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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
Comprehensively captures the robust history of the state of Missouri, from the pre-Columbian period to the present
Combining a chronological overview with topical development, this book by a team of esteemed historians presents the rich and varied history of Missouri, a state that has played a pivotal role in the history of the nation.
In a clear, engaging style that all students of Missouri history are certain to enjoy, the authors of Missouri: The Heart of the Nation explore such topics as Missouri’s indigenous population, French and Spanish colonialism, territorial growth, statehood, slavery, the Civil War and Reconstruction, railroads, modernization, two world wars, constitutional change, Civil Rights, political realignments, and the difficult choices that Missourians face in the 21st century. Featuring chapter revisions as well as new maps, photographs, reading lists, a preface, and index, this latest edition of this beloved survey textbook will continue to engage all those celebrating Missouri’s bicentennial. A companion website features a student study guide.
- Published to commemorate the bicentennial of Missouri statehood in 2021
- Features fully updated chapters that bring the historical narrative up to the present
- Presents numerous images and maps that enrich the coverage of key events
- Provides suggestions for further reading
Missouri: The Heart of the Nation is an excellent book for colleges and universities offering survey courses on state history or state government. It also will appeal to all lovers of American history and to those who call Missouri home.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface to the Fourth Edition
About the Companion Website
1 Native Ground
Mid‐America
The Mississippi River
The Missouri River
The Lay of the Land
Paleo‐Indians
The Archaic Period
The Woodland Period
The Mississippi Period
The Oneota Culture
Osage
Quapaw
Otoe–Missouria
Ioway
Homeland
Further Reading
2 A Confluence of Empires
De Soto
Marquette and Jolliet
La Salle
The Work of the French Missionaries
Fort Orleans
Lead
The Founding of St. Louis
Joie De Vivre
The Imperial Osage
The Spanish Regime
The American Revolution
Empire of Liberty
The Louisiana Purchase
Further Reading
3 The Missouri Borderlands
Political Uncertainty
Lewis and Clark
Pike
Fort Osage and Fort Madison
Earthquake
War of 1812
Long
Fur Trade
Territorial Growth
The Land Problem
Churches and Schools
Newspapers
Lawlessness
Changes in Territorial Government
Further Reading
4 Statehood and Beyond
The Proposal
The Missouri Compromise
The Constitutional Convention
The First Constitution
The First State Elections
Selection of a State Capital
First Senators
The Second Missouri Compromise
Trailblazers
The Santa Fe Trail
Indian Removal
Texas
Manifest Destiny
Further Reading
5 The Age of Benton
The Emergence of Political Differences
Benton
Corrupt Bargain
Jacksonians in Power
Opposition
The Platte Purchase
The Bank of Missouri
A New State Capitol
The Mormon War
The Honey War
The Seminole War
Democratic Strains
The Constitutional Convention of 1845
Benton and Expansion
Further Reading
6 Slavery in Missouri
Legal Basis for Slavery
Slave Codes
Geographical Distribution
Type of Work
Hiring Out
Prices
Work Culture
Religious Activities
Living Conditions
Master–Slave Relationships
Slave Trading
Free Blacks
Antislavery Activities
Further Reading
7 A Developing State
Population Explosions
European Immigrants
The Advance of Education
The Early Urbanization of St. Louis
Other Missouri Towns
Steamboating on the Western Waters
Overland Transportation
The Coming of the Railroads
Cattle Drive
Pony Express
On the Move
Further Reading
8 Turmoil on the Border
The Jackson Resolutions
The “Southern Address”
Benton's Appeal
Benton's Downfall
The Kansas–Nebraska Act
Struggle for Kansas
Deadlock Over the Senatorial Seat
Proslavery Forces Win in Kansas
The Kansas Free State Movement
Violence Renewed
Battle of the Ballots
Slavery Falters in Kansas
The Dred Scott Case
Toward Emancipation
Further Reading
9 The Civil War
Missouri's Reaction to the Sectional Crisis
The State Convention
The Outbreak of Civil War
The Camp Jackson Affair
Preparation for War
The Flight of Governor Jackson
The Provisional Government
The Confederates Help Jackson
Wilson's Creek and Lexington
The Shadow Government
The Missouri State Militia
Martial Law in Missouri
Guerilla Warfare
Order No. 11
The Emancipation Issue
The Western Sanitary Commission
The Radical Union Party
The Centralia Massacre
Price's Raid
The Last Days
Further Reading
10 Radical Rule
The End of Slavery
The Drake Constitution
Who Shall Vote?
Purging the Courts
Ratifying the Constitution
Testing the Test Oath
Election of 1866
Lawlessness and Vigilantes
The Equal Rights League
The Challenges of Freedom
Radicals and Education
Civil Society
The High Tide of Radicalism
Schurz
Women's Suffrage
Revising the Test Oath
The Liberal Republican Movement
Coalition
The Constitution of 1875
Further Reading
11 The Gilded Age
Railroads
Pacific Railroad
North Missouri Railroad
Southwest Pacific Railroad
St. Louis and Iron Mountain Railroad
Missouri Valley Railroad
Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad
Costs
Bridging the Missouri
Eads Spans the Mississippi
More Railroad Construction
The James Gang
Bald Knobbers
Population Growth
Kansas City
St. Louis
Organized Labor
Other Cities and Industries
Telephone
Agriculture
Further Reading
12 Angry Farmers and Urban Reformers
Background to Populism
Third Parties
The Alliance Movement
Democratic Response
Farmers Formulate a Program
Missouri Farmers Split
People's Party
Panic of 1893
Election of 1896
The Interim
The Progressives
The Missouri Idea
Lynching and Expulsion
Republican Progress
Election of 1912
Further Reading
13 Missouriana
Artistry
Bingham
Wimar
Schools and Galleries
Wainwright Building
Clemens
Field
Chopin
Wright
Reedy
Teasdale
Eliot
Hughes
The Sound of Music
Ragtime
Joplin
“Blind” Boone
Handy
The St. Louis World's Fair
Further Reading
14 Out of the Mud
Problems with Neutrality
America Enters the War
Missouri at War
Pershing
The Liberty Memorial
Women's Suffrage
Prohibition
Republicans Take Control
Persistent Democrats
The Ku Klux Klan
Carver
Lindbergh
Muddled Politics
Better Roads
Education
The Perils of Prosperity
Further Reading
15 The Pendergast Era
The Great Depression
The Machine Responds
The New Deal
The Bank Holiday
Repeal of Prohibition
Alphabet Soup
Plight of Missourians
Truman
Reform Continues
Pendergast's Downfall
Not by Bread Alone
Carnegie
Wilder
Benton
Disney
Pastimes
End of the New Deal
The Second World War
Missouri's Greatest Generation
Bradley
Wartime Politics in Missouri
The War Ends
Further Reading
16 Better Government in Missouri
The Constitutional Convention of 1943–1944
The Executive Branch
The General Assembly
The Courts
Ratification
The Sinews of Peace
Cold War Politics
Democratic Dominance
Desegregation
African American Leadership
Civil Rights Laws
The Women's Movement
Rural to Urban Shift
Farm Commodities
Natural Resources
Economic Development
Television
School Consolidation
Campus Expansion
State Reorganization
Civil Unrest
Election of 1968
The Arch
Further Reading
17 A Bellwether State
Republican Revival
Schlafly
The Urban Population
Pruitt‐Igoe
Tourism
Higher Education System
The Hancock Amendment
Conservative Politics
I‐70 Series
Educational Reform
Desegregation Cases
Life and Death
Green Issues
The Great Flood of 1993
The Carnahan Legacy
Welfare Reform
Election of 2000
Further Reading
18 Into the New Millennium
Demographic Trends
Economic Sectors
Troubled Schools
Gambling Revenue
Budgetary Dilemmas
9/11 Attacks
Military Deployments
Political Battles
Same‐Sex Marriage
Entertainment Sites
Changes in Higher Education
Shades of Blue and Red
Meltdown
Health Care Reform
The Joplin Tornado
Ferguson Incident
Controversy at Mizzou
Republican Stronghold
A New Generation
Further Reading
Appendix
List of Illustrations
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Map of United States with Missouri.
Figure 1.2 Lake of the Ozarks Sunset, State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 1.3 Graham Cave Point, Museum of Anthropology, University of Missouri....
Figure 1.4 Van Meter State Park Map, Missouri Department of Natural Resources...
Figure 1.5 Missouri Indianer, Library of Congress.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Hernando De Soto. Library of Congress.
Figure 2.2 Carte de la Louisiane et du Cours du Mississippi. State Historical...
Figure 2.3 Old Ste. Genevieve. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 2.4 Chief of the Little Osages. U.S. National Archives.
Figure 2.5 Signing of the Louisiana Purchase Statue.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Captain Lewis and Clark holding a council with the Indians. Librar...
Figure 3.2 Map of Captain William Clark's approximate overland route from St....
Figure 3.3 Missouri Fur Company Warehouse. Library of Congress.
Figure 3.4 Mother Duchesne. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 3.5 Map of northern part of Missouri Territory, 1815. State Historical...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Map of the United States, 1823. State Historical Society of Missou...
Figure 4.2 Alexander McNair. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 4.3 Drawing of first Capitol in Jefferson City.
Figure 4.4 Independence Courthouse, Missouri. U.S. National Archives.
Figure 4.5 George Catlin's map of Indian Country in 1833. State Historical So...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Thomas Hart Benton, Senator from Missouri. Library of Congress.
Figure 5.2 The County Election. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 5.3 Map of Missouri, 1838. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 5.4 Bond, Issued for $1000 by Lilburn Williams Boggs, July 1, 1839....
Figure 5.5 Alexander William Doniphan. Library of Congress.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Broadside. Collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of Africa...
Figure 6.2 Two African American boys, Hannibal, Missouri. Library of Congress...
Figure 6.3 William M. Adams, slave cabin, Boonville, Cooper County, MO. Libra...
Figure 6.4 Aunt Winnie. St. Louis, Missouri, Library of Congress.
Figure 6.5 Map showing the distribution of slaves in Missouri.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Photocopy of Engraving, Stone Hill vineyards and cellars of the St...
Figure 7.2 Map of the City of St. Louis and Vicinity. State Historical Societ...
Figure 7.3 Ben Campbell, steamship at landing. Library of Congress.
Figure 7.4 First Locomotive.
Figure 7.5 Map of the State of Missouri showing the line route adopted by the...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Jefferson City. Library of Congress.
Figure 8.2 David Rice Atchison, Library of Congress.
Figure 8.3 Liberty, the fair maid of Kansas – in the hands of the “Border Ruf...
Figure 8.4 Two unidentified Border Ruffians with swords. Library of Congress....
Figure 8.5 Eliza and Lizzie, children of Dred Scott; Dred Scott; His wife, Ha...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The Western Department, 1865. State Historical Society of Missouri...
Figure 9.2 United States Volunteers attacked by the mob, corner of Fifth and ...
Figure 9.3 Nathaniel Lyon, Brig. Genl., USA Killed at the battle of Springfie...
Figure 9.4 Elizabeth Thompson's Oath of Allegiance. Elizabeth Remay Dabbs Tho...
Figure 9.5 Martial Law, or Order No. 11. State Historical Society of Missouri...
Figure 9.6 Unidentified African American soldier in Union uniform with a rifl...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Emancipation Ordinance of Missouri. Library of Congress.
Figure 10.2 Hon. Charles Daniel Drake. Library of Congress.
Figure 10.3 J. Milton Turner. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 10.4 Susan Elizabeth Blow. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 10.5 Hon. Carl Schurz of Missouri. Library of Congress.
Figure 10.6 The Union as it was. Library of Congress.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Early locomotive on the Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad.
Figure 11.2 The bridge at St. Louis. Library of Congress.
Figure 11.3 Jesse James. Library of Congress.
Figure 11.4 Great Market, Kansas City. Library of Congress.
Figure 11.5 Carthage Quarry Company. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Commissioner’s official railway map of Missouri, 1888. State Hist...
Figure 12.2 Richard P. Bland, Library of Congress.
Figure 12.3 George West shoeing his mule, Hermitage, Missouri.
Figure 12.4 Joseph Wingate Folk. Library of Congress.
Figure 12.5 Speaker “Champ” Clark. Library of Congress.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 George Caleb Bingham. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 13.2 Wainwright Building. Library of Congress.
Figure 13.3 Mark Twain at his boyhood home. Library of Congress.
Figure 13.4 Kate Chopin. Missouri Historical Society.
Figure 13.5 “The Entertainer,” 1902. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 13.6 St. Louis World's Fair. Library of Congress.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 “Golden Lane” demonstration for women's suffrage on the steps of ...
Figure 14.2 John Pershing. Library of Congress.
Figure 14.3 Gov. Gardner signing resolution ratifying amendment to U.S. Const...
Figure 14.4 George Washington Carver. Library of Congress.
Figure 14.5 Missouri State Road System, 1924. State Historical Society of Mis...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Map Showing Ward and Precinct Lines, Kansas City, 1931. State His...
Figure 15.2 Cartoon by Daniel Fitzpatrick
, St. Louis Post‐Dispatch
, Feb...
Figure 15.3 Thomas J. Pendergast. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 15.4 Thomas Hart Benton Mural. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 15.5 Building a pontoon bridge, Camp Crowder.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Missouri State Flag.
Figure 16.2 Senator Stuart Symington and former President Harry S. Truman. Ha...
Figure 16.3 Roy Wilkins. Library of Congress.
Figure 16.4 Flood Control Projects, 1955. State Historical Society of Missour...
Figure 16.5 Floor of the Missouri General Assembly Jefferson City, 1959.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Christopher “Kit” Bond. State Historical Society of Missouri.
Figure 17.2 Demolition of Pruitt–Igoe, 1972. U.S. Department of Housing and U...
Figure 17.3 Ronald Reagan dedicating “Breakthrough,” 1990.
Figure 17.4 1993 Missouri River Flood. State Historical Society of Missouri....
Figure 17.5 Jean and Mel Carnahan.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 B‐2 Spirit flies over St. Louis. U.S. Air Force.
Figure 18.2 Claire McCaskill. U.S. Senate.
Figure 18.3 Pvt. First Class Jesus Ramos, 1139th Military Police Co., Missour...
Figure 18.4 The Francis Quadrangle. Library of Congress.
Figure 18.5 State map with Counties.
Guide
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Missouri
The Heart of the Nation
William E. Parrish, Lawrence O. Christensen, and Brad D. Lookingbill
Fourth Edition
This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Edition HistoryForum Press (1e, 1980)H. Davidson (2e, 1992)Wiley‐Blackwell (3e, 2012)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of William E. Parrish, Lawrence O. Christensen, and Brad D. Lookingbill to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Parrish, William E. (William Earl), 1931– author. | Christensen, Lawrence O., author. | Lookingbill, Brad D., 1969– author.Title: Missouri : the heart of the nation / William E. Parrish, Lawrence O. Christensen, Brad D. Lookingbill.Description: Fourth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2019003174 (print) | LCCN 2019003434 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119165897 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119165903 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119165828 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119165859 (paperback)Subjects: LCSH: Missouri–History.Classification: LCC F466 (ebook) | LCC F466 .P27 2019 (print) | DDC 977.8–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019003174
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © michaklootwijk/iStock.com
Preface to the Fourth Edition
The history of Missouri is rich and diverse. The state formed at the crossroads of America. It has played a pivotal role in much of the nation's history, particularly in the development of the American West. The writers have endeavored to present the story of Missouri and its people in a clear and concise manner. From colonization to the present, the history of the state has been a story of Missourians and their attempts to relate to their environment and changing circumstances. The writers hope that they have captured herein the full impact of the events that have made Missouri into the “Heart of the Nation” today.
What we have tried to provide is an overview arranged generally in chronological sequence but with topical emphasis. It is impossible to go into numerous details in a book of this sort, which is a panorama of politics, economics, and society. For those who wish to pursue various aspects of Missouri history further, the writers have provided suggestions for reading at the end of each chapter. The revisions in this edition allude to recent scholarship. Missouri's past is a goldmine for historians, and it is good to see the digging that is occurring.
The most thorough account of the state from its beginnings to 2003 is A History of Missouri in six volumes, of which William E. Parrish is the General Editor. Published by the University of Missouri Press, the revised editions were issued between 1999 and 2004. They contain extensive bibliographies beyond what we can furnish here and are cited in the suggestions for reading as appropriate.
An important supplement is the Dictionary of Missouri Biography, which was edited by Lawrence O. Christensen, William E. Foley, Gary R. Kremer, and Kenneth H. Winn. The University of Missouri Press published this reference work in 1999. Therein one will find brief biographies of the most significant Missourians in all walks of life.
Other works of state history remain valuable: John C. Fisher, Catfish, Fiddles, Mules, and More: Missouri's State Symbols (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003); David D. March, The History of Missouri, four volumes (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1967); Sean McLachlan, Missouri: An Illustrated History (New York: Hippocrene Books, 2008); Duane C. Meyer, The Heritage of Missouri (St. Louis: State Publishing Company, 1963); Marian M. Ohman, A History of Missouri's Counties, County Seats, and Court House Squares (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1983); Milton D. Rafferty, Historical Atlas of Missouri (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982); Floyd C. Shoemaker, ed., Missouri and Missourians, Land of Contrasts and People of Achievements, five volumes (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1943); Margot Ford McMillen, Paris, Tightwad, and Peculiar: Missouri Place Names (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1994); and Clair Willcox, ed., Images of Missouri (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003).
Missouri is fortunate to have two excellent historical libraries, the State Historical Society of Missouri at Columbia and the Missouri Historical Society at St. Louis. The back issues of their respective publications, the Missouri Historical Review and Gateway Heritage, formerly The Bulletin, are a treasure trove of lore on all aspects of the state's history. The Missouri State Archives in Jefferson City is the official repository for state records of permanent and historical value. Opening in 2014, the Museum of Missouri Military History at the Ike Skelton Training Site pays tribute to the state's service members. Missouri has many local historical societies, some with museums, libraries, and publications. Several libraries have special corners dedicated to the “Show‐Me State.” Students would do well to acquaint themselves with primary sources where they are available in their communities. The heritage of Missouri is visible not only at the state level but also at the grassroots of its towns and counties. Students can find fascinating things to study right at their front door if they but look for them.
We wish to thank the staff of the State Historical Society of Missouri for their help in the selection of the pictures and maps that are used herein. We also wish to express our appreciation to the following for their past assistance: Thomas W. Carneal, the late Carl H. Chapman, William E. Foley, James W. Goodrich, Alan R. Havig, Gary R. Kremer, B. B. Lightfoot, David D. March, Patrick E. McLear, Franklin D. Mitchell, the late George P. Rawick, Robert W. Richmond, and J. Christopher Schnell. With the help of a capable staff, Laura R. Jolley aided immensely in acquiring images for the fourth edition. Andrea A. Hunter and the experts at the Osage Nation Historic Preservation Office reviewed and refined key sections from the first chapter. Terry B. Smith offered suggestions for revisions to the last chapter. William E. Parrish would like to thank the University of Missouri Press for permission to use materials from some of his previous books and the Johns Hopkins University Press for permission to use excerpts from his chapter “Reconstruction Politics in Missouri, 1865–1870,” in Richard O. Curry, ed., Radicalism, Racism, and Party Realignment: The Border States During Reconstruction (1969). We gratefully acknowledge the late Lewis E. Atherton, an esteemed mentor and revered scholar, for his devotion to the preservation of state and local history. Most of all, we offer special thanks to HelenSue Parrish, Maxine Christensen, and Deidra Lookingbill for their assistance throughout this and other enterprises.
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/parrish/missouri4e
The website includes a student study guide.
1Native Ground
When Mark Twain's unforgettable character, Tom Sawyer, scolded Huckleberry Finn for thinking that Illinois was green and Indiana pink because each appeared that way on a map, Huck demanded, “What's a map for? Ain't it to learn you facts?” Although the illiterate Huck could not read a map, he knew its purpose. The map of the United States can teach numerous important geographic facts, many of which will increase one's understanding of Missouri history.
Mid‐America
Between the Appalachian Mountains in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west is mid‐America. The continental interior contains a variety of physiographic factors such as a great inland water system formed by the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers and their 250 tributaries. These river basins give mid‐America its essential geographic unity.
Situated in the west north‐central part of mid‐America, the state of Missouri lies somewhat east of the geographical center of the United States. Between 36° and 40° 35′ north latitude and 89° and 95° 42′ west longitude, Missouri's total area of 69,686 mi2 makes it nineteenth in size among the states. It is one of only two states bordered by eight other states: Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee on the east; Arkansas on the south; Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska on the west; and Iowa on the north.
East of Missouri are interior lowlands, dissected plateaus, and coastal plains. The Great Lakes of North America form a large drainage basin and connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the St. Lawrence River. Another major feature of this area is the Appalachian Highlands, which extend north–south for nearly 1500 mi from the island of Newfoundland into the state of Alabama. The mountain range is considered the geographical divide between the Atlantic seaboard and the American heartland. No other phrase so accurately denotes the place of Missouri in the United States as the one inspired by the great arch that rises above the Mississippi River at St. Louis – the “Gateway to the West.”
Figure 1.1 Map of United States with Missouri.
West of Missouri appear more diverse landscapes. Encompassing over half the land area of the United States, the American West begins with the Great Plains and continues north to the Canadian border, south to the Rio Grande, and west across the Rocky Mountains. The prairies stretch broadly to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, which extend north–south for more than 3000 mi from British Columbia into New Mexico. Beyond the “backbone” of the continent are rivers, plateaus, mesas, basins, deserts, mountains, canyons, forests, and grasslands. Not too distant looms the coastline of the Pacific Ocean.
The Mississippi River
The Mississippi River forms all but 20 mi of the eastern boundary that shapes the state of Missouri. It flows 2350 mi through the continent from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico. The upper Mississippi travels through a great valley with high ground and prominent bluffs on both banks. The bluff tops between Louisiana and Clarksville in northeast Missouri are among the highest along the river. When it reaches Cape Girardeau, the river widens, emerging from the wooded terrain and limestone cliffs to shape the Mississippi flood plains that stretch to the Gulf.
The Mississippi acquired its name from the Algonquin term “Misi‐ziibi,” which means the Great River. People often translated it with the reverent phrase “Father of Waters.” Awed by its size, various indigenous populations depended upon the waterway for survival. Its changing currents, sand bars, ice, flooding in low‐lying areas, submerged debris, and driftwood have made the river dangerous to both travelers and inhabitants. Explorers and traders walked its banks in search of wealth. Generations of farmers attempted to cultivate the fertile lands along the river bottom. As the Mississippi has evolved over the ages, it has always been an important force in the history of the continent.
From 1763 to 1783, the Mississippi divided the empires of Great Britain and Spain in North America. It became the western boundary of the newly established United States, yet it remained a trade route for many Natives and strangers alike. Questions over its navigation and the use of the Port of New Orleans for American products led to controversy between the United States and Spain, and later France, eventually resulting in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Before the Civil War, enslaved African Americans saw “upriver” as the way to freedom, while to be sold “downriver” meant bondage and the loss of hope. During the Civil War, Union forces fought to control the natural highway and to divide the slaveholding states. In time this strategy was decisive in the collapse of the Confederacy. Influenced by their river experiences, many artists, authors, folklorists, composers, and musicians have greatly enriched the cultural history of the American people. The Missourian known popularly as Mark Twain grew up on the Mississippi's banks at Hannibal, piloted a steamboat to earn a living, and used it as a setting for three of his best‐known books. He described it as “the crookedest river in the world, since in one part of its journey it used up one thousand three miles to cover the same ground that the crow would fly over in six hundred and sixty five.”
The Missouri River
The state's most distinctive geographical feature is the Missouri River. From its headwaters high in the northern Rockies to its confluence with the Mississippi, it flows 2714 mi, making it the longest river in the United States. Joined by northern and southern tributaries as it moves across Montana and North Dakota, it increases in volume and current. Running through rocky areas, which serve as a natural filter, the water remains clear. Once it washes into the grassy plains of the Dakotas, however, it begins to assume a muddy color. Following a course predetermined by large polar ice masses during the Ice Age, it continues in a southerly direction until it joins the Kansas River at Kansas City. There it bends and meanders 577 mi across the state to join the Mississippi 17 mi above St. Louis.
During the seventeenth century, Algonquin‐speakers usually called the river “Pekitanoui.” Though later dropped from usage, it means “muddy waters.” When Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet encountered the rushing water for the first time in 1673, they observed that the river was “all muddy.” One of the most difficult tasks for newcomers was navigating the charging current, which moved sandbars and eroded banks. Illini guides for early French visitors referred to the indigenous towns near the river as “mishoori” or “wemihsoori.” Their reference to “Mi‐`zor‐ä” suggests an Algonquin term for people with “dugout canoes” or “wooden canoes.”
The Missouri's major tributaries in the state are the Little Platte, Grand, and Chariton Rivers to the north and the Lamine, Osage, and Gasconade Rivers to the south. Although relatively short, these tributaries provide considerably more water than the plains tributaries and cause the river to widen and to pick up current speed. Because the Missouri fluctuates in its current more than the Mississippi, it frequently has changed its channel while washing away shorelines, farms, and even towns. Missourians often call the river “Big Muddy,” and to this day they say unceremoniously that it is “too thick to drink and too thin to plow.”
The brownish coloration of the water is due to the great amount of silt and solid matter carried by the Missouri. It is estimated that the river dumps 500 million tons of solid matter into the Mississippi annually. Present‐day ecological concerns dictate that more should be done to reduce the stream pollution and to conserve the wildlife once so abundant along its shores. The river meanders from bluff to bluff across the state, inspiring commonplace references to the “Wide Missouri.”
The Lay of the Land
During the Ice Age thousands of years ago, great mountains of ice ground into the terrain that would make the state of Missouri and then receded, leaving behind a land composed of four physiographic regions. North of the Missouri River is the Glacial Plains. Here the glaciers left behind rolling hills, gentle valleys, some rock formations of limestone and sandstone, and prairie earth similar to that of Iowa and Illinois. In addition to the glaciers, powerful winds carried a sediment known as loess and deposited it across the land, adding to the uniform texture and fertility of the soil. This region provides some of the state's most productive farmland.
South and southeast of the Missouri River is the Ozark Plateau or Highlands, which extend from Illinois into southern Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. Located a few hundred miles southeast of the center of the United States, the Ozarks is a land of rocky hills, deep valleys, knobs, cliffs, tablelands, springs, and forests. The elevation ranges from 1200 to 1700 ft above sea level. Taum Sauk Mountain in Iron County, rising 1772 ft above sea level, is the highest point in the state. It may have been named for a term used by Algonquin‐speakers to suggest “big” or “outlet.” Others claim that the name refers to a legendary chief, Sauk‐Ton‐Qua. The soil of the Ozarks is not as fertile as that of the Glacial Plains because of a compact siliceous rock called chert, but trees abound on the undulant surface.
The name Ozarks is from aux arcs, a French abbreviation indicating “to the Arkansas Post” – an outpost established on the Arkansas River when the French first arrived in the Mississippi Valley. Wild rivers such as the Meramec, Black, White, Big Niangua, and Current run through the region, creating places of rugged beauty. The headwaters of some of these rivers are freshwater springs, from many of which flow over a million gallons a day. Big Springs in Carter County has a daily measured flow of 840 million gallons. Saline springs and salt licks are numerous in the region. During the twentieth century, the building of the Bagnell Dam across the Osage River formed a serpentine reservoir called the Lake of the Ozarks. Fishing spots and tourist resorts eventually sprouted along the 1300 mi of shoreline. Many Missourians today believe that the region's waterways, forests, caves, springs, and scenic landscapes are among the state's most precious resources.
Figure 1.2 Lake of the Ozarks Sunset, State Historical Society of Missouri.
In the western part of the state are the Osage Plains, a triangular area extending from a point in Pettis County southwesterly and turning into the Great Plains. The twisting Osage River is formed by the confluence of the Little Osage and the Marais des Cygnes Rivers, which places its headwaters in Kansas. Whereas the brown or gray soils in the watersheds are mostly comprised of a sandy clay, the environment remains conducive to the growing of grasses and hay. The raising of livestock represents one of the major industries in this region.
The southeastern lowlands, popularly known as the Bootheel, is similar to the Mississippi Delta. Bounded on the east by the Mississippi River and on the west by the St. Francis River, it juts 35 mi into the northeast tip of Arkansas. Although unglaciated, flat, and poorly drained, the soil is rich and productive. After a network of drainage canals were dug in the swampy bottoms during the twentieth century, cotton and soybeans became the major crops. Between 230 and 350 ft above sea level, the lowest point in the state is where the St. Francis River meets the southern state line of the heel. Seismologists believe that the geographic unrest of these lowlands have long made earthquakes frequent near New Madrid.
Missouri has a cool temperate climate. Summers are generally hot and sultry, especially along the Mississippi River, with July, the hottest month, averaging 77° Fahrenheit (25 °C). Winters can be long and rigorous, with January, the coldest month, averaging 30° Fahrenheit (−1 °C). Annual average temperatures are 50° Fahrenheit (10 °C) in the northwest and 60° Fahrenheit (15 °C) in the southeast. The annual rainfall averages 30–35 in. in the north and 40–45 in. in the south, although it reaches 48 in. in the southern lowlands. An annual average of 21 in. of snow falls in the north, but only 16 in. falls in the southern lowlands. Sudden drops and rises in temperatures occur in the interior whenever cold Arctic air meets head‐on with the warm air from the Gulf of Mexico.
Lead, iron, and zinc attracted early settlers from Europe and the United States to this land. The Irish Wilderness, so‐called because of Irish immigrants entering Oregon County in the nineteenth century, is one of the richest stores of zinc in the world. Other minerals found in the state are coal, copper, barite, uranium, and cobalt. Sand and gravel are extracted from the streams and rivers; limestone is used in the making of cement; clay is mined and used in the making of firebrick; what little oil there is tends to be heavy and is used primarily in the blacktopping of roads.
Missouri abounds with a great variety of flora and fauna. Botanists have discovered and classified 2400 different species of ferns and flowering plants in the state. A member of the great rose family, the white hawthorn blossom is the official state floral emblem. It has been estimated that two‐thirds of Missouri was covered with forests before intensive cutting modified the landscape in the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, timber still covers between 60% and 80% of some Ozark counties. Among the trees found in the state are different species of oak, linden, hickory, sweet gum, walnut, catalpa, cottonwood, hornbeam, ash, sugar maple, papaw, southern buckhorn, pine, red bud, and dogwood. Sprouting tiny clusters with four white petals, the flowering dogwood is the official state tree. Among the birds native to the state are the cardinal, mourning dove, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, bullfinch, red‐wing blackbird, crow, hawk, blue jay, woodpecker, brown thrush, robin, wren, and passenger pigeon. Commonly seen in Missouri from early spring until late fall, the bluebird is the official state bird. Although many examples of large game have disappeared, the red fox, otter, deer, squirrel, rabbit, skunk, raccoon, opossum, coyote, and black bear persist and, in some cases, are increasing in population as a result of wildlife conservation practices in the twentieth century. Introduced by settlers in the nineteenth century, the mule is the official state animal. Missouri is a good place for many different species to live.
Paleo‐Indians
Stories of origin explain the way human beings came into existence. Native American storytellers, for example, recall how their ancestors became the first people to live on the continent and made it home long before the Europeans mistakenly called them Indians. Preserved over the span of time, a myth expresses the deep, broadly shared ideas that bind together a community. Sioux writer and activist Vine Deloria Jr. has claimed that these sacred narratives tell tribal groups everything they need to know about their origins.
Because written records exist for only a small fraction of the ages, historians must weigh evidence that is partial and fragmentary. The meticulous work of scientific excavation has unearthed artifacts such as stone weapons, pottery shards, bone tools, and other remains, which shed light on the human presence in the world. Archeology enhances the study of the past by finding, sifting, charting, and comparing the residue of material culture, thus yielding information about the subsistence patterns at a particular site.
Most archeologists insist that small bands of hunters and gatherers gradually trekked from Siberia to Alaska across a vast land bridge called Beringia, which no longer exists. The peopling of North America also may have included the use of small, skin‐covered boats for navigating along the coastline. As the earth's temperatures warmed over time, the end of the last Ice Age allowed the first people to spread throughout the hemisphere. Between 40,000 and 12,000 years ago, they pushed into the continental interior. The men usually hunted big game, while the women gathered edible plants near campsites. The musk oxen, mammoth, mastodon, and other large animals that roamed inland gradually became extinct due to climate change and excessive killing. Seldom remaining in one location for too long, the Paleo‐Indians appeared in Missouri as early as 9250 BCE.
The Paleo‐Indians tended to be nomadic or non‐sedentary, but they were not people without culture. Camping close to fresh water, they fashioned knives, scrapers, and choppers from stone. Named for a town in New Mexico, the Clovis cultures used spears tipped with large points. However, “Clovis man” may have been in Missouri before appearing in New Mexico. A stone weapon discovered at the Mastodon State Historic Site south of St. Louis resembles one found at Clovis. The Dalton phase, which lasted until 7900 BCE, is characterized by longer and thinner serrated points. Given its versatility as a projectile, saw, or drill, the Dalton point found in Missouri has been dubbed “America's first Swiss army knife.” Although subject to debate, the migration route of the hunters and gatherers may have run north to southeast into the V‐shaped area formed by the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. Archeological finds scattered throughout the interior suggest that the Paleo‐Indians spread their activities to the headwaters of the Ohio River, south along the Mississippi, and west to the prairies and plains.
The Archaic Period
The Archaic Period revealed significant adaptations among Missouri's inhabitants after 7500 BCE. Staying in one location for longer periods of time, they sought out caves and overhanging rocks as natural shelters. They also used animal skins to make small huts later called wikiups. Although hunting continued to provide much of their main food, they became less nomadic and more sedentary. They foraged for wild roots, berries, nuts, and fruits. They made new weapons for the hunt and better tools for the preparation of the food that they gathered. By refining their technologies for hunting and gathering, they made several articles more useful over time. The bone needle, for example, enabled them to make animal skins fit tighter. As the size of the tribal groups grew, social organization became more complicated.
Archeological evidence indicates the emergence of ceremonies and rites associated with the mysteries of nature and death. Archaic Indians began to bury their dead in mounds on bluffs above camps. Cremation and inhumation occurred at times. Evidently, the bodies were exposed until the flesh had decomposed. The bones of the deceased were bundled up and buried with stone or bone tools, which indicted not only personal possessions but also social differentiation.
Archeological sites that reflect the significant transitions of the Archaic Period can be found throughout Missouri. Located in Montgomery County, Graham Cave provided artifacts that show how inhabitants foraged as well as hunted, thereby increasing and diversifying their food supply. Many adapted effectively to their environment and climate, while the population base expanded the scale and scope of activities. Flat axe‐shaped stones appeared along with bone and shell tools. Carved stone weights tied to atlatls, or spear throwers, enabled a hunter to hurl a spear at a higher velocity for a greater distance. Archeological sites in the lowlands of southeastern Missouri yielded an abundance of implements such as pestles, mortars, manos, grinding slabs, cupstones, and hammerstones. The Jakie Shelter in Barry County, a village area and burial site near Troy in Lincoln County, and several diggings around Sedalia in Pettis County, supplied a variety of polished and ground articles that provide more evidence about Archaic Period lifestyles. The Archaic Period lasted until 600 BCE.
Figure 1.3 Graham Cave Point, Museum of Anthropology, University of Missouri.
The Woodland Period
The chief development of the Woodland Period was the invention of pottery, a craft of firing clay pots and jars that made it possible for people to store food and water. This meant that Missouri's inhabitants could spend more time in one place and remain sedentary through the seasons. If they could not find natural shelters on the spot, they constructed permanent dwellings using the materials close at hand. It is believed that they attempted to branch out into larger areas and to trade with other groups. By 250 BCE the early Woodland Indians were decorating vessels with abstract designs and animal motifs.
Midway through the Woodland Period, the Hopewell culture began to spread into Missouri. So named because archeologists excavated important artifacts of these people on the Hopewell farm in Ohio, this culture greatly influenced the lifestyles of the people with whom it came into contact. Using hoes made from the shoulder blades of deer, they cultivated crops such as corn. They molded pottery in different forms and sizes, covering it with interesting designs and patterns. They made clay pipes and watertight bowls. They built large earthworks and mounds, which served as the focal point for village activities. Often animal‐shaped, these distinctive mounds were used for astronomical celebrations and burial rites. Communal events featured “bigmen,” who wielded power, possessed knowledge, and controlled trade. The Hopewell manufactured tools and weapons from different kinds of materials such as mica, seashells, and copper, which attest to the advantages of extensive trading networks across North America.
Appearing quite suddenly in Missouri, the Hopewell settled near the mouth of the Lamine River and along the Missouri River to the Kansas River. Their culture is evidenced in the weapons, tools, mounds, and fragments of pottery at the village sites that they left behind. In Van Meter State Park in Saline County, an earthwork called the “Old Fort” indicated that a vigorous cohort of settlers became active in the central part of the state.
Figure 1.4 Van Meter State Park Map, Missouri Department of Natural Resources.
Photo: Missouri State Parks.
Toward the end of the Woodland Period, small but isolated villages began to develop in most geographical areas of Missouri. Multiple towns were organized near fields and streams, and bows and arrows appeared as weaponry. Adapting to environmental conditions and building on the remnants of the Hopewell culture, these tribal groups revealed technological and organizational characteristics that distinguished them from others. At a time of apparent population dispersal, the Woodland Period lasted until 900 CE.
The Mississippi Period
As the Woodland Period merged into the Mississippi Period, a large Indian town developed in the Cahokia–St. Louis area. It grew rapidly from 1050 CE to 1200 CE. Its culture spread up and down the Mississippi River and into the hinterlands. Archeological evidence shows its impact in southeastern Missouri, as far west as Kansas City, and even to the very western edge of Oklahoma. The rise of this new culture and its influence on other groups marked a new chapter in the history of Missouri.
The Mississippi culture made the river central to the way of life. People hunted its water‐dwelling animals, collected its mussels, fished its waters, and traveled its course to trade with others. The remains from their gardens, however, indicate that they probably grew as much food as they hunted. With agriculture as a primary occupation, they raised corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, sunflowers, gourds, and other plants. Their pottery, highly decorated and shaped into a variety of forms, represented a major trade item. In making tools, weapons, and art objects, they used different materials such as flint, stone, bone, antlers, copper, clay, cloth, and wood. They were early miners as well, extracting flint and chalcedony from spots along the Meramec River. Using large dugout canoes, they traded extensively and interacted with various groups.
Due to the absence of a writing system, no one knows what the townspeople called themselves in the Mississippi Period. Their buildings and homes were a square or rectangular wood frame with a thatched roof covering. Each fortified town contained a large flat‐topped temple mound, where the inhabitants practiced their religious ceremonies. Because of the numerous mounds in and around the riverine area, St. Louis would be nicknamed the “Mound City.” Examples of the religious symbolism among the Mississippians can be found in petroglyphs carved on rocks in Washington County. There one can see carvings of snakes, birds, fish, arrows, and weeping eyes at Washington State Park.
Before its decline, at least 20,000 people lived in Cahokia on the east bank of the Mississippi. They built more than a hundred mounds, the largest of which stood 100 ft high. The location of a dwelling atop a platform mound elevated prominent leaders. Cahokia's expansion caused soil erosion, water pollution, and social conflict, as the town collapsed by 1400 CE. The name Cahokia derives from an unrelated tribe that lived in the vicinity when the first European explorers reached the area early in the sixteenth century.
The Oneota Culture
Named by archeologists for an Algonquin term that identified the Upper Iowa River, the Oneota culture manifested itself in Missouri. Some believe that it was the cultural base from which various Macro‐Siouan groupings developed, although others disagree. The Oneota appeared on the upper Mississippi River around 900 CE, but did not spread into Missouri until 1350 CE.
The general characteristics of the Oneota were not unlike those of the townspeople in the Cahokia–St. Louis area. Trash sites excavated by archeologists show piles of animal bones that attest to their hunting skills. It is believed that they searched for large game over great distances. As localized farmers, they grew corn, squash, and beans. The wild fruit, berries, and nuts that they gathered added variety to their diet. Excelling in the shaping of bone tools, they made handles from antlers and needles and beads from the bones of smaller animals. Ornaments, spoons, and jewelry were fashioned from shells, some of which they acquired from trading partners as far away as the Gulf of Mexico. They dug large pits, where they cached food and valuables and which they later filled with trash. Their religious symbolism resembled elements demonstrated elsewhere along the Mississippi, which suggests a continuity of religious practices and beliefs between cultures. Their stone technology was typified by knives, arrowheads, and drills. They made catlinite pipes and smoked tobacco.
The influence of the Oneota culture extended beyond Missouri into southern Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Illinois. Their influence can be traced visibly by their distinctive pottery. Near the mouth of the Grand River in Saline County, the Utz archeological site has furnished considerable information about this culture and its impact on later tribal groups.
Osage
The most powerful tribal group in the early history of Missouri were referred to as the Wah‐Zha‐Zhe, which actually derived from a name for one of their moiety divisions, “The Water People.” The tribal group as a whole originally called themselves Ni‐U‐Ko'n‐Ska, meaning “Children of the Middle Waters.” Later, the Europeans referred to them as the Osage Indians.
The Osage language is part of the Dhegiha–Siouan family, which also includes the Kaw, Ponca, Omaha, and Quapaw. A long time ago, they lived along the Ohio River as one people. Around 400–500 CE, the combined group migrated down the Ohio to the confluence with the Mississippi River. Some began to split off after 900 CE, as others occupied and developed communities in the lush river valleys. The Osage name for Cahokia is Ni‐U‐Ko'n‐Ska Dsi, meaning “Home of the Children of the Middle Waters.” The ancestral Osage were the last remaining Dhegiha group at Cahokia. Approximately 1350 CE, the ancestral Osage migrated up the Missouri River. They hunted across the Ozark Plateau to the Arkansas River and into the Great Plains after migrating from the Ohio Valley.
The Osage say that their ancient ancestors once lived in the sky. The Sun is their grandfather, while the Moon is their grandmother. They speak of descending from the “above world” and landing in the “middle world.” The Great Elk helped them to survive in times of confusion and disarray. Dangers arose from the “below world,” which could set human beings adrift. Only by death, say the Osage, could a creature escape the snares of the earth.
Osage stories tell of war and strife, although other themes emerge as well. After coming to the earth, they formed a grand division called Tzi‐zho, or Sky People, and another grand division called Hun‐ga, or Land People. A select group of elders were known as No'‐ho'‐zhenga, or the Little Old Men, who preserved heralded customs and traditions. A hereditary line of chiefs established order for the two divisions. They spoke repeatedly of a “move to a new country,” an expression that suggests an organizational change but not necessarily a relocation to an unknown place. The Osage venerated Wa‐kon'‐da, the supreme mystery force of sun, wind, and energy that brought the universe together.
The Osage way of life represented a blending of indigenous cultures that could be identified as characteristic of both Plains and Woodland inhabitants. Males hunted for game and engaged in warfare. It was not uncommon for adults to be 6 or 7 ft tall. Men wore their hair in a roach style, shaving their heads except for a scalp lock about 2 in. high and 3 in. wide that ran down to the nape of their neck. A male wore a breechcloth, leggings, moccasins, and blanket coverall that he draped over his shoulder. When addressing someone, he lowered the blanket and tied it around his waist.
Once acquired from the Spanish or other tribal groups, the horse became important to the Osage way of life. The Osage name for horse is ka‐wa, which translates roughly as “mystery dog” and may have derived from the Kiowa, a tribal group that introduced them to the animal. The Osage secured horses through trading, stealing, and capturing. Riding horses permitted the Osage to travel far and wide. To bring in a horse was an achievement for the Osage equal to the taking of a scalp, the practice of removing hair from a dead enemy.
The spring hunt began in March and lasted until May, when the Osage began to plant their crops of corn, beans, and pumpkins. Men also hunted in the summer, returning to their villages in late August or early September when women harvested their crops and gathered walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, grapes, papaws, roots, and acorns. Hunting continued in the fall, but hunters remained close to their villages during the cold months of January and February. They wielded bows and arrows, lances, wooden clubs, tomahawks, and knives on the long and short hunts. The bison provided meat, hides, and bones for tools and ornaments. In addition, the deer, elk, bear, wolf, raccoon, fox, wildcat, weasel, muskrat, and beaver supplied raw materials for the subsistence economy.
As the Osage households adapted to Missouri's environment, women maintained the lodges, gathered the firewood, processed the hides, cured the meat, cooked the meals, and reared the children. A female wore a buckskin dress, robe, leggings, and moccasins. Her hair flowed loosely down her back, while she painted the parting in her hair red to symbolize the path of the sun across the sky. Mothers placed babies on cradleboards, which tended to flatten their heads. Village lodges were oval with a domed roof and covered with woven cattail mats. Some permanent lodges housing large families were 100 ft long. Their entrances were positioned to the east, so that the Osage could say prayers to the sun in the morning.
The Osage practiced rituals that prepared them for war. Warriors believed that those killed in battle would spend their afterlives in the Happy Hunting Ground with abundant game and horses. They strove to earn honors through daring acts, or what the French later called “counting coup.” Singing and dancing created a festive air on special occasions. While the Little Old Men provided spiritual leadership and conducted war ceremonies, individuals sought supernatural visions through prayer and meditation. Only after contemplation and deliberation did the Osage go to war.
With the leadership of chiefs, the Osage exhibited customs and traditions that profoundly shaped social relations. There was a mourning ceremony that could take place at the request of the grieving family so as to take the life of an enemy and to send this individual with the deceased into the afterlife. If a person from within the tribe killed a fellow Osage, then gifts would be exchanged to make peace. If the family of the deceased chose to continue to seek vengeance, then they would be exiled from the community. Retaliation was not an appropriate option in the Osage way of life.
The Osage themselves possess knowledge and records concerning their ancient history. During the seventeenth century, Osage cosmology encouraged generations to look outward and forward with the assurance of Wa‐kon'‐da. Their fortitude required others to stay on good terms with them. Their population numbered as many as 15,000 before disease and dislocation took a terrible toll after contact with the Europeans.
