Medieval Art in the Christian West E-Book

Victoria Charles

• Herausgeber: Parkstone International
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Seitenzahl: 335

Beschreibung

September 4, 476 A. D. marked the end of the Western Roman Empire. After several centuries of prosperity, Europe sank into chaos. With Charlemagne, a new dynamic begins that of a civilising reconstruction. The Romanesque period is part of the rediscovery of this Roman Empire, lost in memories, but living on in the architectural testimonies of the cities and the countryside. In art history, Romanesque art refers to the period between the beginning of the 11th and the end of the 12th century. This era was characterised by a great diversity of regional schools, each practising their own unique style. In architecture as well as in sculpture, Romanesque art is marked by raw forms. Through its rich iconography and captivating text, this work endeavours to restore the importance of this art which is often overshadowed by the later Gothic style. Gothic art is defined by the powerful architecture of the cathedrals of northern France. It is a medieval art movement that evolved throughout Europe over 200 years. Abandoning curved Roman forms, the architects started using flying buttresses and pointed arches to open cathedrals to daylight. A period of great economic and social change, the Gothic era incorporated new iconography celebrating the Holy Mary — a drastic contrast to the dismal themes of Roman times. Full of rich changes in all of the various art forms (architecture, sculpture, painting, etc.), Gothic art paved the way for the Italian Renaissance and the International Gothic movement.

Leseprobe

Authors: Victoria Charles and Klaus H. Carl

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© 2020, Confidential Concepts, worldwide, USA

© 2020, Parkstone Press International, New York, USA

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ISBN: 978-1-78160-304-8

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced or adapted without the permission of the copyright holder, throughout the world. Unless otherwise specified, copyright on the works reproduced lies with the respective photographers. Despite intensive research, it has not always been possible to establish copyright ownership. Where this is the case, we would appreciate notification.

Editor’s Note:

Wherever the text refers to countries, the names of modern nations were used for a more comprehensive understanding. Nevertheless, the people of the time were tribesmen, generally spoke Latin, and belonged to the Holy Roman Empire.

Victoria Charles and Klaus H. Carl

MEDIEVAL ART

IN

Contents

ROMANESQUE ART

Introduction

I. The Romanesque System of Architecture

II. Romanesque Monuments in Central Europe

III. Romanesque Sculpture and Painting

Conclusion

GOTHIC ART

Introduction

I. The System of Gothic Architectural Art

II. Gothic Architectural Monuments in Europe

III. Gothic Painting and Sculpture

Conclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROMANESQUE ART

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GOTHIC ART

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ROMANESQUE ART

Nave, Abbey Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa, Codalet, c. 1035.

Introduction

Around the turn of the first millennium, the entire occident was encompassed by great religious, political and cultural uncertainty. With the collapse of the Roman Empire and the Barbarian Invasions from 375 A.D. to 568 A.D., Roman art, too, disappeared from Western Europe. Invasions by the Huns and Germanic tribes resulted in an artistic and political vacuum, in which a variety of Christian and pagan cultures collided. In the area of modern-day France, a blend of Roman, Germanic, Merovingian and Byzantine art developed. The Viking and Saxon tribes were masters of depiction of stylised animals and invented complex abstract knotting and weaving patterns; the Germanic tribes contributed their portable art and ornamentation.

Gradually, however, ancient Roman art was rediscovered. Emperor Charlemagne, who, around 800 A.D., made every effort to revive the Roman Empire and even considered himself the successor to the Western Roman Emperors, so furthered the interest in ancient art that it can be referred to as a “Carolingian Renaissance”. He sent his people out to bring ancient artefacts back to his court, and there actually are some examples of Carolingian sculpture which, in a naive manner, emulate these models. At the same time, Carolingian portable art blossomed, and mainly produced ivory carvings and metalwork as well as a few small bronze statues. In architecture, the Roman style with its round arches, massive walls, and barrel vaults became established.

After the disintegration of the Charlemagne’s global empire, the Germans emerged almost unscathed. On 8 August 870 A.D., the treaty of Meerssen (near Maastricht in the modern-day Netherlands) also conjoined them into a political unit, the Kingdom of the East Franks, which included the Bavarian, Frankish, Saxon, Swabian, Alamannic, and Lorrain Franconian tribes. During the war turmoil of the ensuing decades, however, this federation disbanded again. Only two tribes, the Franks and Saxons, stood so firmly together that after the death of the last Carolingian who was able claim the rule of the East Franks, they first elected as king Duke Conrad of Franconia, who subsequently died in 918 A.D., and after his death the energetic Duke Henry I of Saxony in 919 A.D. With him began the line of Saxon rulers, whose dynasty would hold the throne for more than a century. He succeeded in reuniting all German tribes, as under Charlemagne, and giving them an awareness of their national unity. Otto I, of course, the most talented and successful of the Saxon kings, also intended to achieve the revival of the Carolingian Empire as his highest political ideal. Like his role model Charlemagne, he sought to locate his centre of gravity in Rome. After Otto was crowned Emperor there in 962 A.D., he founded the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation as the spiritual legacy of the Roman and Carolingian empires. It lasted, if only in name, until 1806. Otto’s coronation brought about a new stability in the arts, politics and economy, and thus the Ottonian style. Huge cathedrals were created, as well as monastic churches and other ecclesiastical structures. The secular world – knighthood was in its prime – showed its power by building castles and palaces.

Nave, Saint-Philibert de Tournus, Tournus, c. 1008-1056.

Eastern view of nave, Church of St. Cyriacus, Gernrode, 959-1000.

Western door, Church of St. Cyriacus, Gernrode, 959-1000.

Intense fighting accompanied the first two Saxon kings throughout almost all of their reigns. It finally ended in victory over the rivals within their own ranks and, in 955 A.D., in the battle of Lechfeld, where they were victorious over the tribes of Southeastern Europe, who had relentlessly been attacking the empire’s borders.

In Germany, as the empire was henceforth known, a culture blossomed which also became the foundation for a new development in the fine arts. Architecture took the leading role, with such predominance that it gave direction to all the other arts. Even though it was still connected to the art of the Carolingian age, which had been modelled after Roman examples, under the Saxon kings it increasingly took on national characteristics, eventually penetrating the traditional forms and giving rise to a new, local art, as diverse as the characteristics of a landscape and its inhabitants. Since late Antiquity, monasteries, which covered Central and Western Europe in an ever denser network, were and continued to be the patrons of occidental culture.

Yet this art, which was predominant during the first half of the Middle Ages, approximately from the middle of the tenth until the beginning of the thirteenth centuries, was given the name Romanesque art. The term was introduced by a French scientist, Charles de Gerville, around 1818, based on its kinship to Roman architecture, with its round arches, piers, columns and vaults, and has been in general use since 1835. This designation was based on the factually incorrect assumption that this medieval art had developed from the Roman. It is a philological coinage and denotes works of architecture as well as of sculpture and painting. The term was also retained because it had become established and attained legitimacy as it kept alive the memory of the origins of the art. In other countries, too, such as in southwestern France and in parts of Italy, the Romanesque style appeared as a continuation of Ancient Roman art.

In Germany, the transition from the Pre-Romanesque to the Romanesque style took place between 1020 and 1030; in France around the year 1000. In Poland, the year 1038 with the coronation of Casimir I, the Restorer, is thus recorded. The Romanesque style has numerous special forms and regional expressions. Influences become apparent, such as those of Byzantine, Islamic, Germanic or Roman art. On German soil, Romanesque architecture also produced structures that are not only an expression of the peak of highest artistic accomplishment of the style, but also some of the most brilliant examples of art history in general. This unusual variety of creations was achieved because, unlike its successor, the Gothic style, it was not bound by any strict systems. In the different landscapes it took on its own expressions, which make up the inexhaustible attraction of the works of the Romanesque style. The same attitude which caused so many difficulties in politics for the Germans, that is the tenacious insistence on regional peculiarities and local customs, created an advantage in the art of the Romanesque age, which retained its creative originality until the very end. This given that it was initially interrupted in its development and finally completely dispelled by the Gothic style, which was introduced in France in the middle of the twelfth century. In England, the transition to the Gothic style can be dated back to around 1180 and in Germany to around 1235. Works of art from the Romanesque period can still be found today in France, not only but principally in Normandy, Auvergne and Burgundy. In Italy they are found mainly in Lombardy and Tuscany, in Germany in Saxony and the Rhine valley, as well as in some other European countries and in England and Spain.

I. The Romanesque System of Architecture

Widely spread all over Christian Europe, the Romanesque style was the first independent, self-contained and unified style. Architecture dominated Romanesque art, and all other artistic movements such as painting and sculpture, which often demonstrated dramatic motifs, were subordinated. The Romanesque style is predominantly a certain use of forms, which branches out into different peculiarities. Nonetheless, most Romanesque structures have certain essential features in common, according to which a system of Romanesque architecture can be established.

Romanesque architecture can be divided into the Early, High and Late Romanesque periods, whereby the Pre- and Early Romanesque periods can also be subdivided according to dynasties; Merovingian (up to 750 A.D.), Carolingian (750-920 A.D.) under Charlemagne’s rule, and Ottonian (920-1024 A.D.). In the different European countries, different starting dates are used to mark the beginning of the Romanesque period. Thus, the Anglo-Saxon period in England ends in 1066 with the Battle of Hastings. In Germany, the Romanesque period begins with the end of the Ottonian dynasty (1024), and in France the first vaulted buildings (Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa in the Pyrenees and Saint-Philibert in Tournus) appeared.

The only structures that can initially be considered, however, are exclusively ecclesiastical buildings, since the Early Romanesque style everywhere in Europe was developed mainly by young monastic communities, as was intellectual and spiritual life in general. They are thus, in their majority, ecclesiastical art. The more the riches of the church grew, the more magnificent the structures became. The ecclesiastical building’s basic form is the basilica with its often cross-shaped floor plan, whereby the choir and nave are located in the long arm, while the transept forms the short arm of the cross. The so-called overstorey or clerestorey windows are located in the nave above the side aisle roof.

The westwork was considered a symbol of secular power. Thus, it was where the Emperor was seated during mass. The choir represented ecclesiastical power. Secular buildings – castles, fortresses, princely palaces, Pfalzen (secondary seats of power) and urban residences – are only preserved from the end of the Romanesque period and only in very scarce numbers. The massive, well-fortified and fortress-like walls (particularly in the westwork), the round arches on windows and doors, the small windows, and, though only in the later periods, the cushion-cap capitals on top of often delicate columns are typical of Romanesque architecture. The most important achievement of Romanesque architecture is, without doubt, the vault.

The Early Romanesque period (from around 1024 until 1080) is characterised by flat, wooden coffered ceilings, which were in constant danger of fire. The walls made of smooth stone blocks were unadorned and more like those of a fortress than an ecclesiastical building. The first towers were attached to buildings often even their multiples. During the High Romanesque period (from around 1080 to 1190) groin vaults appeared as well as architectural ornamentation and free-standing figurative sculptures. The subsequent Late Romanesque period, which ended around 1235, preferred the variety of lavishly decorated structures and interiors. During the Late Romanesque period one can already find Gothic elements, such as pointed arches or ribbed vaults; the massive walls and small windows, however, remained. During this time, magnificent twin tower façades also appeared, as well as richly-formed crossing towers. The church of the Romanesque Middle Ages did not develop from the Carolingian central structures, but from the monastic churches, which had quickly become places of worship for the masses through the monks’ culture of pastoral activities of encouragement and conversion.

The basilica form was also the foundation of the new system, but was often expanded and enriched by new forms. The old main elements – choir, nave and transept – were retained. The choir, however, was regularly enlarged by the insertion between the transept and the choir of a rectangular room, whose size corresponded largely to that of a square created by the intersection of the nave and transept, the crossing. In this manner, for example, a floor plan in the shape of the Latin cross, developed for the monastic plan of St. Gall, appeared, which replaced the T-shaped floor plan and remained authoritative throughout the Middle Ages. The enlarged choir, whose expansion had become necessary due to the constant growth of the clergy and was thus marked as a preferred place for them, was separated from the crossing by several steps. This raising of the choir above floor level was also done for another reason. The Romanesque period had adopted the idea of the crypt from the Carolingian basilica, and it is present in all but a few churches of the Early Romanesque period.

Nave, St. Michael’s Abbey Church of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, 1010-1033.

South-East façade, St. Michael’s Abbey Church of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, 1010-1033.

Crypts were originally used to hold martyr relics, over top of whose resting places stone sarcophagi were erected. Later on, noblemen and other high-ranking individuals, such as founders and benefactors of churches, were also buried in crypts. Thus, for example, King Henry I of Saxony and his wife Mathilda have their final resting place in the crypt of the Stiftskirche (collegiate church) of Quedlinburg, which they had founded, in present-day Saxony-Anhalt. This crypt, which was later renovated, is one of Germany’s two oldest crypts, the other being St. Wiperti Church in Quedlinburg, which was also founded by Henry I and remained preserved in its original form. This quaint little town with a current population of nearly 25,000 used to be the capital of Germany at the time for more than 200 years, and is now part of UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage.

Relatively close in age is the crypt of the Stiftskirche (collegiate church) of Gernrode in the Harz region, built from 961, which retained its overall original character in all other parts also. From this structure, one can appreciate to what degree the spatial effect of the interior as well the monumentality of the exterior appearance of Romanesque architecture had already blossomed on German soil in the tenth century.

During the early period of the Romanesque style, church interiors were less ornate than their exteriors. Thus, for example, the exterior façade of the church of Gernrode, the most imposing building in Saxony at the time, is only made up of pilasters bearing round arches. These round arches with their painted ornaments or diverse stone inlays did not only serve a decorative purpose, but they also contributed to the building’s structural stability. Two round towers with cone-shaped roofs frame the high-rising western façade, which is attached in its current form to an apse dating from the twelfth century. Initially, these towers were only used for the practical purpose of housing the bells and the stairs leading up to the bell cage, but they soon achieved artistic importance in church architecture. The master builder of the church in Gernrode was obviously very keen to connect the towers not only with the entire structure into a unified whole, but also to animate the massive walls with unique ornamentation. The towers are divided into tiers, where each one is different from the next in its structure. In doing this, one did not even pay particular attention to symmetry, since the second tier of one tower shows pointed arches in its arcades, and that of the other round arches. In contrast to the open arched windows of the upper tower tiers, through which the ringing of the bells was to echo through the lands, these closed arches are called “blind arcades”.

The two towers framing the western façade were main elements of church architecture during the prime of the Romanesque style. In the course of the Gothic period, they developed into splendid specimens throughout ecclesiastical architecture, behind which the rest of the structure was sometimes even neglected. The western towers, however, did not remain alone even during the Romanesque period. Among the master builders a demand circulated, based on their early aesthetic considerations, to interrupt certain parts of the church roof, which usually appeared monotonous with its steeply rising gable forms, with tower-like structures and to thus denote these parts as extraordinarily pleasant and important. One location emerged as particularly suitable; the intersection of the nave and transept roofs above the crossing. In the older days, only a small tower lodged on the roof ridge, the so-called ridge turret, was installed, which was also still used later when lacking funds prevented the erection of a massive tower of imposing size.

Western view, with atrium, and narthex, St. Michael’s Abbey Church of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, 1010-1033.

1.Porch/atrium; 2.Narthex; 3.Western façade; 4.Tower crossing the West; 5.Western turrets; 6.Central nave; 7.Collaterals; 8.Tower crossing the East; 9.Western transept; 10.Turrets of the eastern transept

Horizontal plan, St. Michael’s Abbey Church of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, 1010-1033.

1.Porch/atrium;2.Narthex;3.Western façade;4.Tower crossing the West;5.Western turrets;6.Central nave;7.Collaterals;8.Tower crossing the East;9.Western transept;10.Turrets of the eastern transept;11.Apsidiole;12.Chancel;13.Apse

In the Romanesque style’s further development, the slender, delicate ridge turret turned into a short rectangular or octagonal tower, which was frequently topped off with a pyramid-shaped spire or simply closed off with a gable roof. As the master builders became more aware of how much the churches’ artistic effect could be increased by the addition of towers, the more daring they became, whenever the means permitted it. The towers’ original practical purpose was completely forgotten. The aesthetic function was chiefly considered; the heightening of the overall picturesque impression and the joy that was granted to the town’s residents in particular by the wide views into the land. At the same time, however, the tall tower gave guards the opportunity to give early warning to the town about approaching enemies or predatory hordes. In addition to the set of towers framing the western façade and the crossing tower, further towers were added on both sides of the transept or the choir. In the prime of the Romanesque style in Germany, which is represented by the Cathedral in Limburg an der Lahn for example, even that number was found to be insatisfactory, and the transept gables were framed with two towers each, bringing the total number of towers to seven.

Neither did the ornamentation of the walls fall behind this increase in the richness of the exterior structure. The structuring of the walls by projection and pilasters was expanded with round arch friezes; a sequence of small, semicircular arches, which initially only ran underneath the roof cornice, but later underneath all the cornices, in particular also those which separated the towers’ individual tiers. During the later periods of the Romanesque style, decorative ornamentation was added on the exterior. It was, however, limited to initially simple portals, which then developed increasingly into magnificent examples of Romanesque sculpture. With the meaningful subject matter in their reliefs, they were intended to augment the churchgoers’ reverent mood prior to entering the place of worship. The lateral walls of the portals, which were closed off with a rounded arch, were staggered or stepped off toward the interior and fitted with small columns and figures. The meaning behind these was connected with the relief image, which mostly decorated the arch area above the horizontal lintel; the tympanum. Gradually, this visual décor expanded into continuous stories from the Old and New Testaments. Certain doctrines and moral teachings, which could not be conveyed to the largely analphabet masses by the preachers’ verbal attempts, became more commonly known and understood by viewing the readily accessible picture sequences on the portals. This pictorial language quickly became popular and was of great importance for the dissemination and reinforcement of religious ideas before the invention of the printing press. It was later continued during the Gothic period and used in richer forms of expression. Romanesque art, thus, had a definite didactic purpose.

The twin-choir churches, which have been used to describe the main elements of the Early Romanesque style, are really only characteristic of Saxony. In other German regions, churches show a simpler floor plan and usually only have one choir. This type of church is also often found in Saxony, but is so considerably different in detail that no uniform type with common characteristics can be established. There is no standard church that unifies all the characteristic peculiarities of the Romanesque style. All the churches of the Late Romanesque style have only the vaulted ceiling in common, which from the eleventh century replaced the flat wood-beam ceiling in Germany, and was formed into a generally observed system. Originally only used for narrow aisles, they also encompassed the wide central nave once the builders had learned to master the construction challenges. The heavy stone vault was immense in weight, which is why the walls had to be so massive in order to withstand the enormous pressure. For the same reason, there are few windows and doors in Romanesque buildings. The arched windows are explained by the necessity to spread the enormous pressure of the weight onto posts and columns, in order to ensure the building’s stability.

Wherever Christianity spread, the monks were the first builders. It was only through years of experience that they learned how to master the building materials of their regions. Then, they became teachers to their lay brethren, from whom grew the bourgeois builders’ guild. The building-savvy monks had already come to know the art of vaulting in the countries of Roman culture, to which they had come from the North. But only after intense practice were they able to also apply this knowledge to the new task of ecclesiastical architecture. They started by building vaults on smaller aisles, where they initially used the simplest form, the barrel vault, and only later the groin vault. In the wide central nave they had to make do with a wooden ceiling for a considerably longer period of time, until the master builders succeeded in constructing arches that could span such great distances. As indicated above, as the first vault forms existing in Roman buildings, the groin vault presumably resulted from the intersection of two barrel vaults. Thus, four dome caps were created, whose separating lines formed distinct “groins”. Those caps, which held each other, needed only be supported on the four end points.

Western portal with narthex, Abbey of Paulinzella, Rottenbach, 1105-1115.

Southeast view, Abbey of Paulinzella, Rottenbach, 1105-1115.

Transept and apse, church ruins of Hersfeld Abbey, Bad Hersfeld, 1038- end of the 12th century (burned down in 1761).

Owl Tower, Hirsau Abbey, Hirsau, 1080-1087.

The weight was so enormous that slender columns could not longer be used, but sturdy pillars had to be employed to support it. Every nave was covered with several of these vault bays based on a square floor plan, which were separated by wide transverse arches between the pillars. The central nave usually comprised three to six of these squares, the normally half-width aisles had double the number of squares, whose size, however, was only one quarter of a central nave square. Only when the builders mastered the art of spanning a groin vault over a rectangle could the bays in the aisles correspond in length to those of the central nave. Only thus did the floor plan of the Romanesque church achieve complete harmony. This varying division of the bays is illustrated by a comparison of the floor plan of the Cathedral of Speyer, which in its strict structure represents the so-called “unified Romanesque system”, with that of the Abteikirche (abbey church) of Maria Laach. At the Cathedral of Speyer, the normally square bays of the central nave are also rectangular.

In both of the churches a vestibule known as “paradise” in the Middle Ages is preserved, which was supposedly used by penitents as a reminder of the atrium in a Christian basilica. This is most clearly illustrated by the church in Maria Laach, a twin-choir structure, to which the vestibule was only added at the beginning of the thirteenth century – this is how long the early Christian building customs remained alive. Even though the choir layout of these churches, which were finished at the same time around the turn of the twelfth century, is relatively simple, other churches of the same period display richly formed choirs. By leading the aisles around the choir an ambulatory was gained, usually half the height of the choir, which served to grant the streams of pilgrims access to the holy relics kept in the choir. It was later enlarged by the addition of small apses for the installation of secondary altars. Only the Gothic style brought this expansion of the choir to its conclusion by forming the apses into small chapels and eventually surrounding the choir with a ring of chapels. It was also the Gothic style which enabled the rood screen (in Latin, lectorium), a wooden or stone barrier, to achieve its artistic magnificence. It developed from the barriers (cancelli) which already separated the choir from the central nave in early Christian basilicas and was equipped with two or more passageways. In the centre, a chancel-like structure with a lectern, accessible by a set of stairs, rose and served for the reading of spiritual texts from the gospel.

The creation of individual forms and ornaments was as varied as the layout of the floor plans, where arches, pillars and columns in particular could be considered. It was already indicated that alongside the capital, whose Antique ornamentation had been imitated with more or less understanding, a separate Romanesque capital form developed in the form of the cushion-cap capital, whose smoothly carved, semi-circular surfaces where probably painted. Later, they were covered with relief ornamentation of foliage and twisted bands, which gradually obscured the square column top, rendering the original form underneath completely unrecognisable. Fable motifs, human and animal figures, demons and saints, in natural but also frequently fantastic forms were woven into the ornamentation.

Eastern apse with “Roman gallery”, St. Martin Cathedral (end of 10th, 17th-18th century) and St. Stephan church (after 1011), Mainz.

Eastern view of nave, St. Martin Cathedral (end of 10th, 17th-18th century) and St. Stephan church (after 1011), Mainz.

Eastern nave view, Cathedral of St. Mary and St. Steven (“Imperial Cathedral of Speyer”), Speyer, 1030-1061.

The stonemasons, particularly of the later Romanesque period, sought to outdo each other by inventing ever more fantastic designs, in which the comical and terrible combined into a grotesque effect, particularly as the influences conveyed by the Crusades asserted themselves. The basic form of the cushion-cap capital can hardly be recognised in those figurative capitals. Echoes of basic Antique forms presumably still exist in the cup and bud shapes of the capital, but the ornamentation was new at the time, and its independence can again be found most clearly in the monuments in Germany.

The column base was usually shaped after the Attic example; a hollow moulding located on top of a rectangular plinth between two tori. The fact that the lower torus was resting directly on the plinth did not sit well with the artist builders for long. Initially, they trimmed the four corners with round blocks, later with tuber-shaped leaves, which only then brought about the actual transition between round and squared. The initially smooth column shafts were later covered with sculpted ornamentation; interlacings reminiscent of twisted bands, zigzag patterns and more.

The original basic square pillars, which were only attached to a simple cover plate on the top and a wooden hollow moulding, soon took on richer forms. The edges were bevelled or moulded and the resulting corners were filled with small, slim columns, a technique that made the pillar appear more vivid and which could already be found in Muslim buildings such as those in Cairo. Later, the four pillar surfaces – or possibly only two of them – had engaged columns attached to them, mostly with their own capitals, which had their own function; they carried the vault’s transverse arches. Finally, the pillar tops also received sculpted adornment corresponding to the richness of the rest of the ornamentation. Thus, the formation of the Romanesque style was in the process of a soaring development on both the construction and ornamentation sides, until it was gradually replaced by the use of form of the Gothic period.

Horizontal plan, Cathedral of St. Mary and St. Steven (“Imperial Cathedral of Speyer”), Speyer, 1030-1061.

Horizontal plan, St. Martin Cathedral (end of 10th, 17th-18th century) and St. Stephan church (after 1011), Mainz.

Crypt-Hall, Cathedral of St. Mary and St. Steven (“Imperial Cathedral of Speyer”), Speyer, 1030-1061.

Maria Laach Abbey, Maria Laach, 1093-12th century.

Western chevet view, Cathedral of St. Peter (“Worms Cathedral”), Worms, 1110-13th century.

II. Romanesque Monuments in Central Europe

Germany

However many varied expressions the Romanesque style of architecture may have found on German soil, there are still three regions that stand out from the others with particularly distinct individual characteristics; Saxony, the Rhineland and Westphalia. These regions’ buildings also most clearly reflect their inhabitants’ tribal culture. For the Saxons, their dogged hold to the traditions of Carolingian times and their sense for strict regularity is typical, and finds a particular expression in the methodic alternation between the pillars and columns carrying the upper walls of the central naves. The buildings of the Rhineland reflect the light-hearted sense of beauty and love of grandeur of a carefree people. The defiant rise of the massive walls between the towers of the western façade in Westphalia corresponds to their taste for the simple and practical, which aimed only to fulfil a particular need without placing great emphasis on decorative forms, but ever more on the buildings’ stability by means of effective construction.

Stiftskirche (collegiate church) St. Cyriacus in Gernrode

The Gernrode Stiftskirche (figs. 1, 2) in modern-day Saxony-Anhalt built from 959 A.D. is one of the many structures pre-formed by the Carolingian monastic churches, which were built with two choirs and two transepts. It also retained its overall original character in all other parts, so that it can be gauged from this structure the extent to which Romanesque architecture had already blossomed in Germany in the tenth century, in both the spatial effects of the interior and the monumentality of the exterior appearance.

The church owes its name to St. Cyriacus. Margrave Gero, founder of this church, had brought back a relic of the saint from his pilgrimage to Rome in 963 A.D., during which he also obtained a papal blessing for this building. One feature of the Stiftskirche is the reconstruction of the Holy Sepulchre dating from the eleventh century.

The addition of a second choir at the west end, which generally corresponded exactly to the eastern one, occured wherever two patron saints were honoured. The western choir is not always paired with a transept. In this Stiftskirche, it is demonstrated that the western basilica form is also the foundation of the new system, but in many ways expanded and enriched by new forms. The main old elements – choir, nave and transept – were retained. The choir, however, was gradually enlarged by the insertion of a rectangular space between it and the transept, whose size corresponds to that of the square resulting from the intersection of the centre nave and transept; the crossing. Thus, the floor plan shape of the Latin cross was created already in the monastic plan of St. Gall, which replaced the T-shaped floor plan and remained dominant throughout the Middle Ages. But after this type of twin-choir church had reached its climax in the twelfth, or possibly even the eleventh century, the two evenly developed cross-sections had a characteristic exterior appearance. In the most perfectly formed structure of this kind, the Michaeliskirche (St. Michael’s Church) in Hildesheim, it was even further accentuated by four towers attached to the gables of the transepts.

The central nave of the Stiftskirche rises to quite considerable height above the aisles, above which a triforium is installed, which was originally connected by a gallery on the west side. They were probably used by nuns, who, separate from the lay world, were able to participate in the service in those rooms. The arcades of the central nave were alternately supported by pillars and columns, a form of construction that was presumably first implemented in the Wipertikirche’s crypt.

Northeast view, Church of the Holy Apostles, Cologne, first third of the 11th century, Oriental parts constructed after 1192.

View of the chevet, Church of St. Maria in the Capitol, Cologne, 1049-1065.

Northeast exterior view, St. Clemens Church, Büsum, 1434-1442.

Bamberg Cathedral, Bamberg, 1004-1012 (burned down in 1087), rebuilt from 1111 to the 13th century.

Michaeliskirche (St. Michael’s Church) of Hildesheim

This alternation of supports was later developed into a true system. In the Michaeliskirche of Hildesheim (figs. 1, 2, 3, 4), for example, as opposed to the churches where the central nave walls were supported by either columns or pillars, the alternation of supports had the aesthetic purpose of emphasising the meaningful structuring of the interior. The series of arches in the triforium, too, are separated in the centre by a pillar, whose position corresponds to that of the lower pillar. The capitals of the columns are still connected to Ancient traditions as they are reminiscent of the shape and foliage work of Corinthian capitals. Between the leaves appear heads and partial figures, which can probably be viewed as an invention of German artisans. They later developed into Romanesque figurative capitals in which medieval artists could exhibit the full richness of their ideas. Another form of the Romanesque capital is the simple shape of a pair of columns with cushion-top capitals at the entrance to Gernrode crypt. It is part of a later period of renewal and renovation in the church interior.

The nave and aisles are, as was customary in the Early Christian basilicas, roofed with flat wooden beam ceilings. The wood was covered with quite rich painting, which cleverly made use of the sectioned ceiling. The ceiling frescos of the Michaeliskirche have, however, almost all completely disappeared, with the exception of those in the nave. They were the favourite creations of Bishop Bernward, who had an appreciation for art and was himself an architect, goldsmith and bronze caster. Of his building only a few remnants remain, among which the columns with the cushion-top capitals (the columns on the far left and right) are markedly different from the richly formed shapes of the later period of renewal, after it had burned down almost completely following a lightning strike in 1034.

Yet the floor plan remained the same, and it can be seen from this that the builders of the eleventh century already designed their churches according to well-considered ratios, within which the secret of the extremely harmonious effect of these Romanesque basilicas can be found. In the Michaeliskirche, the nave is three times as long as it is wide. The three resulting squares are framed by rectangular pillars, between which two columns each are inserted. This is the culmination of the alternation of supports, which was only widespread in Saxony, parallel to the pillar basilica. The two aisles also harmonise with the nave’s proportional size, since they comprise three squares, which are about the same size as those of the central nave. These relatively simple calculations were guarded as the builders’ secrets at the time, which were passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth. These remained in force until far into the Gothic period, during which the secrecy of the church masonic guild of the great cathedrals and basilicas was even written into the rules.

The floor plan of the Michaeliskirche, which today is part of UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage, is a prime example of the culmination of twin-choir church layout in the eleventh century. Its interior, which was only finalised in 1186, is a characteristic example of the rich extravagance in visual and painting décor, which was customary in Saxony at the height of the Romanesque style, and at the same time also speaks of the artistic capabilities of the time. The sculptors and stonemasons who created this art in stone and stucco were not content simply with very rich ornamentation of column capitals with foliage and figurative images. The exteriors of the capital covers as well as the interior of the arches were covered with delicate ornaments. Above the arches runs a vine-like frieze, which in the southern aisle depicts the heads of eight female figures standing on the cover plates, representing the Beatitudes.

This sculptural décor was complimented by a richly structured system of painting. It comprised, in a similar way to the polychrome buildings of Ancient Greece, the non-ornamented parts of the architecture as well as the sculptural décor. Thus the simple cushion-top capitals were painted with leaves, so that they were similar to the ancient calyx capitals. The smooth column shafts were either painted in one colour or marbled in varied colours or wrapped in colourful spiralling bands. In addition to this, there were figurative images on the ceilings and walls.

Northwest view, St. George’s Cathedral, Limburg, 1200-1235.

Cloistered buildings and square, Maulbronn Abbey, Maulbronn, 1147 (monastery) and 1178-13th century (church).

Horizontal plan, Maulbronn Abbey, Maulbronn, 1147 (monastery) and 1178-13th century (church).

Other Ecclesiastical Buildings

Of the ecclesiastical buildings in Saxony, the following must be emphasised alongside the Stiftskirche in Gernrode and the Michaeliskirche of Hildesheim in Lower Saxony, through which we demonstrated the main characteristics of the Romanesque style in its early and prime periods. They are the Schlosskirche (castle church) in Quedlinburg (Saxony-Anhalt) as well as the Godehardskirche (St. Godehard’s Church) in Hildesheim, the Stiftskirche (collegiate church) in Königslutter and, above all, the cathedral in Braunschweig (all three in Lower Saxony). Because this cathedral was the first to employ vault construction, it became an example for the entire region. Originally a double-aisle pillar basilica, it accumulated four side aisles in the fourteenth century when its aisles were doubled. The building’s initial concept that strove for a serious, ceremonious effect was not impaired.

Wherever one finds a pure column basilica in Saxony, one can safely infer foreign sources. The church of the Paulinzella monastery in Thuringia (figs. 1, 2), whose picturesque ruins still demonstrate today the artful structuring of the building, was built by monks from the Swabian Hirsau monastery. In the small town of Hirsau can be found a double-aisled building of about a hundred metres in length in the shape of a basilica, which was then the largest monastery with the largest Romanesque church building in Germany. At the end of the seventeenth century the church and a castle, which had been erected on the premises in the interim, were set on fire by French troops. Both magnificent buildings were destroyed by the flames. Only the cloister and one of the two original towers, the so-called Eulenturm (Owl Tower), survive today. The column basilica was the most common type of church in Swabia. Its most shining representatives are the cathedrals in Constance and Schaffenhausen, whereby the Constance cathedral was almost completely remodelled in the late Gothic period, particularly its exterior façade.

In the Rhineland, pillar basilicas are prevalent. This can probably be attributed to a quite common building material, the porous tuff stone, which could not be worked on in large pieces. Column basilicas are rare, particularly those with flat roofs, and the actual Rhineland building style of the Romanesque period achieved its highest development in the pillar basilica. The main representatives are the three central Rhineland Imperial Cathedrals in Mainz, Worms and Speyer. They are at the same time the most comprehensive and artistically perfected creations of Romanesque architecture in Germany. Thus, it is particularly mournful that they lost much of their original appearance due to fires, destruction in the many wars until the end of the eighteenth century, and the renovations of the recent past.

Eastern view with Ottonian frescos, Church of St. George, Oberzell, 896-beginning of the 11th century.

Nave, Jerichow Abbey, Jerichow, 1149-1172.

South view, Ratzeburg Cathedral, Ratzeburg, 1160-1220.

Stiftskirche in Bad Hersfeld