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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Comprehensive presentation of upconversion luminescent materials, from fundamental theory to photovoltaic, photocatalytic, and biological applications
Photoenergy Conversion-Enhanced Perovskite Solar Cells is a thorough guide to the synthesis and properties of lanthanide-based and triplet-triplet annihilation-based upconversion nanomaterials. The book reviews their diverse applications in the fields of photovoltaics, luminescent solar concentrator, photodetectors, photocatalysis, lasing, light-emitting diodes, high-resolution bioimaging, photothermal therapy, photoelectrochemical biosensors, optical temperature sensing, ion detection, anti-counterfeiting, förster resonant energy transfer, volumetric full-color displays, photonic quantum logic gates, and other optical fields.
Photoenergy Conversion-Enhanced Perovskite Solar Cells explores sample topics including:
- Challenges in spectral response and photon management of perovskite photovoltaics (PVs)
- Down-conversion and down-shifting for high-energy uv utilization, with information on semiconductor oxides and carbon materials
- Surface plasmon resonance for light-harvesting, covering basic mechanisms as well as metal alloys and nanostructures
- Texturing for light-trapping, discussing electron transport layers with periodic nanostructures and texturing on glass or a transparent conductive oxide
- Luminescent solar concentrators for light concentration, reviewing both Pb-based and Pb-free nanocrystals
Photoenergy Conversion-Enhanced Perovskite Solar Cells is an essential reference for scientists, engineers, industrial experts, and advanced students to solve fundamental and applied problems of upconversion luminescent materials and think of new innovative ideas in the field of application of phosphor materials.
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Seitenzahl: 396
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Photon Energy Conversion Enhances Perovskite Photovoltaics
1.1 The Growing Global Energy Crisis and the Role of PVs
1.2 Emergence of Perovskite Photovoltaics
1.3 Challenges in Spectral Response and Photon Management of Perovskite Photovoltaics
1.4 Photon Management Strategies: Addressing Energy Losses in PSCs
1.5 The Scope of This Work
1.6 Structure of the Book
References
2 UC for Light Spectrum Expansion in Perovskite Photovoltaics
2.1 UC Integrated in Electron Transporting Layers
2.2 UC Integrated in Hole Transporting Layers
2.3 UC Integrated in Perovskite Photoactive Layer
2.4 UC Applied Outside Device Structure of PSCs
2.5 Chapter Summary
References
3 Down‐Conversion/Downshifting for High‐Energy UV Utilization in Perovskite Photovoltaics
3.1 Basic in Down‐Conversion/Down‐Shifting Improved Solar Cells
3.2 REs‐Based DC Phosphors
3.3 Semiconductor Oxides
3.4 Organic Fluorescent Materials for DS in PSCs
3.5 Nanocrystals or Quantum Dots
3.6 Carbon Materials
3.7 Chapter Summary
References
4 Surface Plasmon Resonance for Light‐Harvesting in Perovskite Photovoltaics
4.1 Basic Mechanisms in Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)
4.2 Metals Nanostructures
4.3 Metal@Dielectric Composites
4.4 Metal Alloys
4.5 Other Nanostructures
4.6 Chapter Summary
References
5 Tandem Structure for Optical Complementarity in Perovskite Photovoltaics
5.1 Working Principle of Tandem Solar Cells
5.2 All‐Perovskite Tandem Solar Cell
5.3 Perovskite/Organic Tandem Solar Cell
5.4 Perovskite/Quantum Dot or Perovskite/Dyes Tandem Solar Cell
5.5 All‐Perovskite Triple‐Junction Solar Cells
5.6 Perovskite/Perovskite/Perovskite Triple‐Junction Solar Cell
5.7 Perovskite/Perovskite/Silicon Triple‐Junction Solar Cell
5.8 Perovskite/Perovskite/Organic Configurations Triple‐Junction Solar Cell
5.9 Chapter Summary
References
6 Texturing for Light‐Trapping in Perovskite Photovoltaics
6.1 Texturing on Glass or Transparent Conductive Oxide
6.2 Electron Transport Layers with Periodic Nanostructures
6.3 Texturing of Perovskite Films
6.4 Interface Between the Hole Transport Layer and the Metal Back Electrodes
6.5 Chapter Summary
References
7 Antireflection for Photon Recycling Utilization in Perovskite Photovoltaics
7.1 Antireflection in Incident Side
7.2 Antireflection in Tandem Solar Cells
7.3 Antireflection for Colorful PSCs
7.4 Chapter Summary
References
8 Luminescent Solar Concentrators for Light Concentration
8.1 Introduction to Luminescent Solar Concentrators
8.2 Challenges and Innovations in LSC Efficiency
8.3 Pb‐Based Perovskite Nanocrystals in LSCs
8.4 Pb Free‐Perovskite Nanocrystals in LSCs
8.5 Chapter Summary
References
9 Conclusion and Perspectives for Photon Energy Conversion in Perovskite Photovoltaics
9.1 Perspectives
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Energy levels and emission lines seen for trivalent Ln
3
...
Figure 2.2 (a) A schematic representation of a core–shell‐structur...
Figure 2.3 (a) Fabrication process of the nanocomposites and their...
Figure 2.4 (a) Schematic of the J–V curves of the PSCs under the s...
Figure 2.5 The proposed scheme for the TTA‐UC mechanism involves d...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Energy diagram shows different behaviors schematically ...
Figure 3.2 (a) Schematic configuration of PSCs incorporating SrAl
2
Figure 3.3 Sketch of the architecture of planar (a) and photonic‐e...
Figure 3.4 UV‐selective absorbing LDS antireflection film. (a) Che...
Figure 3.5 (a) Photograph of the synthesized CsPbBr
3
nanocrystals ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 The distinct temporal regimes associated with LSPRs and...
Figure 4.2 Plasmonic properties in the regime of small nanoparticl...
Figure 4.3 (a) A transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of A...
Figure 4.4 (a) TEM images of the prepared Au nanobipyramids.(b...
Figure 4.5 (a) The UV–vis spectra of parent Au nanoparticles and A...
Figure 4.6 (a) The process of depositing metallic nanostructures i...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 (a) Theoretical PCEs for single junction solar cells ba...
Figure 5.2 Schematic pictures of tandem solar cells in (a) 4T and ...
Figure 5.3 (a) Cross‐sectional scanning electron microscope (SEM) ...
Figure 5.4 (a) AM 1.5G solar spectrum shows the limit of photocurr...
Figure 5.5 Device structure of the hybridized cell using a dichroi...
Figure 5.6 (a)
J
–
V
and (b) EQE for a FA
0.83
Cs
0.17
Pb(Br
0.7
I
0.3
)
3
/MA...
Figure 5.7 SEM images (a) and (b): the
J
–
V
curve of McMeekin's all...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Light‐trapping structures and absorption spectra. (a, b...
Figure 6.2 (a) Cross‐sectional HAADF‐STEM images of control (top) ...
Figure 6.3 (a) PSCs on HAMC‐patterned glass.(b) SEM images of ...
Figure 6.4 (a) Schematic of whispering‐gallery structured perovski...
Figure 6.5 The nanophotonic structures of (a) inverted pyramids an...
Figure 6.6 Optical and electrical performance of perovskite photov...
Figure 6.7 Overview of the proposed and reference PSC structures. ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Schematic refractive index profiles of the (a) ITO/glas...
Figure 7.2 (a) Schematic diagram of the fabrication procedure for ...
Figure 7.3 (a) Absorption curves in front and bottom subcells and ...
Figure 7.4 (a) The gradual change of the reflected color of the na...
Figure 7.5 UV selective absorbing LDS antireflection film. (a) Che...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Picture of perovskite nanocrystal‐based LSCs.
Figure 8.2 Laser illumination (in blue) is rastered across the LSC...
Figure 8.3 Design principles of LSCs based on ultrafast narrowband...
Figure 8.4 Left is absorption, PL spectra of the undoped and Mn
2+
...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Photoenergy Conversion‐Enhanced Perovskite Solar Cells
Cong Chen and Hongwei Song
Authors
Prof. Cong ChenHebei University of TechnologyDingzigu Road 1TianjinCH 300130
Prof. Hongwei SongJilin University2699 Qianjin StreetChangchunCH 130012
Cover Image: © Cong Chen
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Preface
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have rapidly emerged as a disruptive technology in the field of photovoltaics, garnering attention worldwide for their potential to revolutionize the renewable energy sector. With their remarkable efficiency, low cost, and ease of fabrication, PSCs offer a promising alternative to conventional silicon‐based solar cells, paving the way for more affordable and sustainable energy solutions. However, despite their promising performance, challenges related to stability, spectral response limitations, and photoenergy conversion remain significant barriers to their widespread commercialization. The book Photoenergy Conversion‐Enhanced Perovskite Solar Cells addresses these challenges by focusing on advanced photoenergy conversion strategies that aim to enhance the efficiency and scalability of PSCs.
The primary objective of this book is to explore innovative methods for optimizing the light absorption and energy conversion capabilities of PSCs through cutting‐edge photoenergy conversion techniques. These strategies include up‐conversion (UC) and down‐conversion (DC) processes, tandem solar cell architectures, plasmonic enhancements, anti‐reflective coatings, and more. These approaches are crucial for expanding the spectral utilization of PSCs, particularly by capturing low‐energy photons from the near‐infrared (NIR) and ultraviolet (UV) regions of the solar spectrum. By addressing these spectral mismatches, researchers can significantly increase the efficiency of PSCs, overcoming one of their major limitations.
As the world grapples with an escalating energy crisis, driven by population growth, industrialization, and environmental concerns, the need for clean, renewable energy sources has never been more urgent. Solar energy, as one of the most abundant and sustainable resources available, plays a central role in the global transition toward a greener energy future. Perovskite‐based photovoltaics are at the forefront of this transition, as their efficiency continues to increase while their manufacturing costs decrease. This book aims to capture the transformative potential of PSCs in driving the global shift to renewable energy by focusing on the latest advancements in photoenergy conversion technologies.
Target Audience
This book is intended for a broad audience, including researchers, practitioners, and industry professionals involved in the fields of photovoltaics, materials science, and optoelectronics. It is particularly relevant for those working on the development and commercialization of solar technologies, as well as those interested in the latest innovations in perovskite materials, device architectures, and energy conversion strategies. The book will also benefit students and scholars seeking an in‐depth understanding of the cutting‐edge techniques that are shaping the future of PSCs and their integration into the global energy grid.
The content of the book is designed to cater to both academic researchers and industry engineers, bridging the gap between theoretical advancements and practical applications. It provides a comprehensive overview of the state‐of‐the‐art technologies in photoenergy conversion and energy conversion, while also offering valuable insights into the challenges that remain in the development of PSCs as a commercially viable and stable energy source. By incorporating both theoretical frameworks and experimental data, this book provides readers with a complete understanding of the current state of PSC research and its potential impact on the future of renewable energy.
The Significance of Photoenergy Conversion in PSCs
One of the main focuses of this book is the exploration of photoenergy conversion strategies that enhance the efficiency of PSCs by optimizing the use of the solar spectrum. Perovskite materials are well known for their ability to absorb light efficiently, but their spectral response is often limited to the visible range. This leads to energy losses from photons in the NIR and UV regions, which are either not absorbed or lost as heat through thermalization processes. Photoenergy conversion techniques, such as up‐conversion and down‐conversion, are essential for overcoming these limitations by enabling PSCs to utilize a broader range of the solar spectrum.
UC process involves converting low‐energy NIR photons into higher‐energy visible photons that can be absorbed by the perovskite layer, thus increasing the overall efficiency of the device. DC process, on the other hand, splits high‐energy UV photons into two or more lower‐energy photons, reducing thermalization losses and improving the stability of PSCs. Both UC and DC processes have shown significant promise in extending the usable spectrum of PSCs and improving their energy conversion efficiency. The integration of UC and DC materials into the perovskite layer or transport layers represents a key strategy for enhancing PSC performance, as it allows for better utilization of the solar spectrum and reduces energy losses from unused photons.
In addition to UC and DC, other strategies such as plasmonic enhancements and tandem solar cell configurations are also explored in this book. Plasmonic nanostructures, such as metallic nanoparticles, can enhance light absorption in PSCs by generating localized electromagnetic fields that increase the optical path length of photons within the perovskite layer. This effect, known as surface plasmon resonance (SPR), can significantly improve the light‐harvesting efficiency of PSCs, particularly for photons that would otherwise be reflected or transmitted through the device. Similarly, tandem solar cells, which combine multiple layers of materials with different bandgaps, allow for the simultaneous absorption of photons across a broader spectrum, further improving the efficiency of PSCs. Tandem configurations, including perovskite‐silicon and perovskite‐perovskite cells, have demonstrated efficiencies exceeding 30%, pushing the limits of traditional single‐junction solar cells.
The Future of Perovskite Solar Cells
As the global energy landscape continues to evolve, the need for efficient and scalable solar technologies becomes increasingly urgent. PSCs are uniquely positioned to address this challenge, thanks to their high efficiency, low cost, and versatility in fabrication. However, to fully realize their potential, ongoing research must focus on overcoming the remaining challenges related to stability, toxicity, and scalability. This book outlines the current state of PSC technology, highlighting the significant strides made in improving device efficiency and addressing these challenges, while also identifying areas where further research is needed.
The integration of advanced photoenergy conversion strategies into PSCs is expected to play a pivotal role in accelerating their commercial viability. As stability and scalability issues are addressed, PSCs could become a mainstream solution for global energy needs, helping to meet the growing demand for renewable energy while reducing carbon emissions. The future of PSCs lies not only in their ability to achieve higher efficiency but also in their potential to integrate seamlessly into various applications, including building‐integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs), wearable electronics, and transparent solar windows.
By harnessing the power of photoenergy conversion techniques and innovative materials, this book demonstrates how PSCs can be optimized for a wide range of applications, providing a sustainable energy solution for the future. With continued advancements in perovskite materials, device architectures, and manufacturing processes, PSCs are poised to play a major role in the global transition to renewable energy, contributing to a cleaner, greener, and more sustainable future.
Conclusion
The development of PSCs is one of the most exciting and rapidly advancing fields in renewable energy research. This book provides a comprehensive exploration of the photoenergy conversion strategies that are essential for overcoming the current limitations of PSCs and unlocking their full potential. By addressing the challenges of spectral response, photoenergy conversion, and device stability, Photoenergy Conversion‐Enhanced Perovskite Solar Cells offers valuable insights into the future of perovskite photovoltaics and their role in driving the global transition to sustainable energy.
We hope that this book will inspire further research and innovation in the field of perovskite photovoltaics, encouraging the next generation of scientists, engineers, and entrepreneurs to continue pushing the boundaries of solar energy technology. With the ongoing advancements in perovskite materials and photoenergy conversion strategies, the future of PSCs looks brighter than ever, and we are confident that this work will contribute to the development of more efficient, cost‐effective, and sustainable solar technologies.
Prof. Cong Chen and Prof. Hongwei Song
Tianjin, China7 December 2024
1Photon Energy Conversion Enhances Perovskite Photovoltaics
1.1 The Growing Global Energy Crisis and the Role of PVs
The global energy landscape is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by escalating energy demands, environmental concerns, and technological advancements. Photovoltaic (PV) technology, which converts sunlight directly into electricity, has emerged as a pivotal player in this transition. This section delves into the current global energy crisis and examines the critical role of PVs in addressing these challenges [1].
1.1.1 The Global Energy Crisis
As of 2024, the world is grappling with an unprecedented energy crisis characterized by soaring demand, supply constraints, and environmental degradation [2]. Global energy consumption has reached record levels, propelled by population growth, industrialization, and urbanization, particularly in emerging economies. This surge in demand has strained existing energy infrastructures and heightened competition for finite fossil fuel resources. Concurrently, the environmental ramifications of fossil fuel dependence have become increasingly apparent. The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports that carbon dioxide emissions from energy reached an all‐time high in 2023, exacerbating climate change and its associated impacts, such as extreme weather events and rising sea levels [1, 3, 4]. The urgency to transition to sustainable energy sources has never been more pronounced.
1.1.2 The Role of PVs
PV technology has experienced unprecedented growth and innovation, cementing its position as a cornerstone of renewable energy solutions [5–7]. The remarkable progress in this field highlights its critical role in addressing the global energy crisis and transitioning toward a sustainable energy future. One of the most notable achievements of PV technology is its rapid global deployment. In 2024, global PV installations are expected to exceed 500 gigawatts (GW), reflecting a substantial increase from previous years. This remarkable growth has been driven by advancements in manufacturing techniques, such as automation and improved material utilization, which have lowered production costs and increased scalability. As a result, PV technology is now able to meet rising energy demands in a more efficient and timely manner, making it an essential part of global energy strategies.
A significant factor contributing to the widespread adoption of PV systems is their cost competitiveness. Over the past decade, the cost of solar PV has declined dramatically, transforming it into one of the most affordable sources of electricity. This cost reduction is largely attributed to economies of scale, technological improvements, and increased market competition. In many regions, the cost of electricity generated by solar PV is now lower than that of conventional fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas. This affordability has not only accelerated adoption in industrialized nations but also opened opportunities for developing countries to enhance their energy security and provide access to electricity in underserved communities.
The environmental benefits of PV technology further underscore its importance in global energy transitions. Unlike fossil fuels, solar PV systems generate electricity without emitting greenhouse gases during operation. This characteristic makes them a vital tool in combating climate change and reducing the environmental footprint of energy production. The widespread deployment of PV systems has already led to significant reductions in carbon dioxide emissions, aligning with international climate goals such as the Paris Agreement. Additionally, solar energy systems contribute to reduced air and water pollution, further enhancing their environmental credentials.
Technological advancements have also played a pivotal role in the evolution and adoption of PV technology. Ongoing research and development efforts have yielded continuous improvements in solar cell efficiency, with modern cells achieving conversion rates that were previously unattainable. At the same time, innovative applications, such as building‐integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs) and flexible solar panels [8–13], have expanded the versatility and appeal of solar energy systems. These advancements enable PV technology to be seamlessly integrated into urban environments, agricultural systems, and transportation networks, demonstrating its adaptability to diverse applications and sectors.
The global embrace of PV technology is evident through substantial investments and supportive policies. For instance, the United States is expected to add a record 36.4 GW of utility‐scale solar capacity in 2024, nearly doubling the previous year's additions. Similarly, countries such as India have mandated the use of locally manufactured solar cells in clean energy projects, starting June 2026, aiming to bolster domestic manufacturing and reduce reliance on imports.
Furthermore, international collaborations and agreements have been instrumental in promoting PV adoption. The IEA's World Energy Outlook 2024 emphasizes the critical role of solar energy in achieving net‐zero emissions by 2050, highlighting the need for continued investment and policy support to sustain the momentum of PV deployment.
PV technology has become a transformative force in the renewable energy sector, characterized by rapid deployment, cost‐effectiveness, environmental benefits, and technological versatility. Its ability to address pressing energy and climate challenges, coupled with robust policy support and global collaboration, positions PV technology as a linchpin of the sustainable energy transition. As innovation and adoption continue to accelerate, solar energy is poised to play an even greater role in shaping a cleaner, greener, and more equitable energy future.
1.1.3 Challenges and Future Outlook
Despite the promising trajectory, challenges persist in the widespread adoption of PV technology. Grid integration, energy storage solutions, and the need for advancements in PV efficiency require ongoing attention. Additionally, geopolitical factors, such as resource nationalism and trade policies, can influence the global supply chain for PV components, necessitating strategic planning and international cooperation.
Looking ahead, the role of PVs in the global energy mix is poised to expand further. Projections indicate that solar energy could account for a substantial share of global electricity generation by 2030, driven by continuous technological innovations and supportive policy frameworks. The integration of PV technology with energy storage systems and smart grid solutions will be pivotal in enhancing energy reliability and meeting the dynamic demands of the future.
Thus, PVs stand as a cornerstone in the global endeavor to address the energy crisis. Its rapid deployment, cost‐effectiveness, and environmental benefits make it an indispensable component of sustainable energy strategies worldwide. Continued investment, innovation, and policy support will be essential in harnessing the full potential of PV technology to achieve a resilient and sustainable energy future.
1.2 Emergence of Perovskite Photovoltaics
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have rapidly emerged as a transformative technology in the field of PVs, offering the potential for high efficiency and low‐cost solar energy conversion. This section delves into the historical development of PSCs, highlighting key technological milestones and the inherent advantages that make them a promising alternative to traditional silicon‐based solar cells.
1.2.1 Historical Development and Key Technological Milestones
The journey of perovskite materials in solar cell applications began with the discovery of the mineral perovskite (calcium titanium oxide [CaTiO3]) in 1839 by German mineralogist Gustav Rose. Named after Russian mineralogist Lev Perovski, the perovskite structure is characterized by the general formula ABX3, where “A” and “B” are cations of differing sizes, and “X” is an anion, typically oxygen or a halide. This versatile crystal structure allows for a wide range of elemental compositions, enabling the tuning of various material properties.
The application of perovskite materials in PVs gained significant attention in 2009 when Tsutomu Miyasaka and colleagues reported a perovskite‐based, dye‐sensitized solar cell with a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 3.8% [14]. However, these early devices exhibited poor stability due to the use of liquid electrolytes, leading to rapid degradation. A pivotal advancement occurred in 2012 when researchers demonstrated that replacing the liquid electrolyte with a solid‐state hole transport material significantly improved both the efficiency and the stability of PSCs. This innovation led to a PCE exceeding 10%, marking a substantial leap in performance. Until 2024, the PCEs of PSCs have reached 27%.
1.2.2 Subsequent Years Witnessed a Series of Breakthroughs
Here is a timeline of the development of PSCs from 2009 to 2024, with key milestones and important research achievements for each year:
2009: First introduction of perovskite materials for solar cells: the concept of using perovskite materials in solar cells was introduced. Tsutomu Miyasaka and coworkers discovered that organometal halide perovskites act as visible‐light sensitizers for photovoltaic cells and offer excellent light absorption and charge transport properties, setting the foundation for future advancements [14].
2011: Nam‐Gyu Park and co‐workers reported a 6.5% efficient perovskite quantum‐dot‐sensitized solar cell. They fabricated a highly efficient perovskite quantum‐dot‐sensitized solar cell using MAPbI3 nanocrystals. By spin‐coating an equimolar mixture of methylammonium iodide (MAI) and PbI2 in γ‐butyrolactone onto a nanocrystalline TiO2 surface, they achieved a solar‐to‐electrical conversion efficiency of 6.54% and a maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 78.6% at 530 nm, setting a record among reported inorganic quantum dot sensitizers [15].
2012: Breakthrough in efficiency: Nam‐Gyu Park's team was the first to report a solid‐state organic–inorganic hybrid PSC with an efficiency close to 10%, which is considered a milestone in the development of Perovskite Photovoltaics [16]. In the same year, Henry Snaith's team in the UK introduced chlorine into the perovskite structure for the first time and used the inorganic compound aluminum oxide (Al2O3) to replace titanium dioxide (TiO2), demonstrating that perovskite can serve not only as a light‐absorbing layer but also as an electron transport layer, achieving a cell efficiency of 10.9% [17].
In 2013, Snaith and his colleagues fabricated perovskite films using a co‐evaporation method, creating a novel planar heterojunction cell with an efficiency of 15.4%, garnering worldwide attention [18].
2015: First perovskite photovoltaics surpassing 20% efficiency: the efficiency of perovskite photovoltaics surpassed 20% for the first time, achieving an efficiency of 20.1% by a team at the University of Oxford. This set a new benchmark for PSC performance.
2016: Stability improvement: research focused on enhancing the stability of perovskite photovoltaics, which had previously been a challenge due to their degradation in humid and high‐temperature environments. The introduction of new materials, such as hole‐transport layers, helped improve long‐term stability.
2017: Record efficiency of 22% achieved: researchers reached a new efficiency record of 22.1% for perovskite photovoltaics, bringing them closer to commercial viability. This year also saw significant efforts in scaling up perovskite photovoltaics for practical applications.
2018: Commercialization efforts and scaling‐up: major companies, including the German firm Helmholtz‐Zentrum Berlin, began scaling up the production of perovskite photovoltaics, focusing on improving mass production techniques and achieving long‐term durability. Several pilot projects aimed at commercializing perovskite photovoltaics were initiated.
2019: Efficiency of 25.2% achieved: researchers at the University of Korea reported achieving 25.2% efficiency for perovskite photovoltaics, a major milestone indicating that perovskite photovoltaics had become competitive with silicon‐based solar cells.
2020: Perovskite–silicon tandem cells reach 29.1% efficiency: a breakthrough occurred when researchers combined perovskite and silicon in tandem solar cells, reaching an efficiency of 29.1%. This demonstrated the potential for perovskite photovoltaics to complement silicon‐based technologies and provide even higher efficiencies.
2022: Commercialization and industrial production advancements: major advancements were made toward large‐scale manufacturing of perovskite photovoltaics, with companies such as Oxford PV and others scaling up production for commercial markets. The focus shifted toward developing cost‐effective, stable, and efficient perovskite solar modules.
2024: Perovskite–silicon tandem solar cells surpass 34% efficiency: a new efficiency record of 34.6% was achieved for perovskite–silicon tandem solar cells, positioning perovskite technology as a strong contender in the renewable energy market. The commercialization of perovskite photovoltaics is rapidly advancing, with several companies planning to mass‐produce high‐efficiency modules.
This timeline highlights the rapid evolution of perovskite photovoltaics, with continual improvements in efficiency, stability, and commercialization prospects. The field is now one of the most exciting areas of research in renewable energy technology. Presently, the research focus has shifted toward scalability and commercialization, with efforts to develop large‐area PSCs and tandem configurations. Notably, perovskite–silicon tandem cells achieved efficiencies exceeding 34%, demonstrating the potential to surpass the Shockley–Queisser limit for single‐junction solar cells. In the future, research continues to address challenges related to long‐term stability, scalability, and environmental concerns, with the goal of bringing PSCs to commercial viability.
1.2.3 Advantages of Perovskite Photovoltaics
PSCs have revolutionized the PV landscape due to their exceptional efficiency, cost‐effectiveness, and versatility compared to traditional silicon‐based solar cells. One of the most significant advantages of PSCs is their rapid improvement in PCE. Since their initial development in 2009, when the PCE was a mere 3.8%, PSCs have seen unparalleled growth, reaching over 27% in just a decade. This progress highlights the material's exceptional light‐harvesting capabilities, which stem from its high absorption coefficient and tunable electronic properties. In fact, theoretical studies suggest that single‐junction PSCs can achieve a maximum efficiency of 31%, while multi‐junction or tandem PSCs have the potential to reach an astounding 45%. These values significantly surpass the efficiency limit of 29.4% for silicon‐based solar cells, establishing PSCs as a leading candidate for next‐generation PVs.
In addition to their efficiency, PSCs hold a distinct advantage in terms of fabrication processes. Unlike silicon solar cells, which require high‐temperature and energy‐intensive manufacturing, perovskite materials can be processed using solution‐based techniques at low temperatures. Methods such as spin‐coating, blade coating, and inkjet printing enable scalable and versatile fabrication, greatly reducing production costs. Furthermore, perovskite materials are inherently less sensitive to impurities, meaning that high‐performance devices can be produced even with material purities as low as 90%. This contrasts sharply with the stringent purity requirements of silicon PVs, which demand ultrapure silicon at significant expense. By lowering both energy and material costs, PSCs pave the way for more accessible and affordable solar energy solutions, particularly in regions with limited manufacturing infrastructure.
The availability and abundance of perovskite's constituent materials further enhance its cost‐effectiveness and scalability. Perovskite materials, typically composed of inexpensive elements, such as lead, tin, and halides, are far more abundant compared to the raw materials required for silicon‐based solar cells. This abundance ensures that PSCs can be produced on a large scale without concerns over material scarcity. Moreover, ongoing research into lead‐free alternatives, such as tin‐based perovskites, aims to mitigate environmental and toxicity concerns associated with lead‐containing formulations, further improving the technology's sustainability and public acceptance.
Another significant advantage of PSCs lies in their flexibility and lightweight nature. Perovskite materials can be deposited onto flexible substrates, such as plastics or thin films, without compromising their performance. This capability opens up new avenues for integrating PSCs into nontraditional applications, including wearable electronics, portable energy devices, and BIPVs. Flexible and lightweight PSCs are particularly attractive for futuristic designs, such as solar‐powered fabrics, curved surfaces, and transparent solar windows. These advancements make PSCs highly versatile and capable of meeting the growing demand for solar energy in both conventional and innovative applications.
The tunability of the perovskite bandgap is another key feature that sets PSCs apart. By adjusting the chemical composition of perovskite materials – typically through the substitution of cations (e.g. methylammonium and formamidinium) or halides (e.g. iodide, bromide, and chloride) – researchers can precisely control the material's bandgap. This tunability allows PSCs to optimize light absorption across the solar spectrum, enhancing their efficiency under various lighting conditions. It also enables the creation of tandem solar cells, where wide‐bandgap perovskites are paired with narrow‐bandgap materials to achieve complementary light absorption. Such tandem architectures have demonstrated remarkable efficiencies, surpassing what is achievable with single‐junction silicon devices.
Lastly, the ease of fabrication associated with perovskite materials has been a driving force behind their rapid development. Perovskites are solution‐processable, which means they can be deposited using simple and cost‐effective techniques. This flexibility in manufacturing makes it possible to produce large‐area PSCs, as well as devices with complex geometries, without requiring specialized equipment. Techniques such as slot‐die coating and roll‐to‐roll printing are being developed to enable the mass production of perovskite solar modules, further bridging the gap between laboratory‐scale performance and real‐world deployment.
In summary, the emergence of PSCs represents a paradigm shift in PV technology. Their unparalleled efficiency, low fabrication costs, material abundance, lightweight flexibility, tunable bandgap, and scalable manufacturing processes provide a comprehensive solution to many of the limitations faced by traditional silicon‐based solar cells. While challenges such as long‐term stability and environmental concerns remain, ongoing research continues to push the boundaries of PSC performance and reliability. With their remarkable advantages, PSCs have the potential to transform solar energy into an affordable, efficient, and ubiquitous power source, accelerating the global transition to sustainable energy.
1.2.4 Challenges and Future Prospects
Despite their remarkable progress and potential, PSCs face significant challenges that must be resolved for them to achieve commercial viability. These challenges primarily revolve around issues of stability, toxicity, and scalability, which hinder their widespread adoption.
The long‐term operational stability of PSCs remains one of the most pressing issues[19–22]. Perovskite materials are inherently susceptible to degradation when exposed to environmental factors such as moisture, oxygen, heat, and UV light. Moisture and oxygen intrusion can lead to the dissolution of the perovskite crystal structure, resulting in rapid performance loss. Similarly, UV light and thermal exposure can cause material degradation or phase instability, further reducing the efficiency and lifespan of PSC devices. Addressing these stability issues is crucial for ensuring reliable operation over decades, akin to the stability standards of silicon‐based solar cells.
Efforts to enhance stability have primarily focused on encapsulation techniques and material engineering. Advanced encapsulation methods using barrier layers, such as polymers and glass coatings, can effectively protect PSCs from environmental exposure. Additionally, compositional engineering – such as replacing volatile organic cations (e.g. methylammonium) with more stable alternatives such as formamidinium or cesium – has significantly improved thermal and structural stability. Further advancements in passivation techniques, which reduce defects and recombination sites in the perovskite layer, are also critical for improving device durability.
Another major challenge in PSC technology is the widespread use of lead in high‐efficiency formulations[23–25]. Lead is a toxic heavy metal with well‐documented environmental and health risks. Concerns over potential lead leakage during the lifecycle of PSCs, especially in the event of device damage or improper disposal, have raised significant regulatory and public acceptance issues. This challenge necessitates the development of lead‐free perovskite alternatives.
Current research into lead‐free perovskites has focused on replacing lead with other metals, such as tin, bismuth, or antimony. Tin‐based perovskites (e.g. CsSnI3) have shown promise due to their similar electronic properties, but they are highly sensitive to oxidation, leading to rapid degradation. Strategies to stabilize tin‐based perovskites, such as the use of reducing agents or protective layers, are under active investigation. While lead‐free alternatives are a critical area of development, they currently lag behind lead‐based PSCs in terms of efficiency and stability. Thus, balancing environmental concerns with performance remains a key challenge.
The transition from laboratory‐scale prototypes to commercially viable, large‐area PSC modules presents additional hurdles[26–31]. Fabricating uniform and defect‐free perovskite films over large areas is challenging due to the material's sensitivity to processing conditions. Variability in film thickness, crystal quality, and defect density can lead to performance inconsistencies in large‐area devices.
Moreover, integrating PSCs with existing PV technologies, such as silicon‐based solar panels, requires overcoming compatibility issues in terms of device architecture and fabrication processes. For instance, tandem perovskite–silicon cells demand precise alignment of subcell bandgaps and current matching to maximize efficiency. Additionally, roll‐to‐roll manufacturing, which is essential for large‐scale production, introduces complexities in maintaining uniformity and reproducibility during deposition.
Advances in scalable deposition techniques, such as slot‐die coating, spray coating, and blade coating, are paving the way for large‐area PSC manufacturing. These methods aim to combine high‐throughput production with consistent film quality. Furthermore, improvements in ink formulations, drying conditions, and substrate design are helping to bridge the gap between laboratory and commercial‐scale devices.
To overcome these challenges, ongoing research is exploring innovative strategies across several domains. Stability improvements remain a top priority, with significant progress being made in the development of robust encapsulation systems and chemically stable perovskite compositions. Tandem architectures, such as perovskite–silicon and perovskite–perovskite configurations, offer a promising path to achieve efficiencies well beyond the limits of single‐junction cells. These tandem devices leverage the tunable bandgap of perovskites to optimize light absorption across the solar spectrum, potentially reaching theoretical efficiencies exceeding 40%.
In addition to technical advancements, sustainable manufacturing practices and circular economy principles are gaining attention. Recycling and recovery of perovskite materials, along with eco‐friendly encapsulation approaches, could mitigate environmental concerns and improve the lifecycle sustainability of PSCs.
Collaborations between academia, industry, and policymakers are also crucial for accelerating the commercialization of PSCs. Standardized testing protocols for stability, efficiency, and environmental impact are needed to ensure that PSCs meet the rigorous demands of real‐world deployment. Furthermore, government incentives and funding programs can drive investments in research and infrastructure to bring PSC technology to the market.
While challenges remain, the future of PSCs is incredibly promising. Advances in stability, toxicity mitigation, and scalability are steadily closing the gap between laboratory performance and commercial viability. As these challenges are addressed, PSCs are poised to revolutionize the PV industry, offering a high‐efficiency, low‐cost, and sustainable solution for global energy needs. With continued innovation and collaboration, PSCs have the potential to become a cornerstone of the renewable energy landscape, contributing significantly to the transition toward a more sustainable future.
1.3 Challenges in Spectral Response and Photon Management of Perovskite Photovoltaics
PSCs exhibit exceptional optical properties, including a high absorption coefficient and a tunable bandgap, making them highly efficient in converting sunlight into electricity. However, limitations in their spectral response and photon management continue to pose significant challenges. Addressing these issues is crucial for PSCs to achieve their theoretical efficiency potential and practical applicability in real‐world solar energy systems.
1.3.1 Limited Spectral Utilization
One of the primary challenges in PSCs is their inability to fully utilize the solar spectrum, particularly in the NIR and UV regions. Most perovskite materials exhibit bandgaps in the range of 1.5–1.7 eV, which makes them highly efficient at absorbing visible light but less effective in the NIR region, which accounts for nearly 40% of the solar spectrum's energy. As a result, photons with energies below the material's bandgap pass through the active layer without being absorbed, leading to sub‐bandgap energy losses. On the other hand, high‐energy photons in the UV region often exceed the bandgap energy, resulting in thermalization losses where the excess energy is dissipated as heat. Combined, these limitations significantly reduce the overall efficiency of PSCs.
To address these spectral mismatches, innovative strategies such as bandgap engineering and tandem cell architectures have been explored. Bandgap engineering involves the precise tuning of the perovskite material's composition to absorb a broader range of wavelengths. Mixed halide perovskites, for example, have shown promise in extending spectral response by incorporating elements such as bromine and iodine. However, achieving long‐term stability and maintaining high efficiencies across varying bandgap compositions remains a challenge.
1.3.2 Photon Management Challenges
Photon management, which encompasses strategies to enhance light absorption, minimize reflection losses, and maximize the interaction of photons with the active layer, is another critical area for PSC development. Despite the high absorption coefficient of perovskites, photon losses still occur due to factors such as reflection at the device surface, suboptimal light trapping, and parasitic absorption within non‐active layers (e.g. charge transport layers (CTLs) and electrodes).
1.3.2.1 Surface Reflection and Light Scattering
A significant portion of incident sunlight is reflected off the surface of the PSC device, particularly at the air–glass interface. This reflection loss reduces the amount of light entering the active layer. While antireflective coatings (antireflective coatings) can mitigate this issue, designing antireflective coatings compatible with the unique fabrication processes and operational conditions of PSCs is challenging. For instance, antireflective coatings must remain stable under UV exposure, moisture, and thermal cycling – factors that are already problematic for PSCs.
1.3.2.2 Light Trapping and Optical Path Optimization
Efficient light trapping is essential for thin‐film PSCs to ensure that photons travel longer optical paths within the active layer, maximizing absorption. Traditional approaches, such as texturing or structuring the surface of the substrate, are less effective for perovskites due to their sensitivity to defects and uniformity requirements. Advanced light‐trapping techniques, including nanophotonic structures and plasmonic enhancements, have been proposed to address this issue. However, integrating these complex designs into scalable and cost‐effective fabrication processes remains an obstacle.
1.3.2.3 Parasitic Absorption and Losses in Non‐active Layers
Non‐active layers, such as the CTLs and electrodes, contribute to photon losses by absorbing or reflecting light that could otherwise be utilized by the perovskite layer. For example, the transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layers used as electrodes can absorb a portion of the incident light, reducing the overall efficiency of the device. Addressing this challenge requires the development of transparent, conductive materials with minimal parasitic absorption, as well as optimizing the refractive indices of the CTLs to enhance light transmission.
1.3.2.4 Emerging Solutions and Future Directions
Several innovative approaches are being explored to overcome these spectral and photon management challenges. For example, UC and DC techniques are being investigated to extend the spectral response of PSCs. UC involves converting low‐energy NIR photons into higher‐energy photons that can be absorbed by the perovskite layer, while DC splits high‐energy UV photons into multiple low‐energy photons to reduce thermalization losses. Although these techniques show promise, they currently suffer from low quantum efficiency and require further development for practical implementation.
Additionally, tandem architectures combining perovskite layers with other materials, such as silicon or organic PVs, have demonstrated significant potential in optimizing spectral utilization. By pairing wide‐bandgap perovskites with materials that efficiently absorb NIR light, tandem cells can achieve efficiencies exceeding the limits of single‐junction devices. However, challenges in current matching, thermal stability, and fabrication complexity must be addressed to enable large‐scale deployment of these architectures.
While PSCs have made tremendous strides in efficiency and adaptability, their spectral response and photon management challenges remain critical bottlenecks to achieving their full potential. Addressing these issues requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining advancements in material science, optical engineering, and device architecture. By overcoming these hurdles, PSCs could revolutionize solar energy technology, paving the way for highly efficient, cost‐effective, and scalable renewable energy solutions.
1.4 Photon Management Strategies: Addressing Energy Losses in PSCs
To overcome these limitations, researchers have focused on photon management strategies that aim to optimize light absorption, minimize energy losses, and improve charge carrier generation and transport. Photon management involves the design and implementation of materials, structures, and processes that enhance the interaction between light and solar cells. These strategies include the following.
1.4.1 UC and DC
UC involves converting low‐energy NIR photons into high‐energy visible photons that can be absorbed by the perovskite layer. This process relies on rare‐earth‐doped materials (e.g. NaYF4:Yb3+, Er3+), which absorb NIR light and emit visible light through sequential photon absorption. By utilizing the NIR spectrum, UC effectively expands the light absorption range of PSCs and reduces sub‐bandgap energy loss.
DC materials, such as nanocrystals, organic dyes, and rare‐earth oxides, convert high‐energy UV photons into two or more lower‐energy photons. This not only reduces thermalization losses but also enhances stability by protecting the perovskite layer from UV‐induced degradation.
1.4.2 Tandem and Graded Structures
Tandem solar cells integrate multiple subcells with complementary bandgaps to capture different portions of the solar spectrum. In a tandem configuration, high‐energy photons are absorbed by a wide‐bandgap top cell, while lower‐energy photons pass through and are absorbed by a narrow‐bandgap bottom cell. Perovskites are particularly well‐suited for tandem structures due to their tunable bandgap and high efficiency. Recent studies have demonstrated perovskite–silicon tandem cells with efficiencies exceeding 30%, showcasing their potential to surpass the Shockley–Queisser limit for single‐junction devices.
1.4.3 Plasmonic Enhancements
Plasmonic nanostructures, such as metallic nanoparticles (e.g. Au and Ag), enhance light absorption in PSCs through localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). LSPR generates strong localized electromagnetic fields, which increase the optical path length and enable light trapping within the perovskite layer. Plasmonic effects can also improve charge carrier generation and transport by reducing recombination losses.
1.4.4 Texturing and Light‐Trapping Structures
Surface texturing and internal light‐trapping structures can enhance light absorption by increasing the optical path length of photons within the active layer. Micro‐ and nanostructures, such as nanorods, nanoholes, and nanopillars, scatter incident light and confine it within the device, resulting in improved absorption without increasing material thickness.
1.4.5 Antireflective Coatings
Fresnel reflection at the air–glass interface leads to significant optical losses in PSCs. Antireflective coatings, such as nanoporous materials and graded refractive index layers, reduce surface reflection and improve light transmission into the device. By minimizing optical losses, antireflective coatings contribute to higher Short Circuit Current Density (Jsc) and overall efficiency.
1.4.6 Luminescent Solar Concentrators (LSCs)
Luminescent solar concentrators (LSCs) utilize luminescent materials to absorb sunlight, re‐emit it at specific wavelengths, and guide the light to the edges of the concentrator, where solar cells are located. Perovskite nanocrystals (e.g. CsPbBr3) have shown great promise for LSC applications due to their high photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY), tunable emission spectra, and strong optical absorption.
1.5 The Scope of This Work
This book provides a comprehensive and systematic exploration of photon management strategies for improving the efficiency and performance of PSCs. Unlike existing reviews, which focus on isolated techniques, this work integrates multiple strategies – UC, DC, tandem architectures, plasmonic enhancements, light trapping, antireflective coatings, and LSCs – into a unified framework. The key objectives of this book are to (i) analyze the fundamental mechanisms of photon management strategies and their impact on energy loss reduction, (ii) summarize recent experimental and theoretical advancements in integrating these strategies into PSCs, and (iii) identify the challenges and limitations of current approaches and propose future research directions for high‐efficiency, cost‐effective PSCs. Furthermore, the book highlights the broader implications of photon management for related fields, such as optoelectronics, light‐emitting diodes, and photocatalysis.
1.6 Structure of the Book
This book is organized into the following chapters:
Chapter 1 introduces the challenges of solar energy utilization, the emergence of PSCs, and the need for photon management strategies.
Chapter 2
