Modern Cuban Art E-Book

Adelaida de Juan

• Herausgeber: RUTH
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Spanisch

Seitenzahl: 307

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

"Modern Cuban Art: Themes and Variations" is an updated version in English of "Pintura cubana: temas y variaciones" (Cuban Painting: Themes and variations). This is an excellent book of modern Cuban art, encompassing the analysis from the social and artistic Cuban avant-garde of the 20s and 30s up to the 1990s, with a special emphasis on race and gender—factors present in Cuban painting and graphic production. This volume is mainly based on fragmentary studies and data only to be found in articles and catalogues. It is addressed to scholars, students, and those interested in modern Latin American, Caribbean, and Cuban art and culture

Leseprobe

Original title in Spanish:Pintura cubana: temas y variaciones

First edition: Susana Díaz Alvarado

E-book edition: Claudia María Pérez Portas

Design: Enrique Mayol Amador

E-book desktop publishing and design: Alejandro Fermín Romero

© 2015, Adelaida de Juan

© 2015, Esther Pérez

© 2015, Editorial JOSÉ MARTÍ

ISBN: 978-959-09-0704-3

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List of Illustrations

1. Raúl Martínez, Lucía, 1968; silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

2. Jean Baptiste Vermay, Familia Manrique de Lara [The Manrique de Lara Family]; oil on canvas; 175.5 x 150.5 cm.; MNBA.

3. Guillermo Collazo, La siesta [The Nap]; 1886; oil on canvas; 66 x 83 cm.; MNBA.

4. Manuel Mendive, El Malecón [The Promenade]; 1975; tempera on wood; 60 x 80 cm.; MNBA.

5. Luis Martínez Pedro, Aguas territoriales no. 5 [Territorial Waters no. 5]; 1963; oil on canvas; 98 x 150 cm.; MNBA.

6. René Portocarrero, Diablito no. 3 [Small Demons no. 3]; 1952; oil on canvas; 41 x 51 cm.; MNBA.

7. Antonio Vidal, Pintura [Painting]; 1956; oil on canvas; 66.5 x 71.5 cm.; MNBA.

8. Edouard Laplante, Ingenio Intrépido. De la serie Los Ingenios [Intrépido Sugar Mill, from The Sugar Mills series]; 1855-1857; colored lithography; paper; 272 x 360 cm.; MNBA.

9. Víctor Patricio Landaluze, Mulata; oil and wood; 37.5 x 23 cm.; MNBA.

10. Belkis Ayón, La sentencia no. 2 [Veredict no. 2]; 1993; engraving on paper; 940 x 780 cm.; MNBA.

11. Wifredo Lam, Mujer sentada [Seated Woman]; 1955; oil on canvas; 132 x 102 cm.; MNBA.

12. Roberto Diago, El Oráculo [The Oracle]; 1949; oil on canvas, 150 x 89 cm.; MNBA.

13. Belkis Ayón, La sentencia no. 1 [Veredict no. 1]; 1993; engraving on paper; 920 x 675 cm.; MNBA.

14. Manuel Mendive, Che; tempera on wood, 102 x 126 cm.; MNBA.

15. Manuel Mendive, El Palenque [The Palisade]; tempera on wood, 103 x 126 cm.; MNBA.

16. Juan Jorge Peoli, Joven alemana [German Girl]; oil on canvas, 102 x 76 cm.; MNBA.

17. Frederick Mialhe, Día de Reyes [Twelfth-Night Festivities]; lithography on paper; 183 x 260 cm.; MNBA.

18. Eduardo Abela, Guajiros [Peasants]; 1938; oil on canvas, 84 x 71.5 cm.; MNBA.

19. Mariano Rodríguez, Autorretrato [Selfportrait]; 1938; oil on canvas, 65.5 x 56 cm.; MNBA.

20. Eduardo Laplante, Ingenio Guinia de Soto [Guinia de Soto Sugar Mill]; 1855-1857; oil on canvas; 114.5 x 184 cm.; MNBA.

21. Carlos Enríquez, Paisaje criollo [Creole Landscape]; 1943; oil on canvas; 76 x 60 cm.; MNBA.

22. Tomás Sánchez, Relación de la isla, la nube y la laguna [Relation between the Island, the Cloud and the Pond]; 1986; oil on canvas; 200 x 350 cm.; MNBA.

23. Guillermo Collazo, Retrato de Carmen Bacallao Malpica [Portrait of Carmen Bacallao Malpica]; 1883; oil on canvas, 210 x 105 cm.; MNBA.

24. Federico Martínez, Retrato de María Wilson y Mijares [Portrait of María Wilson y Mijares]; 1887; oil on canvas, 53.5 x 43.7 cm.; MNBA.

25. Víctor Manuel García, Gitana tropical [Tropical Gypsy Woman]; 1929; oil on wood, 46 x 38.5 cm.; MNBA.

26. Jorge Arche, Retrato de Arístides Fernández [Portrait of Arístides Fernández]; 1933; oil on canvas, 91.5 x 76.5 cm.; MNBA.

27. Antonio Gattorno, Mujeres junto al río [Women Seated by the River]; 1927; oil on canvas; 194 x 178.5 cm.; MNBA.

28. Amelia Peláez, Mujer [Woman]; 1948; oil on canvas; 57 x 44 cm.; MNBA.

29. Mariano Rodríguez, Unidad [Unity]; 1938; oil on canvas; 146 x 116.5 cm.; MNBA.

30. Antonia Eiriz Vázquez, Anunciación [Annunciation]; 1964; oil on canvas, 190 x 243.5 cm.; MNBA.

31. Servando Cabrera Moreno, Julieta; oil on canvas; MNBA.

32. Flora Fong, Los desyerbadores [The Weeders]; 1976; crayon-tempera on cardboard; 63 x 49 cm.; MNBA.

33. Rafael Morante, Las doce sillas [The Twelve Chairs]; 1962; silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

34. René Portocarrero, Figura de Carnaval [Carnival Figure]; 1962; oil on canvas, 51 x 40.5 cm.; MNBA.

35. Arístidez Fernández, Retrato de la madre del artista no. 1 [Portrait of the Artist’s Mother no. 1]; c. 1931; oil on canvas, 59 x 49.5 cm.; MNBA.

36. René Portocarrero, Retrato de Flora no. 8 [Portrait of Flora no. 8]; 1966; oil on canvas, 77 x 61.5 cm.; MNBA.

37. Raúl Martínez González, Pintura [Painting]; 1957; oil on canvas, 127 x 150.5 cm.; MNBA.

38. René Portocarrero, Santa Bárbara [Saint Barbara]; 1962; oil on canvas, 51 x 41 cm.; MNBA.

39. Alfredo Rostgaard, Hasta la victoria siempre [Until Victory Forever]; 1968; silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

40. Raúl Martínez González, La sagrada familia [The Holy Family]; 1965; oil on canvas, 150 x 107 cm.; MNBA.

41. Eduardo Muñoz Bachs, Niños desaparecidos [Missing Children]; 1985; silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

42. Mariano Rodríguez, Gallo rojo [The Red Rooster]; 1956; oil on canvas, 88 x 114 cm.; MNBA.

43. Mariano Rodríguez, de la serie Frutas y realidad [Fruits and Reality]; 1967; oil on canvas, 200 x 251 cm.; MNBA.

44. Víctor Manuel García, Paisaje de Matanzas [Matanzas Landscape]; c. 1938; oil on canvas, 101 x 97.5 cm.; MNBA.

45. Raúl Martínez González, Martí y la estrella [Martí and the Star]; 1966; oil on canvas, 184 x 143 cm.; MNBA.

46. Zaida del Río, Yemayá; 1989; ink, tempera on cardboard, 75 x 112 cm.; MNBA.

47. Roberto Fabelo, Políptico de 6 partes. De la serie Fragmentos vitales [Six Part Polyptych, Vital Fragments]; 1988; crayon on paper, MNBA.

48. Antonio Eligio Fernández (Tonel), El Cara de Tabla (Instalación) [Sassy Devil, literally Wooden Face. Installation]; 1988; ink on wood, 109.3 x 97 cm.; MNBA.

49. Antonia Eiriz Vázquez, Mis compañeras [My Companions]; 1963; oil on canvas, 118 x 134 cm.; MNBA.

50. Ángel Acosta León, Cafetera no. 1 [Coffeepot no. 1]; 1960; oil on canvas, 182 x 121 cm.; MNBA.

51. Ángel Acosta León, Columbina no. 2 [Cot no. 2]; 1962; oil on masonite, 122 x 244.5 cm.; MNBA.

52. Zaida del Río, El espíritu de la recompensa (4 canvases) [The Spirit of Reward]; 1994; oil on canvas, 205.5 x 191.5 cm.; MNBA.

53. Consuelo Castañeda Castellano, Como hacer una obra de arte [Like to Make a Work of Art]; 1990; paper and photography, 28 x 35 cm.; MNBA.

54. Jacqueline Maggi, El sitio [The Place]; 1989; wood-carving; MNBA.

55. Eduardo Muñoz Bachs, Por primera vez [For the First Time]; 1968; silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

56. Esteban Chartrand, Paisaje [Landscape]; 1877; oil on canvas, 43.6 x 76 cm.; MNBA.

57. Esteban Chartrand, Paisaje [Landscape]; 1880; oil on canvas, 38.2 x 64.4 cm.; MNBA.

58. Amelia Peláez, Mujer [Woman]; 1945; tempera on paper, 98 x 73.5 cm.; MNBA.

59. Flora Fong, Descanso bajo el melón [Resting under the Melon]; 1975; crayon-tempera on cardboard, 75 x 55 cm.; MNBA.

60. Amelia Peláez, Peces [Fishes]; 1959; oil on canvas, 113 x 87 cm.; MNBA.

61. René Portocarrero, Ciudad [City]; 1952; oil on canvas, 136 x 101 cm.; MNBA.

62. Wifredo Lam, La silla [The Chair]; 1943; oil on canvas, 131 x 97.5 cm.; MNBA.

63. Antonia Eiriz, Homenaje a Lezama (Instalación) [Homage to Lezama. Installation]; 1991; MNBA.

64. Antonio Fernández Reboiro, Hara Kiri 1964, silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

65. Alfredo Rostgaard, Canción protesta [Protest Song]; 1967; silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

66. Antonio Fernández Reboiro, El monstruo en primera plana [Front-page Monster]; 1973; silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

67. René Azcuy, Besos robados [Stolen Kisses]; 1970; silk-screen, 76 x 51 cm.; ICAIC.

Thanks are due to Moraima Clavijo, director of the National Museum of Fines Arts (MNBA); and to Pablo Pacheco, pertaining to the Cuban Film Institute (ICAIC), for their kind permission to respectively photograph and print all the paintings and posters included in this book.

Preface

Over twenty years ago my Pintura cubana: temas y variaciones [Cuban Painting: Themes and Variations] was published in Cuba and Mexico. However, it is only now that an updated version is to be edited in English, aimed at scholars, students and those interested in modern Latin American, Caribbean and Cuban art and culture. Dr. Juan A. Martínez’ excellent analysis of the social and artistic Cuban avant-garde of the 20s and 30s, as summed up in his book Cuban Art & National Identity, covers that period, a fact which has led me to omit texts dealing with it from my original book. On the other hand, I included references up to the 1990s with a special emphasis on race and gender factors present in Cuban painting and graphic production. This volume is mainly based on fragmentary studies and data only to be found in articles and catalogues.

Throughout the years, the artists I studied have given me their time and shown me their work in progress. I am grateful to them as well as to my colleagues in the Art Department of the University of Havana, the National Museum of Fine Arts, and Casa de las Américas. Roberto Fernández Retamar, my compañero for more than fifty years has patiently read the manuscript and made valuable suggestions. Esther Pérez was a careful translator who also introduced some corrections in the various sections I translated myself. I am especially indebted to Dr. Shifra Goldman, for her unfailing enthusiasm and encouragement.

1. Raúl Martínez, Lucía.

Chapter One: The Themes

John Berger reminded us a number of years ago about the importance of themes in painting. Every culture, eve­ry period emphasizes a given subject; it makes it its own through insisting on it and dealing with it in a specific way. The reiteration of certain themes points to a tacit agreement between artist and public about what is significant and important. This overall agreement sometimes proves so strong that its significance is cumulative and thus the theme becomes traditional within the boundaries of the culture of a given society. Such was the case of nudes during the Renaissance, reeds and water in Chinese painting, the plumed serpent in Meso-American Pre-Columbian art. In cultures like the ones mentioned above the artist becomes a medium to express certain themes which, in their turn, acquire significance when singularized so as to focus attention on them.

Since the 19th century, European art has faced a series of crises reflected in an ever faster succession of schools. Many of these crises revolved around the selection of themes, a question which turned out to be more shocking than other elements in painting. Thus, Manet’s Déjeuner sur l’herbe attracted more scandalized comments because of the presence, among other figures dressed in contemporary attire, of a non-allegorical—had it been an allegory it would have been acceptable—female nude, than for the technical innovations present in the canvas. The scandal was even greater forty-seven years afterwards when Kandinsky simply eliminated the subject because “objects were increasingly bothering my painting.” This implies that a cycle, which the artist received from the society in which he/she lived, and the subjects, which were meaningful within it, had been completed. A period had begun in which the artist not only stopped receiving these visible symbols, but also had to internalize his or her own way of seeing, thus making apparent his or her isolation from the social space. Twentieth century artists could thus be divided —even at the risk of being too schematic and with the sole aim of devising a preliminary method— into two big categories: those who make a figurative reference to a certain way of life, either existing or desired, which reflects their identity, protest or ambition (Picasso, the Mexican muralists, Chagall, pop artists), and those whose specific way of seeing transcends external themes and ends by eliminating them (Braque, Matisse, the different abstractionist schools, kinetic art).

The Themes in Cuban Painting

If the question of themes is considered from this viewpoint, it becomes an interesting exercise to consider Cuban painting from colonial days to our times, examining what has been depicted in the works. From the onset one will dis­cover—a few—reiterated themes depicted in various styles, which evidently depend on the time the paintings were made. But what reveals itself as most interesting are some radical thematic shifts which reflect not just the tastes of a given period but a difference concerning what is considered significant by society. The social status of the artist is altered as well, and his/her relation to society also becomes evident in the choice of what is relevant enough to be depicted.

Portraits and Figures

Portraiture is the most frequent theme in the history of our painting. From the squinches painted by Nicolás de la Escalera (1734-1804) at Santa María del Rosario Church (1760-66), one of which shows the first Count of Casa Bayona’s family, to the portraits of Fidel Castro, Camilo Cienfuegos and Ernesto “Che” Guevara made by a number of young painters, after the 1959 Revolution, one can consider oneself in the presence of a veritable gallery of changing form and content. For a century and a half—until 1925—the only individuals portrayed were the rich and government officials. Vicente Escobar (1757-1834), indisputably the portraitist with the most charm and mastery of realistic detail, left a collection of portraits of the governors and the most eminent families on the island. It is worth noting that Escobar sometimes resorted to the Renaissance artifice of opening a window at the side of the person portrayed so as to show a glimpse of the Castillo del Morro (Morro Castle) and the entry of the Bay of Havana. This was not just aimed at decoration but was in fact a means of geographically locating his models. This interest of the painter, unusual in his time, adds to the inherent appeal of his canvases. The Benefactora Doña. D.M.N.M. [Be­nefactress Madam D.M.N.M.] conveys, with its minute portraying of curls, the countless rings on the pudgy hands and abundant lace, a certain touch of maybe unconscious humor aimed at these enriched and bejeweled characters. However, Escobar is almost the sole 19th century painter in Cuba to exercise this realistic emphasis shared only by contemporary engravers. When Jean Baptiste Vermay (1748-1833), endowed with a more polished technique than Escobar’s, applied himself to the genre, his Neoclassical training marked all his characters with the Davidian imprint of his master. La Familia Manrique de Lara [The Manrique de Lara Family] displays a careful and balanced composition whose deftly applied colors prove unable to soften the rigidity of the three figures (and the parrot). This trait became even more evident when Vermay produced a huge collective portrait for the walls of the El Templete monument, which depicts, among others, Bishop Estrada, Captain General Vives, the Counts of Fernandina, of O’Reilly, and of Jaruco, the Marquises of Prado Ameno and all of the Ayuntamiento (local government). Although supposedly a representation of the criollo (Creole) aristocracy and the metropolitan officials in Havana, the portraits in fact played the role of consecrating the social standing of the most important families. The same role was to be played by all 19th century portraiture and, with a gradual loss in quality, by the first decades of the 20th century, until its disappearance from Cuban painting.

In 1925, with the emergence of the first generation of modern Cuban painters, portraiture radically altered its function. Besides the glaring formal changes, the will to consecrate wealthy and official characters disappeared from the portraits made by Víctor Manuel (1897-1969), Carlos Enríquez (1900-57), Arístides Fernández (1904-34), and Jorge Arche. The models for their works were friends, other artists and writers.

2. Jean Baptiste Vermay,

Familia Manrique de Lara.

During the 40s and 50s, portraiture proved unable to attract the attention of the new generations of painters. Only during the second half of the 60s did it return to fulfill a new and relevant function. Besides the portraits of unidentified persons who symbolize the people, the images of heroes forcefully emerged. Sometimes taking as a starting point popular and naive versions, or elaborating something missing with all the resources of contemporary painting, portraiture reappeared as a genre among Cubans. Some painters—Fayad Jamís, Raúl Martínez (1927-95), Ever Fonseca, Alberto Jorge Carol—have recreated the faces of José Martí, Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, and Camilo Cienfuegos. It is worth noting that none of these painters had been or claimed to be portraitists, the way Arche, for instance, had. They used the resources offered by abstractionism, imaginative painting and design because they felt the need for these representations. It should also be noted that they painted not just billboards or posters, but mainly canvases. Thus the attraction portraiture exerted over these new painters had to do with the relationship they felt with the faces they depict and the social standing they symbolized. This also helps explain why very well-known heroic characters coexist side by side with anonymous popular ones, sometimes on the same canvas, other times on paintings made during a brief time period. It is the voluntary multiplicity of the faces of the Revolution.

3. Guillermo Collazo, La siesta.

One can observe a similar change in the representation of human figures. During the 19th century they were usually elegant ones—La siesta [The Nap] and Dama sentada a orillas del mar [Lady Sitting by the Seashore], both by Guillermo Collazo (1850-86), are excellent examples; or they were elements of a landscape with which they merge (Chartrand) or Academy studies (Peoli, Melero). An exception already pointed out by Martí in 1894 is La lista de la lotería [The Lottery List] by Tejada, which incorporated the popular characters usually found only in contemporary engraving. Engravers—above all Frederick Mialhe (1810-81) (Isla de Cuba pintoresca [Picturesque Island of Cuba]) (1839-41) and Landaluze (Tipos y costumbres [Types and Customs]) (1881)—developed the genre tradition with its minute representation of the characters typical of an urban or rural situation. But it was only in the 1930s that popular characters as representatives of a social class came to the fore. Abela’s and Gattorno’s Guajiros [Peasants], Carlos Enríquez’ Carboneros [Coal Makers], Ponce’s Tuberculosos [Tuberculosis Patients], and, by the end of the 30s, Unidad [Unity] by Mariano Rodríguez (1912-90) signaled the fact that the human figure painters were interested in was no longer the prototype of luxury and formal beauty, but that of the oppressed. During the 1940s, human figures formed part of the process of internalization evident in our painting. Similar to what was happening with architectural detail, fruits and flowers, and furniture, the human figure became a formal element for the display of a rich palette. The geometrical structure in Amelia Peláez (1897-1968), the robust force in Mariano, the twisting lines in René Portocarrero (1912-85), the merging with the landscape in Luis Martínez Pedro (1909-89), were all ways of formal loosening, of further underlining the way of seeing what was looked at.

Again it was after 1960 that the themes of the 30s came back, this time with an affirmative accent: Adigio, Servando Cabrera, and Carmelo Gonzalez’ peasants and workers triumphantly occupy the position of central themes. In other cases, what one finds are explosions of light and color, as in Portocarrero’s Flora and Mariano’s nudes with fruit. It was the latter painter who reintroduced nudes as a theme in Cuban painting (after some very remarkable works by Carlos Enríquez), a subject which had been previously restricted to Academy exercises showing little mastery and less inspiration. Marianos’ nudes, as well as his tropical fruit, vegetation and colorful roosters are an expression, in certain periods of his work (the 1940s and again after 1965), of a full sensual enjoyment of painting.

The Landscape and the City

I have already mentioned that in colonial landscapes human figures, if and when they appeared, always played accessory roles. Even in paintings such as El guardián de la talanquera [The Gate Keeper] by Esteban Chartrand, the human figure was nothing more than a resource to integrate, with the painter’s peculiar twilight sensitivity, the elements of the romantic landscape. Chartrand above all others, but also Sanz Carta, Armando Menocal (1863-1942), Leopoldo Romañach (1862-1951), and Ramos were, within the boundaries of their school, effective landscape painters. But no doubt the loyalty they paid to their canons prevented them from achieving a more direct and genuine treatment of their theme. When landscapes centered on the sugar mill—Edouard Laplante (1818-80) in engraving, Chartrand in painting—what one finds is another way of glorifying the economic power that ruled the island. The idealization of the landscape incorporated the sugar mill, the living quarters, the servants and the slaves—on a very minor scale, when they did appear. During the second half of the 19th century, landscapes were illuminated by a very opaque light. Chartrand used this technique to achieve in his canvases an air of quietude in which it seems impossible that anything violent can take place or that hard work inhabits the land portrayed. Romanticism transposed the Cuban countryside and turned it into an idyllic version of Arcadia with palm trees. This light also softened colors, so that the landscapes of this period were poor in accents and contrasts.

Since 1925, Víctor Manuel’s river landscapes and Eduardo Abela (1891-1965) factual ones shared a common interest with Carlos Enríquez’ imaginative and Portocarrero’s poetic renderings of nature: an approach to the landscape in search of natural color and exuberance on the one hand, and human poverty and misery on the other. A shrill palette was used to depict, for the first time, the interior of the bohío (peasant home), the primitive plow, and the peasants themselves, who finally acquired distinctive faces. Together with the formal changes, which implied a different approach, a different way of seeing, there was a search for elements not dealt with before. On the one hand, the presence of human figures dominated the scene: the characters, the bohío, the opened road, the sown furrow. On the other hand, color and light were better suited to depict tropical climates than the romantic filtering had been. And they presented a humble vegetation that had not appeared before: sanseviera, hibiscus, periwinkle, galán de noche.

It is indeed astonishing to note the small interest most Cuban painters have shown for marine landscapes. Soon after the earliest 17th and 18th century engravings—made by foreigners who based their renderings on tales told by seamen (with the exception of the ones by Dominique Serres made in 1762, during the period Havana was under British rule)—the island, in spite of its privileged geographical location, turned its back on the sea. I have already mentioned the sole portrait in which Escobar offers a glimpse of the entry of the Bay of Havana; also worth mentioning—as engravings—are the extraordinary Vista del fondo de la bahía de La Habana, tomada del Paseo de Roncali [View of the Distant Bay of Havana, Seen from the Paseo de Roncali] made by Mialhe in 1838 or 1839, as well as other contemporary views. The above-mentioned Dama sentada a la orilla del mar which was painted in Paris, is absolutely disconnected from Cuban landscapes. The lady, the greyhound at her side, and the general ambience have nothing to do with the country’s realities. It is a painting inspired by longing and melancholy, without any references to the Cuban coast. During the first decades of the 20th century Academy painter Romañach executed a series of seascapes, at present considered among the best of his work. In them Romañach lightened his palette and sometimes managed to capture a spontaneity and lightness absent from the rest of his painting. Then one has to wait until after 1963 for Martínez Pedro and his abstract elaboration on the subject of Aguas territoriales [Territorial Waters]. Without any figurative references the painter achieves beautiful variations using a range of colors which were per force rather reduced. More recently (1970), Ever Fonseca has turned the sea into a character in canvases in which he creates a very personal world. He does not paint seascapes, or the coast, nor the ever changing blue waters, but an abyssal world inhabited by strange beasts and stars.

4. Manuel Mendive,El Malecón.

5. Martínez Pedro,

Aguas territoriales no. 5.

The rendering of the city in both periods is also worth contrasting. The elegant colonial promenades and plazas—which only appeared in engravings—were replaced in the 1930s by factories (Pogolotti), the unemployed in the streets (Hercar, Peñita), and parks visited by common people (Arístides, Rigol). New visions of the city were born in the 1940s. Besides the city by night painted by Víctor Manuel, Portocarrero began to deploy his multiple approaches. First, the Interiores del Cerro [Cerro Interiors], in which the twisting decoration of buildings and furniture encircle and envelop the whole composition, including the human figure; afterwards, during the 1950s, he painted the whole city, no longer a single neighborhood; but this city had been thinned and trimmed until it had become almost a blueprint or a pictorial map. Its color is delicate and sad and in its schematism, it has become a mere suggestion of an impersonal city. In the 1960s, the initial exuberance of line and color reemerged no longer limited to Interiores but covering the whole city in a great synthesis of buildings, streets, statues and, above all, the atmosphere itself of a city the painter has once again found.

Still-Lifes and Flowers

In Cuban painting the name of Amelia Peláez is closely linked to still-lifes. Her most distinctive canvases were painted after 1940. Some previous still-lifes lack her characteristic insistence on traditional architectural elements. Peláez—together with Portocarrero and Mariano—introduced a theme first-rate painters had never attempted before in Cuba, since the reiterated Spanish bodegones (still-lifes) were never painted on the island except by very minor artists and aimed at a public far removed from cultural concerns.

The search for national elements became evident in the 1940s by a certain obsession with particular details: interiors, furniture, lucetas and mamparas (stained-glass windows and screens). Peláez’ still-lifes, painted throughout a thirty-year period, can be described as a successive integration of these elements. The composition revolves around the central subject; heavy black lines serve as connective elements and, at the same time, as limits between the plain-color areas. The fan windows and lucetas, the arabesques and gyres of ironwork, the brilliant colors—blues, reds, yellows—enhance the strict composition. The fruits are the same that captured Portocarrero’s and Mariano’s imagination in the 1940s, and the latter’s again in the 1960s: the most common Cuban fruits. Custard apple, mamey, pineapple, mango, annona, banana, star apple, and others entered our arts with their splendid forms and colors. I must insist that this novel subject in our painting is part and parcel of the formal and thematic search into national essences that marked the 1940s. Interiors, landscapes, fan windows, tile floors, and fruits on a table were different approaches to a common objective. Palm trees were replaced by flamboyanes (flame-colored trees), which offer color possibilities the former lack.

In some instances—Mariano’s Maternidad [Motherhood] and Desayuno [Break-fast], Portocarrero’s Cena [Supper], Peláez’ Figuras [Figures]—still-lifes were secondary to the main theme. This is the position the flower vase occupied during this period. Some of Portocarrero’s interiors, a number of Víctor Manuel’s portraits (which at times, like those of Arche’s, give a glimpse of a flamboyán in bloom through an opening at the background), some of Fidelio Ponce’s (1895-1949) figures, show this form of location of the central theme. On La silla [The Chair], painted by Wifredo Lam (1902-82) in 1943, there is a flower vase. Afterwards flowers became autonomous and the central theme of the paintings. Martínez Pedro has several personal versions of flowers already transformed into forms more radically distanced from figurative representation. In the 1960s Portocarrero painted a long series of flowers with a thick impasto and rich colors, which later became integrated into more complex compositions such as Cabezas ornamentadas [Decorated Heads], Flora, and the huge tile mural at the Palacio de la Revolución (Palace of the Revolution) where flowers, heads and seashells merge into a panoramic and poetic vision of the island.

Historical Themes

Besides biblical subjects (Ferrán’s Jesús y la samaritana [Jesus and the Samaritan Woman], Cisneros’s Lot y sus hijas [Lot and His Daughters]) the Academy paid special attention to historical themes. The history it referred to was always the distant past, almost as far back as biblical or mythological stories. The beginning of the colony was the period most resorted to in 19th century painting. The first mass in America—in Havana, Cuba—had been painted, among others, by Vermay, Arburu Morell, and Leclère since 1827. Columbus also attracted the painters’ attention: Melero’s Colón ante el Consejo de Salamanca [Columbus before the Council at Salamanca], and Menocal’s Desembarco de Cristóbal Colón [Christopher Columbus Landing] and Reembarque de Colón por Bobadilla [Columbus’ Re-Embarking by Bobadilla] are the best known. Meanwhile, contemporary history was excluded from painting but not from engravings meant for a wide public, especially those reproduced on cigarette pack wrappings, where the historical events taking place in or exerting an influence on the island after 1868, such as the 1871 Commune Conflagration found a place. Needless to say, the version depicted was the Spanish government’s, never the one held by those who advocated independence. But painting turned its back on even the slightest, most indirect reference to the thirty-year armed struggle. Painters like Collazo and Juan Jorge Peoli (1825-93), who had actively participated at some point in the fighting, did not reflect on their canvases any allusion to the events or their participation in them. When Menocal returned to the Academia de San Alejandro (San Alejandro Academy) once the war was over, after having fought under Gómez’ command, he painted a number of canvases based on the battles for independence, in some of which he had personally participated, such as the Batalla de Coliseo [Battle of Coliseo], and Batalla y toma de Guáimaro [Battle and Seizing of Guáimaro], and above all La muerte de Maceo [Maceo’s Death] painted in 1906, which is a very good example of the balanced, careful, cold Academy style. History was conceived of as something finished, pertaining to the distant past, never as a living force. The official paintings of the first republican period were commissioned to Academy painters such as Menocal, Hernández Giro, and Valderrama. During the 1920s and 1930s, some allusions to social realities emerged through the representation of events resulting from a historical situation of oppression painters had the conscience to denounce. Above all, the situation of workers and peasants attracted the attention of some painters I have already mentioned, who brought into the arts what Luis Felipe Rodríguez, Regino Pedroso and Nicolás Guillén had introduced in literature.

With the revolutionary triumph, the contemporary character of the historical theme, to which painters felt connected, emerged. Servando Cabrera’s La batalla de Santa Clara [The Battle of Santa Clara] and Bombardeo [Bombardment], Antonia Eiriz’ (1929-95) Ni muertos [Not Even Dead], Mariano’s Declaración de La Habana [Havana Declaration], Girón, OEA [Organization of American States] and De la sierra al llano [From the Sierra to the Plains] are just a few examples. They are all big paintings—Eiriz’ is a triptych—with very personal styles: in Cabrera’s, drawing predominates; in Eiriz’, strongly expressionist figures; in Mariano’s, effective color spots. Mariano’s thirty-five year search for Cuban essences has been one of the most interesting efforts in this direction. From Unidad, 1936, through Gallos [Roosters] and Paisajes con figuras [Landscapes with Figures] in the 1940s, and a brief period in which abstract elements predominated, to his renovated figurative painting since the 1960s, Mariano’s work has been a lengthy lesson in color and form. I have already mentioned his interest in nudes. At present, Cuban fruits have taken the place formerly filled by roosters, flowers, and vegetation. Throughout his life, Mariano has insisted on the theme of the Cuban space, and his search has ended by leaving an imprint on his style that transcends his different periods.

Allegory, Symbol, Imagination, Abstraction

Allegory was an important theme for the Cuban Academy. Since the foundation of San Alejandro in 1817 and up to the 20th century, allegories made up the bulk of official commissioned painting. In the mid-19th century, Hércules Morelli painted La caridad cristianacoronando el pacto de Carvallo [Christian Charity Crowning the Carvallo Pact], afterwards Peoli painted a number of allegories on La poesía [Poetry], La comedia [Comedy], La tragedia [Tragedy], and a huge “fantasy” inspired by El cometa Halley [Halley’s Comet]. During the pseudo-republican times, numerous allegories were commissioned for the decoration of public buildings. For the former Palacio Presidencial [Presidential Palace], an outstanding instance of architectural bad taste and eclecticism, Menocal painted Triunfo de la República [Triumph of the Republic], Rodríguez Morey, La justicia y la guerra [Justice and War] and La paz [Peace], and Romañach, Las artes y las ciencias [Arts and Sciences]. This group of works, apart from the technical mastery some of them display, illustrates an anachronistic concept of the possibilities and the role of art.

Some contemporary painters introduced in their works symbols of our mestizo (mixed-race) condition, emphasizing our African heritage. The most outstanding instance is Wifredo Lam, since his return to Cuba at the outset of World War II, after a prolonged stay in Spain and Paris. Influenced by the African sources that informed a number of European art schools, Lam had by this time evolved his definitive style, in which surrealism helped him attain his vision of a primeval world. La jungla [The Jungle], 1942, is Lam’s best known painting. In it, as well as in all of his later work, plants and sexual symbols merge. Afro-Cuban symbols and deities peep out among huge fetishes that remind the viewer of women, insects, and gigantic canes. Lam’s world is eminently personal. Other painters have only sporadically incorporated African symbols or have rather focused on aspects of our religious syncretism. Such is Portocarrero’s case with his series of Diablitos [Small Demons] and Santa Bárbara [Saint Barbara]; or Martínez Pedro’s with Giahuba Baigiael and Cuarto Fambá [Fambá Chamber]; Roberto Diago’s (1920-55) with Caridad del Cobre [The Virgin of Cobre].

6. René Portocarrero,

Diablito no. 3.

It is worth noting that in the 19th century, black symbols and blacks themselves —who were slaves up to 1886— were absent from painting except for a few portraits (that of the Casa Bayona family at Santa María del Rosario); or the canvas painted by José María Romero: J. M. Ximeno con su criada negra y un corderito [J. M. Ximeno with His Black Servant and a Lamb], in which they are always depicted as slaves or servants accompanying their masters. However, they do appear, and outstandingly so, in genre engravings and the whole of Landaluze’s work, who painstakingly and methodically documented not just popular characters but also diablitos and ritual vestments. In the 20th century, blacks became the theme of some socially concerned works (Sabás, by Hercar) and after the revolutionary triumph they became integrated into the representations of the people.

During the 1940s a number of painters started painting invented mythologies. In his Tauromaquias [Tauromachies] and Nueva versión de Andrómeda [New Version of Andromeda], Martínez Pedro made a careful use of drawing while placing his figures against a richly imaginative landscape. Portocarrero’s is another conception, made evident in his Figuras para una mitología imaginaria [Figures for An Imaginary Mythology] and Máscaras [Masks], which incorporated into painting the fantasy of carnival. In the early 1960s Acosta León joined González Puig’s surrealizing trend: his Cafeteras [Coffee Pots] and Carrousel deal with everyday city objects. Feijóo’s fantasy paved the way for the entry of campesino legends.

Around 1953, a new generation of painters, united in their interest for abstractionism in its informalist version, emerged. Ten years afterwards they put together their last collective exhibition entitled Abstract Expressionism. The nature itself of this tendency dictated its greater cosmopolitanism; a few of these artists remain faithful to Abstractionism—Vidal, Corratgé—; the majority of them, joined by some younger painters (Peña, Carol), have evolved into figurative forms making use of the resources of new figuration and pop (Jamís, Martínez, Eiriz). The kinetic tendency has had its most outstanding representative among us in Sandú Darié, who has made works for public places.

7. Antonio Vidal, Pintura.

Themes and Their Functions