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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
Discover (or rediscover!) history's greatest myths and legends From Grendel and Beowulf to Poseidon, Medusa, and Hercules, the gods, monsters, and heroes of mythology are endlessly weird and fascinating. And if you're looking for a helpful companion to this wild collection of creatures, humans, and deities, you've found it! Mythology For Dummies delivers the straight goods on history's most popular myths, helping you make sense of even the most complicated ancient stories. You'll learn about the origins of your favorite myths, their cultural impact, and more. Discover: * The coolest mythological characters, including intrepid Odysseus, the volatile gods of Mount Olympus, and Thor and Loki * How ancient mythology intersects with our daily lives in pop culture, high culture, and everything in between * Mythological destinations, like Atlantis, and famous sites from Greek, Roman, and Norse mythology An engrossing guide to some of the most enduring and interesting tales from throughout history, Mythology For Dummies serves up the inside scoop on almost every myth or legend you'd care to learn more about.
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Seitenzahl: 662
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Mythology For Dummies® 2nd Edition
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2023939564
ISBN 978-1-394-18793-5 (pbk); ISBN 978-1-394-18794-2 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-394-18795-9 (ebk)
Mythology For Dummies®
To view this book's Cheat Sheet, simply go to www.dummies.com and search for “Mythology For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in the Search box.
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Introduction
About This Book
Foolish Assumptions
Icons Used in This Book
Beyond the Book
Where to Go from Here
Part 1: Mythology Basics and Why the Stories Endure
Chapter 1: The Truth About Myths
How to Spot a Myth a Mile Away
If a Tree Falls in the Forest and No One Writes It Down, Is It Still a Myth?
Comparative Mythology 101
A Who’s Who of Mythological Players
Different Types of Myths: Historical and Fictional American Legends
Chapter 2: Ancient Myths in Modern Culture: The Legacy
Remaking Myth: Troilus’s Journey from Obscurity to Fame
Popping up in Pop Culture
Looking up in the Sky … It’s a Bird … It’s a Plane … No, It’s a Myth!
Good Myths make for Good Art
Part 2: Thunder and Lightning: Greek Mythology
Chapter 3: Greek Creation Myths and Really Ancient Greek Gods
Considering Creation, Primordial Beings, and the First Generation of Gods
Managing Monstrous Kids and the Second Generation of Gods
Taking on the Third Generation of Gods: The OG Olympians
Perusing the Creation of People
Checking out the World People Lived in, Courtesy of the Gods
Sailing through a Flood and Rebirth Story
Chapter 4: Taller, Younger, and Better Looking Than You: The Olympian Gods
Zeroing in on Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades: Big Daddy and His Brothers
Introducing the Other Boys in the Band: Young Male Gods
Chapter 5: The Fairest and Meanest of Them All: The Greek Goddesses
Hera, Aphrodite, and Demeter: Wives and Mothers
Look but Don’t Touch! The Virgin Goddesses
Ideas, Powers, and Virtues: Some More Abstract Goddesses
Goddess Gangs: A Motley Crew
Chapter 6: So Fine and Half Divine: Heroes
Perseus, a Real Prince of a Guy
Heracles, a Box Office Gold of the Ancients
Theseus, a Home-Grown Hero
Jason the Jerk
Chapter 7: The Trojan War, the Iliad, and the Odyssey
Setting the Stage: Events Leading to the Trojan War
The Trojan War, Nine Years Later: The
Iliad
The End of the Trojan War
A Hero Makes His Way Home after the Trojan War: Homer’s
Odyssey
Chapter 8: Of Chorus They’re so Dramatic: Greek Tragedy
Intro to Greek Drama
Meet the Parents: The House of Cadmus
Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner: The House of Atreus
Part 3: The Cultural Spoils of an Empire: Roman Mythology
Chapter 9: Will the Real Roman Mythology Please Stand Up?
Home-Grown Gods: Early Italian Religions
The Greek-Roman Pantheon
Gods of ideals and mysterious gods
Some Borrowed Gods
Roman Goddesses
Chapter 10: Virgil’s Aeneid and the Founding of Rome
The Original Foundation Myth: Romulus and Remus
Why the Romans Needed Another Myth: Down with Carthage!
Emperor Augustus and Virgil’s PR Machine: The
Aeneid
Chapter 11: Time to Change Things Up: Ovid’s Metamorphoses
Surprising Transformations and Heroic Hunters
Ovid’s Lovers
Cupid and Psyche
Part 4: One Big Family Feud: Norse and Northern European Mythology
Chapter 12: Snow, Ice, and Not Very Nice: Norse Deities
The People and Their Poems: Norse Origins and Oral Tradition
Ashes to Ashes and Dust to Dwarves: Creation of the World
The Good, the Bad, and the Mortal: Norse Deities
Ragnarök: The End of the World
Chapter 13: Heroes and Monsters: The Big Northern European Sagas
Binge-worthy Programming: The Saga of the Volsungs
Something for Everyone: Beowulf
Chapter 14: A Seat at the Round Table: King Arthur and His Court
King Arthur: The Man, the Myth, the Legend
Who’s Who in Camelot
A Medieval Daytime Drama: Arthur’s Beginning
Sex, Lies, and Aimless Wandering
Don’t Quit Your Day Job: Knightly Heroics
The Last Days of King Arthur
Chapter 15: Myths from the Emerald Isle: Ireland and Celtic Mythology
Meeting Major Celtic Gods and Goddesses
Claiming and Settling Ireland: Irish Foundation Myths
Making Celtic History: Key Players and Tales of Irish Mythology
Part 5: The Cradle(s) of Civilization: African and Near-Eastern Mythology
Chapter 16: Central and Southern Africa: The Bantu’s Eternal Earth and Sly Animals
The People and Their Beliefs
Myths about Humanity
The Trickster Spirits: Huveane and Uhlakayana
Chapter 17: Floods, Mud, and Gods: Mesopotamian and Hebrew Mythology
Mesopotamian Gods: Okay, We Fear You … You Happy?
Enûma Elish:
The Babylonian Creation Story
Gilgamesh: Epically Sumerian
Hebrew Mythology: A is for Apple, B is for Babel
Chapter 18: Three Cheers for Egypt: Ra, Ra, Ra!
Write Me a Really Big River
A Cavalcade of Creation Stories
Gods and Goddesses of the Sands
Religion in Egyptian Life
Chapter 19: North African Mythology: A Real Melting Pot
Honey, I Brought the Bees: Phoenician Mythology
Love for a Mummy and a Mommy: Berber Beliefs
Desert Spirits: The Hausa People
Chapter 20: One Thousand Tales: Persian Mythology
You Gotta Take Sides: Zoroastrian Mythology
The (Almost) Never-Ending Story: 1,000 Tales
The Stories within the Stories within the Story
Part 6: Kashmir to Kyoto, and a Lot in Between: South- and East Asian Mythology
Chapter 21: Land of a Thousand Gods: India
The Vedic Invaders
Hinduism: Room for Many Gods
Two Coexisting Religions: Buddhism and Jainism
Chapter 22: Get out the Fine China: Early Chinese Myth and the Three Teachings
How the World and Humanity Began: Ancient Chinese Creation Myths
Taoism: Keeping Your Balance
Confucianism: Myths of Devotion
Buddhism: Letting it Go
Chapter 23: Japan: Myths from the Land of the Rising Sun
Rituals for Everything, in Two Religions
Creation and Ancient Matters
Supernatural Beings and Folk Tales
Part 7: “New World”? Says Who? Mythology of the Americas
Chapter 24: Central and South American Mythology: Civilizations, Cities, and Ball Games
Footprints of a Lost People: The Old Cultures
Maya
Aztecs
Incas
Chapter 25: Sea to Sea, and Lots of Animals in Between: Indigenous Myths of North America
The Lush Green Forests of the East
Big Sky Country: Tales from the Great Plains
Saguaro Cactus Flower in the Southwest
The Wealthy Pacific Northwest
Part 8: The Part of Tens
Chapter 26: Ten Mythological Monsters
Gorgons
Chimera
The Phoenix
Cerberus
Dragons
Unicorn
Griffon
Sphinx
Scylla and Charybdis
The Loch Ness Monster
Chapter 27: Ten (Plus One) Mythological Places
Elysium, or Elysian Fields
Xibalba
Hy-Brasil, or Brasil
Arcadia
Valhalla
Atlantis
The Kingdom of Prester John
Avalon
The River Styx
The River Lēthē
Tara
Index
About the Author
Connect with Dummies
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 9
TABLE 9-1 Roman and Greek Deity Equivalents
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1-1: Br’er Rabbit.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3-1: The main members of the family of the gods.
FIGURE 3-2: The way the Greeks saw the world.
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4-1: Poseidon (probably).
FIGURE 4-2: Daphne’s transformation into a laurel tree.
FIGURE 4-3: The caduceus.
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5-1: Botticelli’s depiction of Aphrodite in his painting
Birth of a Virg
...
FIGURE 5-2: Three graceful Graces.
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6-1: Perseus holding Medusa’s Head.
FIGURE 6-2: Heracles showing his distinctive club, lion skin, and bow.
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7-1: The area of the Mediterranean around the time of the Trojan War.
FIGURE 7-2: Turkish authorities built a wooden horse for people to take picture...
FIGURE 7-3: Laocoön and his sons being eaten by snakes.
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8-1: The Family tree of the House of Cadmus.
FIGURE 8-2: Oedipus and the sphinx.
FIGURE 8-3: The House of Atreus family tree.
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9-1: The Roman Empire at its height.
FIGURE 9-2: Mithras killing the bull and saving the world with the bull’s blood...
FIGURE 9-3 A Vestal Virgin.
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10-1: Romulus, Remus, and she-wolf.
FIGURE 10-2 Augustus had a sculptor make him look like the Greek god Apollo.
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11-1:
Pygmalion and Galatea,
painted by Jean-Léon Gérôme.
FIGURE 11-2: Orpheus, Eurydice, and Hades.
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-1: Northern Europe and the north Atlantic.
FIGURE 12-2: Yggdrasill, the tree of life, and the nine worlds of the Norse cos...
FIGURE 12-3: One-eyed Odin.
FIGURE 12-4: The beautiful goddess Freya, looming over some dwarves in a cave.
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14-1: Arthur’s Cross from Glastonbury Abbey.
Chapter 17
FIGURE 17-1: A map of Mesopotamia and the surrounding area.
FIGURE 17-2: Grandma Tiâmat and her divine kin: a family tree of the
Enûma Elis
...
FIGURE 17-3: Marduk, son of Ea and Damkina.
FIGURE 17-4: God creating Adam, as painted by Michelangelo.
Chapter 18
FIGURE 18-1: Ancient Egypt.
FIGURE 18-2: The air god, Shu, is separating the sky goddess, Nut, from the ear...
FIGURE 18-3: The sun god, Ra.
FIGURE 18-4: Anubis weighing a soul.
Chapter 19
FIGURE 19-1: Baal Hammon.
FIGURE 19-2: Heracles and Antaeus.
Chapter 20
FIGURE 20-1: Aladdin finds a lamp.
FIGURE 20-2: Ali Baba’s brother, Cassim, in the thieves’ cave.
Chapter 21
FIGURE 21-1: Shiva the destroyer.
FIGURE 21-2: Ganesh, remover of great obstacles.
Chapter 23
FIGURE 23-1: A mask of a Tengu, a ghost who lives in the mountains.
Chapter 25
FIGURE 25-1: Kokopelli, the flute-player.
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
About the Author
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Introduction
Mythology For Dummies, 2nd edition, is about the stories people tell that really matter. The telling of myths may be one of the most important things human beings do. Everyone tells myths. Every culture of every time produces myths. Put together all these myths, and you come up with the subject of mythology, a vast body of stories about heroes, gods, spirits, monsters, and forces of nature.
To understand mythology is to understand human beings. That’s why myths are worth thinking about. Just like human beings, myths can be stirring, inspirational, funny, and beautiful. On the other hand, just like human beings, myths can be complicated, cruel, violent, obscene, or just (seemingly) absurd.
About This Book
This book is meant to be a quick reference for anyone who wants to discover the basics of world mythology. We’ve organized it into chapters that deal with specific topics; if you have a particular interest, you can just read the pertinent chapters and not bother with the rest of the book. Or you can read the whole thing but in any order you like. Though we devote a big chunk of the book to classical mythology (Greek and Roman myths), we also try to cover as much of the world as possible.
One important thing to remember: We take myths very seriously; Mythology is religion. Some of the myths in this book are stories from cultures that don’t exist or religions no one practices anymore. Others are myths from cultures and religions that are alive and important to millions of people the world over today.
Don’t get us wrong; we’re not saying that myths aren’t funny. Many myths are really funny, and they’re supposed to be. Neither are we saying that our entire discussion of myths is serious, because it isn’t. We want this book to be engaging and entertaining, so we have fun talking about mythology with the hope that you have fun reading about mythology. But when we say that something is a myth, we’re not saying that it’s false or wrong.
Many other books on mythology often include complicated analysis of myths and try to convince you what different myths may mean about a civilization or culture. But in this book, we give you a fun overview of exciting tales from around the world. Don’t worry; we explain any theoretical or technical concepts as we go along, but we mainly want to tell stories!
Here are a few things to keep in mind as you read this book:
We list dates in terms of BCE (Before the Common Era) and CE (Common Era). Most scholars refer to dates in this way rather than BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini, or “In the Year of Our Lord”) because the new abbreviations are more considerate in an age when scholars of different religious faiths (or no religious faith) work together.
But don’t let that confuse you. The year 19 BCE is the same as 19 BC, and not only did we write this book in the 21st century AD, but we also wrote it in the 21st century CE.
We generally use the word
deities
to refer to gods and goddesses together. We may occasionally use “gods” to mean “gods and goddesses.”
We’ve written this book in English, but most myths weren’t told originally in English. We’ve often had to choose among different but equally okay ways of rendering human or divine names into English. Was the hero of the Trojan War called Achilles or Akhilleus? Was the founder of Taoism named Lao Tse or Lao Tzu? We’ve tried to make good decisions, but don’t be surprised if you see some of the names spelled very differently in other books.
Foolish Assumptions
Dear reader, we make a few assumptions about you:
You may have encountered some myths (Americans often learn about Greek mythology in school), but you’d like to know more about those myths and mythology in general.
You may know a lot of myths from a particular culture — perhaps you are a fan of Japanese Manga — but would like to widen your knowledge of mythology to include other cultures.
You’re reading this book because you don’t really know what mythology is, or what myths are, and you’d like to know.
Icons Used in This Book
Along the way, we’ve marked some information with these three icons.
Remember icons point out the information that’s especially important to know. We also use this icon to indicate places where we tie bits of mythological theory with myths, pointing out what kind of myth you’re looking at.
The Tip icon highlights suggestions or explanations that may help you better understand a complicated story or topic.
This icon identifies historical or scholarly information — things the professionals who study this stuff care about. This info isn’t essential to the topic at hand, so the book makes sense even if you skip over all these icons. But it may be more fun if you don’t.
Beyond the Book
In addition to what you’re reading right now, this book comes with a free access-anywhere Cheat Sheet that includes tips to help you keep mythology at your fingertips. To get this Cheat Sheet, simply go to www.dummies.com and type “Mythology For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in the Search box.
Where to Go from Here
You can start reading this book at any point in any chapter! If you want more than we can offer in this For Dummies book, we’ve tried to reference the original sources for mythology, or the cultures and histories behind them, as we go along.
If you are a fan of the Percy Jackson novels, you could check out Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Fans of Japanese Manga will enjoy Chapter 23. Fans of Marvel’s Thor and Loki will enjoy Chapters 12 and 13. If your family traces its roots to Africa, Chapter 16, 18, and 19 might be interesting. If you are wondering why so many kids today are named “Finn” or “Maeve,” check out Chapter 15. Fans of Disney’s Aladdin will want to read Chapter 20.
Part 1
Mythology Basics and Why the Stories Endure
IN THIS PART …
Define
myth
and make connections between myth, religion, and history.
See how myths survive, even in the face of science and even when they’re based on a religion that no one practices anymore.
Chapter 1
The Truth About Myths
IN THIS CHAPTER
Seeing what makes a myth and how myths are shared
Examining common mythical themes and ideas about them
Introducing common mythical characters
Looking at famous American myths
Mythology is a way of understanding the world, and it’s just as important and as “true” as the scientific or historical ways. In fact, science, history, and other logical ways of thinking simply fail to describe some very important things — things that folks care about. But myths can do the job.
We take myths very seriously. Now, we’re not saying that myths aren’t funny; many myths are really funny, and they’re supposed to be. Neither are we saying that our entire discussion of myths is serious, because it isn’t. But when we say something is a myth, we’re not saying that it’s false or wrong. In other words, we don’t think that science and history belong on one “correct” side and mythology belongs on another “silly” side. (We’re big fans of science and history, by the way!)
That’s what we think: that myths are important and worth taking seriously. And anything worth taking seriously should be fun to think about as well.
In this chapter, we show you how to spot a myth, what makes a story a myth, and the overlap among myths, legends, and folktales. We also explain how myths from long ago continue to survive today, the different kinds of myths, and what scholars and students of myth think these stories mean.
We offer explanation wherever we can, but if you like quick, unambiguous answers, mythology is probably going to make you cranky. Myths exist, you see, to answer those human questions that don’t have quick, unambiguous answers.
How to Spot a Myth a Mile Away
A myth is a story. The Greek word mythos means “story,” and sometimes it means “thing you say that gets folks to act in a certain way.” That’s the basic concept. But, of course, not just any old story can be a myth. Amy (one of the authors of this book) was served a whole pig’s head for dinner in Thailand; this story is a good one and worth telling, but it isn’t a myth. Chris (the other author of this book) once got shot at by some people in the woods — another good story, but not up to the standards of mythology.
Experts love to argue about difficult, hard-to-define subjects, and mythology has been a popular topic for argument for the last two centuries. Scholars argue about what’s a “true” myth as opposed to some other kind. Some mythology snobs insist, however, that no one confuse myths with other similar types of stories, such as legends, sagas, and folktales. (We define all four in the following sections.) But there is not a bright, obvious line between myth, folktale, legend, and factual historical accounts. (See “Different Types of Myths: Historical and Fictional American Legends.”)
Most stories known as myths have elements of legend or folktale in them and vice versa. These terms are useful in helping decide what’s a myth and what isn’t, but you shouldn’t get too hung up on them.
Specifics of mythological proportions
You may know a myth when you see it, but you still need some kind of definition before you can get down to the business of fully appreciating myths. Myths can be stories about gods, goddesses, and supernatural events and supernatural beings, and humans’ relationships with them; they can also be tales from “history” (whether factual or fictional). What’s common to all myths is that they explain truths or values and stories that help groups of people (such as a specific nationalities) identify themselves, understand their world, and define their values. Myths help validate the social order, such as hereditary kingships or social class structures. They also can provide a “history” of a kingdom that makes the existence and growth of a kingdom or nation seem inevitable.
Because myths are often about humans and the gods, they’re also often about religion. Every myth in this book was or still is part of a religion people practiced seriously.
The word myth has come to mean “untrue” in some contexts; people say something is “just a myth” if no factual basis exists for it. But myths do have their own truths. They provide people with a view of the world and a set of values that can be as important as any scientifically verifiable fact. (For some examples, see Chapter 3.)
Legends and Sagas
Legends are similar to myths (which we describe in the preceding section), but they’re based on history. It doesn’t have to have much of a historical basis; lots of legends hardly jibe with the historical versions at all. A legend or saga (a long story about a series of adventures), however, does have to include something that may actually have happened. For example, the story of King Arthur is a legend because an actual man (probably) served as the basis for the King Arthur people know of today.
But there is not a clear-cut line. If a legend gets told and re-told because it helps a community, nation, or culture understand itself, its values, and where it comes from, it certainly qualifies as a myth.
Folktales
A folktale is a traditional tale that’s primarily a form of entertainment; in some cases it’s used to instruct. Folktales involve adventures, heroes, and magical happenings, but they don’t usually try to explain human relationships with the divine. Like legends, folktales can get promoted to myths depending on how it serves the needs and imaginations of the people who pass it on.
Fairy tales look like myths and folktales, but they’re a little different. Fairy tales came out of the Romantic movement of the 19th century, when people such as the Brothers Grimm collected stories from local people and wrote them up in romanticized versions. The Romantic movement was a trend in art and literature, in the 1700s and 1800s, that re-emphasized depictions of nature and human emotions.
If a Tree Falls in the Forest and No One Writes It Down, Is It Still a Myth?
People haven’t always had access to big books with titles like “Greek Mythology” or “World Mythology” that they could read to get mythological information. But these myths nevertheless have moved down through the ages through the spoken word and through art. After writing was invented, people preserved the myths on paper. What could be more interesting — for authors in antiquity or even yesterday — than writing stories from myths?
The oral tradition
Myths are stories, and stories get told. Stories that are passed down from one generation to the next are stories told in the oral tradition. In places and times where people don’t use written language, oral tradition is one of only two ways of preserving knowledge from one generation to the next; the other is art, which we cover in the following section.
Oral tradition is the most traditional way for myths to start, to spread, and to develop. Because each generation that tells a myth has its own unique needs and experiences, myths tend to evolve over time and to exist in different versions.
In cultures with oral traditions, people tend to have better memories. Societies with oral traditions often turn stories into poems or songs, which are easier to remember and to repeat word for word. In cultures that write down their material, people don’t need particularly good memories because they have books, sticky notes, smartphones, and other ways of reminding themselves of things that they otherwise may forget.
Think of the oral tradition as the material that passes from person to person via email, text message, or social media. Stories can spread across the world from computer user to computer user, changing slightly all the while. Some of these tales may become the myths of the 21st century.
Art
Art is another way myths can survive from generation to generation It can survive long after the people who made it have died, enabling archaeologists to uncover, restore, and interpret it. Art that helps preserve myths doesn’t have to be fancy or sophisticated. Ordinary household objects often feature decorations that can tell modern archaeologists a lot about a society.
Literature
The poetry of Homer, a great source for Greek mythology, began life as an oral tradition of songs that singers would perform publicly. (Find more about that method in the earlier section “The oral tradition.”) Eventually, of course, people put those myths in writing. This transfer is how myth becomes literature and why people learn about myths from literature.
Myths can serve as the inspiration for other kinds of literature. Greek tragedies, written texts intended to be performed as plays, often take their plots from Greek mythology; see Chapter 8. William Shakespeare used mythological themes for many of his plays, borrowing from the mythology of the Mediterranean world and from northern European myths. For example, A Midsummer Night’s Dream is set at the court of the Greek hero Theseus during his marriage to the Amazon queen Hippolyta (read about him in Chapter 7). Romeo and Juliet is based on the story of Pyramus and Thisbe in Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Chapter 13).
More recently, there have been a number of best-selling re-tellings of ancient myths, like Madeline Miller’s novels Song of Achilles and Circe, Rick Riordan’s Percy Jackson books, Neil Gaiman’s American Gods, Derek Walcott’s Omeros, and many of the characters in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
People have sought out oral traditions to record in writing for the purpose of study. So anthropologists may visit the indigenous people of Brazil or the people who live in the Sea Island community in South Carolina to listen to their stories and write them down. This written documentation helps preserve a culture and can provide insight into how myths evolve.
Comparative Mythology 101
Myths are tricky. Myths from around the world, from long ago and from recent times, often seem similar. Most myths appear to fall into certain categories, regardless of whether different cultures had much to do with each other. The following sections help explain what’s up with that.
Theories about mythology
Anytime scholars find several factors that appear to follow a pattern, they try to find the rules that govern the pattern. During the 20th century, several scholars tried to explain what myths were all about and answer this age-old question: What’s the purpose of all these stories? Because that truly is an unanswerable question, they devised several different theories, which gradually were incorporated into the fields of psychology, comparative literature, and anthropology.
Here’s a quick summary of some of the more important theories about myths:
Myths define social customs and beliefs.
Myths are the same as ritual.
Myths are
allegories,
similar to
parables
like those in the Christian Bible. They use symbolism to describe general human experiences through fun, specific, and memorable stories.
Myths explain natural phenomena.
Myths explain psychological phenomena such as love, sex, and anger toward one’s parents. (Sigmund Freud bought into this theory big-time.)
Myths contain
archetypes
(basic patterns of events) that reveal the
collective unconscious
of the human race, that is, stuff we think about all the time without really noticing that we’re thinking about it. (Carl Jung believed this theory.)
Myths are a way of communicating and helping people work together, or they’re a way for people to talk about things that cause anxiety. If you know the story of
The City Mouse and the Country Mouse
, you know that life in the countryside versus life in the city is something that divides people’s experiences and can be hard to work around. The tension between the value of sticking with your family and the need to marry outside of your family is another example of this kind of conflict. This is the basis of the approach called
structuralism
, which was based on the work of an anthropologist named Claude Levi-Strauss (no relation to the blue-jean pioneer).
No one of these approaches explains each and every myth. But taken together, they can make thinking about myths more fun.
Major types of myths
One reason so many scholars have tried pinning down the definition of myths is that myths can be similar across cultures, even in distant cultures. For example, Greece and Japan have stories about men who visit the underworld to retrieve their dead wives. The coincidence is freaky, as if some universal knowledge resides in human memory from the days when all people lived in caves. Here are some types that show up a lot all over the place:
Creation myths:
Everybody wants to know where the world and its creatures came from. Generally, the world emerges from
primordial darkness
(the darkness before history and all human experience), often in the shape of an egg, through the work of a creator deity.
Cosmogeny:
Many myths describe the way the world, the heavens, the sea, and the underworld are put together and how the sun and moon travel around them.
The origin of humanity:
Humans had to come from somewhere, and many mythologies describe their origin. They’re often the pet creation of a deity dabbling in mud.
Flood stories:
Many mythologies have a story about gods who were unhappy with their first version of humans and destroyed the world with floods to get a clean start. Usually one man and one woman survive.
The introduction of disease and death:
Myths often describe the first humans as living in a paradise that’s messed up when someone introduces unhappiness. The Greek story of Pandora’s box is one of the best-known myths (see
Chapter 3
).
Afterlife:
Many people think that the soul continues to exist after the body dies; myths explain what happens to the soul.
The presence of supernatural beings:
Every body of mythology features deities and other supernatural entities. Individual deities often are in charge of particular aspects of the world or human life. Some supernatural beings are good, and some are evil; humans and the good gods fight the evil ones.
The end of the world:
Although the world has already ended at least once in most mythologies (usually through a great flood), some myths also have a plan for how it will end in the future.
The dawn of civilization:
Humans had to learn to live like people, not animals, and often the gods helped them. A common story tells of the theft of fire by a deity who brings it to humans.
Foundation myths:
People who founded empires liked to believe that historical reasons helped explain why vanquishing their enemies and building a city in a certain place was inevitable. A myth can help explain these reasons as well as why the people who lived there before don’t deserve to live there anymore.
One reason myths recur is that people have always moved around and talked with one another. People carried myths to one another just as they brought trade goods or disease. For example, many North American Nations have flood stories as part of their mythologies. Some of the first Europeans they encountered were Christian missionaries, who told them Christian stories including, no doubt, the biblical story of Noah and the flood.
The details of these stories are significant and have had far-reaching consequences. For example, many people have used myths to justify male domination of women (think of Eve emerging from Adam’s rib in the Bible — he was there first). Myths also have been used to justify the oppression of one social group by another, and it’s still happening today.
A Who’s Who of Mythological Players
Myths have a fairly standard cast of characters. They always include divine beings, called deities or gods. Also present are humans who interact with gods; some of the extra special humans get to be heroes. Magical animals and tricksters, who live to stir things up, complete the list of players.
Deities
All bodies of myth have supernatural entities that hold power over the world and the people in it. These entities often are called gods and goddesses — the word deity is a neutral term that means god or goddess. Some cultures have many deities, and some have only one. Generally a culture has at least one creator deity and several other divine beings who divide up jobs such as driving the sun and moon, herding the dead, making crops grow, and so on. With this division of labor, people automatically knew which deity to ask for help; for example, a woman seeking help in childbirth knew not to waste her time praying to the rain god.
The supernatural world isn’t home only to benevolent deities; negative beings (antigods) also live there and walk the earth with humans. Myths contain stories of devils, demons, dragons, monsters, and giants; these creatures fight both the gods and humans. In Zoroastrian religion and mythology, for example, there is the top-god, Ahura-Mazda, and the anti-god, the enemy, Ahriman (we talk about this in Chapter 20).
Heroes
Many myths feature heroes, who perform amazing feats of daring, strength, or cleverness. Some heroes are human, some are gods, and some are half-and-half. One feature common of mythological heroes is that their definitive characteristics are evident from childhood.
Culture heroes appear in myths bringing specific benefits to humans; for example, Prometheus was a culture hero to the ancient Greeks because he gave humans fire. See Chapter 6 for more on about this ancient Greek. In the mythology of indigenous people of the Americas, the man who discovered tobacco on the spot where he’d (earlier) discovered sex was doubly a culture hero. Chapter 25 has the complete lowdown.
Other heroes serve as models of human accomplishment; for example, the Greek hero Heracles (also known as Hercules) is the biggest, strongest, most heroic guy ever. You can read more about him in Chapter 6. Heroes often play a role in the foundation myths we discuss in the earlier section “Major types of myths.”
Tricksters
Myths are full of trickster characters. Tricksters are popular mythical characters in myths from all cultures. Some of these tricksters are helpful to people by outwitting their enemies and bringing them gifts such as fire. The Greek trickster-hero Prometheus is like this (See Chapter 3). Others aren’t so nice; Loki in Norse myths is sometimes downright evil. (See Chapter 12 for more about him.) The character Odysseus from Greek mythology (Chapter 7) tricks others for his own benefit. In the mythology of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the trickster characters are often animals that seem humanlike. Examples include the Coyote in the Southwest, the Mink in the Pacific Northwest, and Wisakedjak, a rabbit trickster hero known to Eastern tribes. (See Chapter 25.) African mythology has lots of cunning characters: rabbits, deer, and humans. (See Chapter 16.)
Tricksters subvert the social order and break the rules, stirring things up either to beat their enemies, save their own lives, or help other animals or humans.
The Europeans knew the Native American trickster-hero Wisakedjak as Whiskey Jack, who may well be the mythological ancestor to Br’er Rabbit, a figure in African American folklore (and mythology!). We talk about this mischievous bunny later in this chapter.
Different Types of Myths: Historical and Fictional American Legends
Some myths are firmly rooted in historical fact, and others are entirely made up. And they don’t have to be super ancient. The easiest way to see the difference is to look at two American myths. One of these myths is based on a historical character and his historical actions. And another one is entirely fictional but an important myth nevertheless.
Johnny Appleseed, a cultural hero
Johnny Appleseed is a figure of mythology. He’s also 100 percent historically factual. His real name was John Chapman, and he was a professional nurseryman (that is, he grew plants and sold them). He collected apple seeds from cider-making operations in Pennsylvania and then moved westward, planting a series of orchards between the Allegheny Mountains and Ohio. He gave away seeds to pioneers, but he also made a tidy profit off his enterprise.
But none of these historical facts is nearly as important as the mythological “truth” of Johnny Appleseed. As a figure of myth, he represents the pioneering spirit of the early history of the United States as people moved west to settle in different lands. He represents the conquest of the wilderness as settlers turned wild forests into farms. And he represents a set of values that Americans like to associate with the early builders of the nation: piety, charity, closeness to the earth, and independence.
Few folks would be particularly interested in the history of a dealer in agricultural products, but many people in the United States grow up knowing about Johnny Appleseed, the culture hero who helped the country grow.
Br’er Rabbit, American trickster
The myth of Br’er Rabbit is entirely fictional. Br’er (that is, “Brother”) Rabbit (see Figure 1-1) and his tricks and adventures appeared in an Atlanta newspaper in 1879. This work told the first of a number of stories about the tricky rabbit who outsmarts Mr. Fox, Mrs. Cow, and others again and again.
FIGURE 1-1: Br’er Rabbit.
These stories, which are similar to and may be based on various African myths, were part of the folklore of the American Southeast before the Civil War and during the following period of Reconstruction. All segments of the population, particularly African American communities, enjoyed them. The Br’er Rabbit tales can be called myths because they convey important truths. For enslaved and formerly enslaved peoples, Br’er Rabbit represented a hero who won, again and again, despite being in the power of others.
When Joel Chandler Harris brought versions of these stories to the attention of a wider American audience, Br’er Rabbit became a shared American myth. Americans like to root for underdogs and to believe that a hero can use his wits and his initiative to overcome obstacles. Br’er Rabbit, the character, seems to have evolved from the stories of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, involving the tricky Wisakedjak (see Chapter 25), and stories from Central Africa involving the trickster named Uhlakayana (see Chapter 16). He represents truths that are important to Americans’ ideas about themselves. He might be the (multicultural) mythological ancestor to Bugs Bunny.
Chapter 2
Ancient Myths in Modern Culture: The Legacy
IN THIS CHAPTER
Watching a myth evolve
Noticing mythological elements all around you
Spotting mythology in the night sky
Finding mythology in all types of art and turning old myths into today’s entertainment
Myths describe important truths by using symbols. The truths are things that ordinary language doesn’t describe well: the relationship between humans and the divine, the nature of love, what happens after you die, and so on. The symbols are things from everyday life: people, parents and their children, gifts, storms, animals, plants.
Many myths have managed to survive for thousands of years, long after the death of the civilization that created them. Even today, in a world that supposedly is rational and scientific, myths are everywhere, and they’re still very powerful. People want heroes; they want stories that explain how the world works.
This chapter explores some of the ways these myths are still around today. We show you how myths evolve and endure by tracing one myth from its roots in ancient Greece through ancient centuries, through the Renaissance, and up to the modern age. And we’ll look at how mythological characters lend names to things all around us, and how myths lend storylines to the films and TV series that we watch today.
In short, this chapter illustrates shows you why mythology is worth knowing.
Remaking Myth: Troilus’s Journey from Obscurity to Fame
Myths can stick around for thousands of years, serving different people’s needs at different times and changing all the while.
Myths don’t have one “true” version; stories and characters can be different things to different people while still retaining their mythical stature.
The long, long journey of the myth of Troilus, Prince of Troy, is a great example of a myth that has survived and changed through the ages. Troilus started out as a very minor character in Homer’s Iliad, but as we explain in the following sections, his name and story served not only Homer and other Greeks and Romans but also the French, Italian, and English writers of the Middle Ages. Through time and the work of different authors who took an interest in him, he turned into a major Shakespearean hero, and at least one of the myth’s supporting characters came along for the ride.
The pathetic Trojan prince
Troilus doesn’t start in the mythological Big League. He first shows up in Homer’s poem, the Iliad, which tells the story of part of the Trojan War. The full details of this story appear in Chapter 7, but Troilus in Homer is so insignificant that we don’t even mention him there! Troilus is one of the (many, many) sons of Priam, King of Troy. He appears very briefly in the Iliad mostly as a literary device: Achilles kills him right away, which sets up Achilles as the destroyer of Troy and foreshadows his murder of Hector, Troilus’s more important older brother.
Later Greek and Roman writers added to Troilus’s story; they either made up new parts of it or wrote down other preexisting versions of the myth that differed from what Homer wrote. In these versions, a prophecy says that if Troilus reaches the age of 20, then the Greeks will never defeat Troy. But Achilles kills Troilus in a temple of the god Apollo. This death turns him into a kind of “savior” of Troy, except that he doesn’t save the city (you know, because he dies).
Early pulp romance: Medieval authors rediscover Troilus
The journey of Troilus’s myth jumps about 1,500 years into the future from Homer and company to the 12th century CE. During the High Middle Ages, a French writer named Benoît de Sainte-Maure picked up the story of Troilus and turned it into a romance: the Roman de Troie (“The Romance of Troy”). De Sainte-Maure portrayed Troilus as an innocent young man, and he also gave the young Trojan hero a girlfriend: Briseida. (In Homer, Briseis is Achilles’s girlfriend; de Sainte-Maure thought it’d be nice to give her to Troilus instead with a slight name change.)
De Sainte-Maure’s story emphasizes the tragedy of a lover betrayed. Troilus and Briseida are deeply in love and make all sorts of promises to each other. But then the Greeks capture Briseida, and she falls in love with the Greek hero Diomedes. Poor Troilus, his heart broken, is killed by Achilles. So Troilus serves to tell a moving story of romantic love and tragic innocence.
On to Italy and England
Giovanni Boccaccio, a medieval Italian writer, retold the story of Troilus around 1338 CE in his work Il Filostrato (“The Guy Betrayed by Love”) and changed the girlfriend’s name to Cressida — presumably to help keep her straight from Achilles’s woman, Briseis. The English poet Geoffrey Chaucer told it again a few years later as Troilus and Criseyde. Both of these writers also emphasized the romantic tragedy of the story.
William Shakespeare, in 1601 or 1602 CE, wrote the most famous version of the story, in his Tragedie of Troylus and Cressida. For the most part, Shakespeare followed de Sainte-Maure (see the preceding section), Boccaccio, and Chaucer in his plot, but he used the story for a different purpose: to show how “heroic” characters can act like completely despicable jerks. He wrote this play during a time when politics in England were somewhat chaotic, and he used this old, old myth of Troilus (originally from the 8th century BCE) to say something important about politics in the world of the 17th century CE. However, people today still find Shakespeare’s play to be enlightening and meaningful.
Troilus and Cressida live on
Troilus and Cressida persist today in more everyday ways as well. For example, in the 1990s, Toyota made a car called the Cressida (though the wisdom of this name may be questionable given that Cressida is famous for betraying her lover and leaving him to die). In 1986, when the Voyager II spaceship flew by Uranus and discovered a new moon orbiting that planet, this new heavenly body — only 67 kilometers in diameter — got the name Cressida.
Popping up in Pop Culture
Myths are stories about important things — life, death, immortality, power, love, nature — so the names in myths are powerful. These names, even if they’re from very ancient and very foreign myths, still evoke emotions. Myths are symbols, and the folks who sell stuff (cars, trinkets, books, movies) give them names that, they hope, will symbolize things you like.
Driving down the street, going on vacation — you can’t avoid the impact of myths. They’re everywhere! That’s partly because companies market to emotions and partly because myths are just cool and people like to buy stuff with mythical names.
Driving it all home
If your old Toyota Cressida betrays you like its mythical namesake (see the earlier section “Troilus and Cressida live on”), perhaps driving a Toyota Avalon will make you feel like King Arthur himself. And a trip to the beach with the kids may feel like it takes 20 years, like the journey of Odysseus, but unlike that Greek hero in his ship, you’ll have lots of cup holders in a Honda Odyssey.
Wearing it today
Any tourist to the American Southwest will have no trouble coming home with a dozen T-shirts featuring Kokopelli, the flute-playing trickster from the mythology of the indigenous peoples of North America (for more on him, check out Chapter 25). He symbolizes the ancient art and culture of the region and a spirit of lively independence from the straight-and-narrow, and he’s become an easily recognized symbol of that part of the country in general.
People all over the place wear necklaces with pendants in the shape of an ankh (like a cross but with an oval top). This symbol comes from the mythology of Egypt and has symbolized (for many thousands of years, back into deep antiquity) life and happiness. The famous King Tut incorporated it into his name, which in its fullest form is TutANKHamun. The ankh might be a symbol of both male and female essences as well. The ankh is especially popular as a symbol of the Christian Coptic Church. It’s also a modern symbol of Africa and its contributions to world culture (contributions that much of the world spent a lot of time and energy ignoring or disparaging).
Looking up in the Sky … It’s a Bird … It’s a Plane … No, It’s a Myth!
The sky is chock-full of myths. People looked for gods and heroes in the patterns of stars, and they found them!
The number of myths in space is astronomical
Even rational, scientific astronomers of the 21st century see myths in the night sky in the form of constellations. Pegasus, the winged horse that was born from the blood of the monstrous Medusa, is up there, as is the half-man, half-horse Centaur. During the winter in the Northern Hemisphere, Orion the Hunter is one of the most obvious constellations — easy to find because of his bright belt of three stars. In Greek mythology, Orion died after being stung by a scorpion, but he’s safe in the sky because he sets in the west just as Scorpio rises in the east. Folks in the Southern Hemisphere can see the Argo, the ship that Jason and the Argonauts sailed to Colchis to steal the Golden Fleece. (For more on Jason, see Chapter 6.)
All the planets are named after Greek and Roman gods (including Earth, who was Gaia to the Greeks): Mercury, the messenger; Venus, the goddess of love; Mars, the war-god; Jupiter, the king; Saturn, the father of the gods; Neptune, god of the sea; and Uranus, the ancient sky-god. And you can take away Pluto’s planet status, but it’s still named after the god of the dead, so far away. (Chapters 3 and 9 have more on these gods.)
THE STARS AREN’T JUST GREEK
One easy-to-find constellation (or, technically, “star cluster,” because it doesn’t actually make a picture) is the Pleiades, or the “Seven Sisters.” The Greeks said these were the daughters of Atlas: Alcyone, Merope, Celaeno, Taygeta, Maia, Electra, and Asterope.
But the Greeks didn’t have a monopoly on myths, of course, and they don’t have a monopoly on constellations, either. The Egyptians knew these seven stars, too, and some scholars think that the seven chambers of the Great Pyramid intentionally echo those seven stars. The Blackfoot tribe in North America knew this group of stars as the “six brothers.” (One of the seven stars isn’t very clear, which the Greeks noted as well.) The Blackfoot story tells of six boys who were too poor to wear nice buffalo robes, and when their friends laughed at them, they told everyone to get lost and moved up into the sky. In the southern islands of the Pacific, the Polynesians know these seven stars as Mata-riki, or the “Little Eyes.”
NASA loves mythology, too
Because of all the mythological names already up there (see the preceding section), choosing mythological names for the NASA programs and machines that got humans to the moon made sense. The first part of the U.S. space program was Project Mercury, named after the messenger god of the Romans (see Chapter 9); this choice was to “send a message” to the Soviet Union that the United States was in the race. The Mercury capsules were launched with Atlas rocket boosters, named after the Titan who held up the sky (see Chapter 3).
Project Gemini was next, named after the twins Castor and Pollux, the brothers of Helen of Troy (“twins” in Latin is gemini), because the Gemini capsules held two astronauts. The Gemini astronauts rode into space atop Titan rockets. (The Titans are the gods/monsters that the Greek god Zeus defeats to become King of the Gods.) Finally, human beings made it to the moon with Project Apollo, named after the Greek god of light and knowledge; in the mentality of the Cold War, a U.S. victory in the “space race” represented “light” winning over communist “darkness.” Apollo astronauts rode atop Saturn rockets. Saturn was the big daddy of the Titans.
Good Myths make for Good Art
When ancient people anywhere in the world painted anything or sculpted anything, they usually chose subjects from their own mythology. When people learned to write, they started by writing down their myths. But myths stick around, and the myths of the ancient world keep showing up in art and literature right up to the present day.
Art without myth? Impossible!
The mythology of Greece and Rome has been painted and sculpted for 3,000 years, and not always by Greeks and Romans. After the fall of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, the old pagan myths took a vacation from art for a few centuries for two reasons:
