughts as reality, or taking them too seriously because we are used to them, rather than moving on. The matrix helps distinguish thoughts from reality in planning style of action.

Chapter 10 focuses on the importance of emotional investment in habits. Habits not only release tension, but form an emotional regulation often due to triggers involving self‐judgment, self‐criticism, and shame. It is important to validate emotions, but not necessarily act on them; to treat them as thoughts. Working with self‐talk can help here, since it is important for the client to speak to him or herself compassionately—we can become hooked on words and their meanings, taking them more seriously than we should.

Finally, in Chapter 11, we discuss maintaining the gains the client has made by continuing to practice, revision of the new program, selective application of the program to new tics and habits, changing other aspects of the client's lifestyle, and continuing with social support and positive feedback, compassion and rewards, and a recognition of the client's accomplishments.

The companion client manual can be downloaded and follows closely the structure of the program laid out in the therapist manual but addressed from a client's point of view.

1The Nature of Tics and Habits

Overview of the Nature of Tics and Habits

History

The first references to tics go back to medieval times. In the fifteenth century, two Dominican monks reported the case of a priest who could not help but grimace and emit vocalizations, whenever he was praying (Kramer and Sprenger, 1948). Later in 1825, Jean‐Marc Gaspard Itard described tics in a systematic way for the first time (Itard, 1825). The latter reports the case of a 26‐year‐old French noblewoman, the Marquise de Dampierre, who presented involuntary convulsive spasms and contortions at the level of the shoulders, neck, and face. Shortly afterwards, he also reported the presence of “spasms affecting the organs of voice and speech,” and notes the presence of strange screams and senseless words in the absence of a circumscribed mental disorder.

The Gilles de la Tourette syndrome is named after the French neurologist Georges Gilles de la Tourette, who, in 1885, described again the condition of the Marquise de Dampierre, now aged 86 years old, who continued to make abrupt movements and sounds also known as tics. The same year, Tourette described eight other patients with motor and vocal tics, some of whom had echo phenomena (a tendency to repeat things said to them) and coprolalia (utterances of obscene phrases) (Gilles de la Tourette, 1885) which was consistent with similar observations from American clinicians 1 year later (see Dana & Wilkin, 1886). In a doctoral dissertation published under the supervision of Tourette and Charcot, Jacques Catrou, documented 26 other cases (Catrou, 1890) with more details. The merit of Gilles de la Tourette's report, consisted not only in gathering remarkable clinical descriptions of the symptoms that were little documented, if ever, until then, but also in describing the fluctuating evolution of what become known as the Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (Gilles de la Tourette, 1885).

Subsequently, there were few systematic investigations, clinical observations, or particular etiological developments during the first half of the twentieth century. Rather, during this period, a psychoanalytic explanation prevailed, with little or no notable empirical support (Ascher, 1948; Ferenczi, 1921; Mahler, 1944; Mahler, Luke, & Daltroff, 1945). In the 1960s an experimental drug treatment (i.e., haloperidol) surfaced for tics (Seignot, 1961). These results encouraged clinical trials in the United States, which further supported the beneficial effects of neuroleptics (Corbett, Mathews, Connell, & Shapiro, 1969; Shapiro 1970; Shapiro & Shapiro, 1968). These seminal investigations instigated the race to find an effective pharmacological treatment and, therefore, the search for a neurobiological etiology, relegating to the background, the psychoanalytic, and the behavioral approach as well (Shapiro & Shapiro, 1971 Shapiro, 1970; 1976).

Idea of a Tourette or Tic and Habit Spectrum

A majority of patients with Tourette's also face various concomitant problems (Freeman et al., 2000), which include obsessive‐compulsive disorder (OCD) or at least some obsessive‐compulsive symptoms, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, and anxiety disorders.

Current Diagnostic Criteria of Tics and Habits

Nosology of the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and tic disorders

Tic disorder and Tourette's syndrome are currently classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Version 5 (DSM‐5) (APA, 2013) with motor disorders listed in the neurodevelopmental disorder category. A tic is defined as a sudden, rapid, recurrent, non‐rhythmic motor movement or vocalization. Tics can be present in the form of simple or complex multiple motor or vocal tics. The complex tics are contractions of a group of skeletal muscles, resulting in complex and repetitive movements, such as hopping, contact with certain objects or people, grimacing, abdominal spasms, tapping, movements or extension of the arms or legs, shoulder movements in sequence, copropraxia (unintentionally performing sexual gestures), or echokinesia (imitation of a gesture). Simple tics are defined as non‐voluntary repetitive contractions of functionally related groups of skeletal muscles in one or more parts of the body including blinking, cheek twitches, and head jerks among others. Vocal tics can also take the form of simple (e.g., coughing, sniffing, clearing throat) or complex tics, such as coprolalia (using profanity and obscene words) or palilalia (involuntary repetition of syllables, words, or phrases).

Tic disorders are grouped into three main classifications in the DSM‐5: Tourette's disorder (307.23), persistent chronic motor or vocal tic disorder (307.22), and provisional tic disorder (307.21).