Site Analysis E-Book

James A. LaGro

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 444

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

The process-oriented guide to context-sensitive site selection, planning, and design Sustainable design is responsive to context. And each site has a unique set of physical, biological, cultural, and legal attributes that presents different opportunities and constraints for alternative uses of the site. Site analysis systematically evaluates these on-site and off-site factors to inform the design of places--including neighborhoods and communities--that are attractive, walkable, and climate-resilient. This Third Edition of Site Analysis is fully updated to cover the latest topics in low-impact, location-efficient design and development. This complete, user-friendly guide: * Blends theory andpractice from the fields of landscape architecture, urban planning, architecture, geography, and urban design * Addresses important sustainability topics, including LEED-ND, Sustainable Sites, STAR community index, and climate adaptation * Details the objectives and visualization methods used in each phase of the site planning and design process * Explains the influence of codes, ordinances, and site plan approval processes on the design of the built environment * Includes more than 200 illustrations and eight case studies of projects completed by leading planning and design firms Site Analysis, Third Edition is the ideal guide for students taking courses in site analysis, site planning, and environmental design. New material includes review questions at the end of each chapter for students as well as early-career professionals preparing for the ARE, LARE, or AICP exams.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part I: Context and Approach

Chapter 1: Shaping the Built Environment

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

1.3 PLACE-BASED STEWARDSHIP

1.4 EVIDENCE-BASED DESIGN

1.5 SITE-PLANNING PROCESS

1.6 PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCY

1.7 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Part II: Predesign and Analysis

Chapter 2: Site Selection and Programming

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 SITE SELECTION SCOPE

2.3 SITE REQUIREMENTS

2.4 SPATIAL EXTENT OF THE SEARCH

2.5 THE SITE SELECTION PROCESS

2.6 THE SITE SELECTION REPORT

2.7 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Chapter 3: Assessing the Site’s Physiographic Context

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 PARCEL SIZE AND SHAPE

3.3 TOPOGRAPHY

3.4 GEOLOGY, HYDROLOGY, AND SOILS

3.5 CLIMATE AND MICROCLIMATE

3.6 NATURAL HAZARDS

3.7 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Chapter 4: Assessing the Site’s Biological Context

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 NATURE’S INFRASTRUCTURE

4.3 WETLANDS

4.4 WILDLIFE

4.5 PLANTS

4.6 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Chapter 5: Assessing the Site’s Land Use, Infrastructure, and Regulatory Context

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 LAND USE TYPE AND INTENSITY

5.3 PROPERTY OWNERSHIP AND VALUE

5.4 LAND USE REGULATION

5.5 INFRASTRUCTURE

5.6 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Chapter 6: Assessing the Site’s Cultural and Historic Contexts

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 BUILDING AND NEIGHBORHOOD CHARACTER

6.3 HISTORIC RESOURCES

6.4 DEMOGRAPHICS

6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL PERCEPTION

6.6 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Chapter 7: Integration, Synthesis, and Analysis

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 ON-SITE DESIGN INFLUENCES

7.3 OFF-SITE DESIGN INFLUENCES

7.4 LAND USE SUITABILITY ANALYSIS

7.5 SUITABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT REGULATION

7.6 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Part III: Design and Implementation

Chapter 8: Conceptual Site Design

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 CONTEXT-SENSITIVE DESIGN

8.3 DESIGN CREATIVITY

8.4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCESS

8.5 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

8.6 CONCEPT EVALUATION

8.7 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Chapter 9: Design Development

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 URBAN DESIGN THEORY

9.3 OPEN SPACE SYSTEMS

9.4 CIRCULATION NETWORKS

9.5 BUILDINGS

9.6 SITE PLAN REVIEW

9.7 CONCLUSION

QUESTIONS

Appendix A: Mapping and Graphics

Appendix B: Resources

Glossary

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Shaping the Built Environment

TABLE 1-1 Ecosystem services support human civilization by providing a broad range of “goods and services.”

TABLE 1-2 Benefits of context-sensitive site planning and design.

TABLE 1-3 Sample program elements for a housing project.

TABLE 1-4 Hazards, constraints, or nuisances that may influence site selection and site planning and design.

TABLE 1-5 Partial results of a survey of more than 2000 randomly selected landscape architects: Self-assessment of work tasks (by rank) that affect public health, safety, and welfare.

Chapter 2: Site Selection and Programming

TABLE 2-1 Typology of site selection goals and selected project outcomes.

TABLE 2-2 Site area standards for selecting public school sites in the state of Alaska.

TABLE 2-3 Guidelines for rating school sites based on potential flooding impacts.

TABLE 2-4 Scheme to weight site selection criteria.

TABLE 2-5 Site evaluation summary table for school site selection.

Chapter 3: Assessing the Site’s Physiographic Context

TABLE 3-1 Data conveyed on a typical site survey.

TABLE 3-2 Selected map themes of the National Geologic Map Database.

TABLE 3-3 Changes in United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) plant hardiness zones (reflecting average annual minimum temperature ranges) for selected cities in the United States.

TABLE 3-4 Selected physiographic factors to consider in siting buildings, infrastructure, and other land uses.

Chapter 4: Assessing the Site’s Biological Context

TABLE 4-1 Site factors to consider in plant selection and planting design; these factors influence plant growth, development, and longevity.

Chapter 5: Assessing the Site’s Land Use, Infrastructure, and Regulatory Context

TABLE 5-1 Zoning codes and other municipal development regulations influence the character of the built environment through design standards.

TABLE 5-2 Common types and purposes of easements.

Chapter 6: Assessing the Site’s Cultural and Historic Contexts

TABLE 6-1 Ten perceptions of landscape meaning.

TABLE 6-2 Scenic quality rating criteria for natural and vernacular landscape assessments.

Chapter 7: Integration, Synthesis, and Analysis

TABLE 7-1 Graphic communication enables context-sensitive site planning and design.

TABLE 7-2 Common physical, biological, and cultural attributes that can be mapped at the site scale.

TABLE 7-3 Selected development constraints. Any location on a site could fall into one or more of these constraint categories.

TABLE 7-4 Selected amenities or resources that may exist on or near a site and could warrant documentation in the site analysis.

TABLE 7-5 Criteria for defining and mapping environmentally critical areas in Seattle, Washington.

TABLE 7-6 Constraints and ratios for calculating allowable total development that is transferred to the unconstrained portions of the site.

TABLE 7-7 Selected development opportunities. Both natural and cultural factors can influence a site’s suitability for development.

Chapter 8: Conceptual Site Design

TABLE 8-1 Examples of elements that may be conveyed graphically on a conceptual site plan as polygons, lines, or points.

TABLE 8-2 Selected components and benefits of green infrastructure.

TABLE 8-3 Selected design functions performed by a pedestrian circulation system.

Chapter 9: Design Development

TABLE 9-1 Selected context-responsive design functions performed by the three spatial planes forming outdoor built environments.

TABLE 9-2 Selected uses of plants to enhance the livability of the built environment.

TABLE 9-3 Examples of common site conditions that influence building siting and design.

TABLE 9-4 Site plan reviews seek to protect public health and safety and promote the public interest.

Appendix A: Mapping and Graphics

TABLE A-1 Two common ways of expressing a map’s scale.

TABLE A-2 Conversion of length and area between metric and English units of measurement.

TABLE A-3 Common measurement scales and examples of site attributes expressed in each scale.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Shaping the Built Environment

Figure 1-1 Ecosystem services support a hierarchy of human needs.

Figure 1-2 Natural and human-made factors influencing a greenway planning project along the Mississippi River in St. Louis, Missouri.

Figure 1-3 Spatial hierarchy—regions, landscapes, sites.

Figure 1-4 Suitability for sustainable development is determined by existing patterns of natural and cultural resources, as well as by the built environment’s physical attributes.

Figure 1-5 Sustainable planning, design, and management is a holistic approach to creating environmentally sensitive development and mitigating environmental degradation.

Figure 1-6 Site-planning and design process.

Figure 1-7 Relationship between attribute mapping and land use suitability analysis.

Figure 1-8 Information from the site analysis is used by many professions engaged in the site planning, design, and development process.

Chapter 2: Site Selection and Programming

Figure 2-1 Project goals, objectives, and program elements conveyed graphically and verbally in a poster format. Note that each goal begins with an action verb.

Figure 2-2 Programming considers market context for commercial projects. This map shows the locations of other major golf courses in the vicinity of a proposed golf course community (Soos Creek) near Seattle, Washington.

Figure 2-3 Sample images from a VPS with a rating scale ranging from −1.0 to +1.0.

Figure 2-4 Schematic sectional diagram showing desired horizontal and vertical land use relationships.

Figure 2-5 Site selection process diagram.

Figure 2-6 Potential sites (east and west) for a new mental health center on an existing health sciences campus in the state of Illinois.

Figure 2-7 Oblique aerial photograph with potential project sites delineated.

Figure 2-8 Site selection matrix comparing criteria ratings for the two alternative sites.

Figure 2-9 Map showing the locations of sites considered for the proposed boathouse on the Potomac River.

Figure 2-10 Building footprints for existing boathouse precedents and the minimum and maximum proposed boathouse programs.

Figure 2-11 Inventory map of floodplains and soils at the Rosslyn waterfront sites.

Figure 2-12 Inventory map of tree cover and subaquatic vegetation at the Rosslyn waterfront sites.

Figure 2-13 Inventory map of potential archaeological sites at the Rosslyn waterfront sites.

Figure 2-14 Schematic site plan for the lower Rosslyn waterfront site.

Figure 2-15 Photograph of the existing view of the site from the Potomac River.

Figure 2-16 Photosimulation of the potential view of the site with the proposed boathouse from the Potomac River.

Figure 2-17 Table comparing alternative sites and programs.

Chapter 3: Assessing the Site’s Physiographic Context

Figure 3-1 Vertical aerial photograph with project boundaries superimposed.

Figure 3-2 Graphic symbols can convey pertinent information about existing site conditions and proposed conceptual designs.

Figure 3-3 Conceptual master plan with north arrow, graphic scale, and an ancillary land use table.

Figure 3-4 Relationship between parcel shape and edge-to-interior ratio for two parcels of equal area.

Figure 3-5 Coastal and inland water bodies are amenities that can significantly increase the value of adjoining properties. Waterfront property, however, may also face elevated risks of flooding.

Figure 3-6 Choropleth map showing six elevation classes. Each class represents 100 feet (30.5 meters) of elevation change.

Figure 3-7 Choropleth map of a slope gradient.

Figure 3-8 Influence of latitude on the intensity of solar radiation striking the earth’s surface.

Figure 3-9 South-facing slopes (in the Northern Hemisphere) receive significantly more solar radiation than north-facing slopes.

Figure 3-10 Map of landslide hazard susceptibility in the San Francisco Bay region.

Figure 3-11 Impervious surfaces in a watershed potentially increase stormwater runoff and reduce soil infiltration and groundwater recharge.

Figure 3-12 To protect the quality of potable water supplies, land use controls often limit development in areas near community wells.

Figure 3-13 Map showing watershed boundaries (ridges) and major drainage patterns (valleys).

Figure 3-14 Map showing the floodway and the 100-year flood zone along a river in the Midwest.

Figure 3-15 Map of groundwater elevation and surficial geology.

Figure 3-16 Map of potential rural well locations.

Figure 3-17 Map of existing environmental conditions on a site analyzed for a new infill building. Note the drainage patterns and areas with soils poorly suited for building foundations.

Figure 3-18 Choropleth map showing four soil classes based on soil texture, slope, and erosion potential.

Figure 3-19 Map of soils for a coastal site in Kuwait.

Figure 3-20 Former and revised U.S. plant hardiness maps show the effects of climate change on average minimum winter temperatures.

Figure 3-21 Diagram of seasonal changes in the maximum daily sun angle for a midlatitude location in the Northern Hemisphere.

Figure 3-22 Schematic diagram of the difference in summer and winter shadow length cast by a building in the Northern Hemisphere.

Figure 3-23 Climate analysis for a coastal land-planning project in India.

Figure 3-24 Schematic shade diagrams showing projected shadow lengths at different times of the day and year.

Figure 3-25 Map of climatic factors influencing the site. This map shows the direction of winter winds, average seasonal precipitation, seasonal times of sunrise and sunset, and average seasonal temperatures.

Figure 3-26 Map of groundwater showing locations of saltwater intrusion, aquifer depths, and direction of groundwater flow.

Figure 3-27 Conceptual diagram of the proposed open space system, consisting of surface water and green areas. This green infrastructure creates the spatial framework for future building development.

Figure 3-28 Conceptual diagram of the water resources management plan.

Figure 3-29 Conceptual land use plan for the entire site.

Figure 3-30 Conceptual diagrams of the proposed multimodal circulation system including streets and highways, public transit stops, walkways, and bike paths.

Figure 3-31 Conceptual diagrams of proposed water distribution and wastewater collection systems.

Figure 3-32 Conceptual diagrams of the proposed recreation, parks, and open space systems. The hierarchy of open spaces spans a range of spatial scales: regional/urban, community, and neighborhood.

Chapter 4: Assessing the Site’s Biological Context

Figure 4-1 Forest patch size and shape affect the quality of this habitat for interior and edge species. Forest fragmentation from road and utility construction, for example, reduces habitat area and quality.

Figure 4-2 The “sea of asphalt” surrounding many U.S. shopping malls represents a conventional (mid- to late-twentieth-century), yet unsustainable, land development paradigm.

Figure 4-3 A new tree island created within an existing shopping center parking lot.

Figure 4-4 Landscape architect assessing the habitat type and quality in southwest Florida. Note the desiccation of the cypress trees (

Taxodium distichum

) caused by nearby drainage canals excavated during the mid-twentieth century.

Figure 4-5 Map showing three densities of vegetative cover.

Figure 4-6 Map of fire frequency in the Santa Monica Mountains of California. Map categories reflect the number of times the land has burned.

Figure 4-7 Salt marsh—a grassy coastal wetland rich in marine life. Amelia Island, Florida.

Figure 4-8 Wetland map prepared in planning a land development project in the state of Washington.

Figure 4-9 Migratory bird protection zones in an area of Kuwait.

Figure 4-10 Crab plover (

Dromas ardeola

), a protected migratory bird species in Kuwait.

Figure 4-11 Palm trees provide shade—and a small but cooler microclimate—in a Mediterranean coastal community. Nice, France.

Figure 4-12 A large deciduous canopy tree provides shade and spatial enclosure for an outdoor “dining room.” Geneva, Switzerland.

Figure 4-13 Tree roots typically spread horizontally. Protecting the health of existing mature trees requires minimal soil disturbance under the trees’ canopy.

Figure 4-14 Evolution of land use patterns in the St. Louis region is portrayed graphically for a several-hundred-year period.

Figure 4-15 Regional network of greenways, parks, and recreational trails.

Figure 4-16 Diagram showing important program goals and project elements.

Figure 4-17 Diagram portraying the Greenway’s expected social and economic linkages to adjacent neighborhoods.

Figure 4-18 Aerial perspective rendering of the proposed urban greenway.

Figure 4-19 Greenway concept plan illustrates the multifaceted sustainability theme.

Figure 4-20 Street section demonstrating a green approach to urban infrastructure.

Chapter 5: Assessing the Site’s Land Use, Infrastructure, and Regulatory Context

Figure 5-1 Floor-area ratio (FAR) increases as the amount of building floor space increases in relation to the site area.

Figure 5-2 Tax parcel map showing that the assessed value of individual parcels, per unit area, can vary widely.

Figure 5-3 Scenic views from a site are amenities that can increase property values and influence the type and intensity of on-site development.

Figure 5-4 Zoning map showing the districts described in the city’s zoning code.

Figure 5-5 Height, bulk, and other dimensional standards for a residential block bordered by a street in front and an alley in back.

Figure 5-6 Minimal building setbacks and moderate building stepbacks can create a strong urban streetscape while increasing the amount of sunlight that the street receives.

Figure 5-7 Parcel map for a residential subdivision in Washington County, Washington.

Figure 5-8 Expansive cul-de-sac pavement (in this case, a width of 110 feet or 33.5 meters) is the minimum required dimension as specified in this community’s local subdivision ordinance. Excessive street width and cul-de-sac diameter requirements exacerbate sprawl and its environmental impacts.

Figure 5-9 Maps of vehicular and pedestrian circulation patterns for a mixed-use project on a historically significant site in Haifa, Israel.

Figure 5-10 Map of existing pedestrian circulation patterns, neighborhood connections, and a 6-minute walking distance.

Figure 5-11 Map of existing vehicle circulation patterns and parking spaces. This assessment was made in selecting the site for a new medical building.

Figure 5-12 Schematic diagram of underground utility lines and surface access elements.

Figure 5-13 Utilities map for a site selection study conducted in support of a medical campus expansion.

Figure 5-14 Map showing potential hospital sites.

Figure 5-15 Matrix of site selection criteria. The matrix summarizes ratings for 5 site options and 11 selection criteria.

Figure 5-16 Inventory and assessment of vehicle arrival and departure patterns.

Figure 5-17 Diagram addressing vehicular circulation, entry, and parking issues.

Figure 5-18 Community input on the planning and design of the proposed building, streetscape, and emergency room entrance.

Figure 5-19 This section drawing communicates the main design principles for building massing and facade articulation.

Figure 5-20 The zoning amendment proposes a Planned Development (PD). Proposed floor-area ratios (FAR) are provided by subareas.

Figure 5-21 Summary table of design issues negotiated in the zoning approval process.

Figure 5-22 Summary table (continued) of design issues addressed in the proposed zoning revision.

Chapter 6: Assessing the Site’s Cultural and Historic Contexts

Figure 6-1 Figure -ground diagram showing building footprints superimposed on a vertical aerial photograph. This graphic technique enables a visual assessment of urban texture or grain—an important contextual attribute.

Figure 6-2 Horizontal and vertical rhythm of highly articulated facades of buildings on a block in San Francisco, California.

Figure 6-3 High-quality open space design, construction materials, and landscaping can greatly enhance urban livability. Savannah, Georgia.

Figure 6-4 Indigenous natural materials—glacial boulders—used in landscaping for retaining walls and accents. Middleton, Wisconsin.

Figure 6-5 Timeline depicting the historic and cultural context for a region greenway planning project near St. Louis, Missouri.

Figure 6-6 Visually and functionally distinct urban districts contribute to a community’s cultural context. This map shows six districts, including one historic district in Fenton, Missouri.

Figure 6-7 Map of historic and architecturally significant buildings within the Olde Towne district of Fenton, Missouri. The map identifies three classes of building significance.

Figure 6-8 Historic buildings contribute to the local character of a place.

Figure 6-9 Map of employees per acre in Madison, Wisconsin’s downtown planning area.

Figure 6-10 Partial map of neighborhoods and districts for which the city of Madison collects demographic data and indicators of community health and sustainability.

Figure 6-11 Graph of top visitors’ activities in Madison, Wisconsin.

Figure 6-12 Inventory of significant views from—and to—a prospective development site in Fenton, Missouri.

Figure 6-13 The visible context for a project extends well beyond the site’s boundaries.

Figure 6-14 Map of maximum building heights allowed for the preservation of views to the state of Wisconsin’s capitol building.

Figure 6-15 View of the isthmus on which the state of Wisconsin’s capitol building is sited.

Figure 6-16 Windshield survey of views along 85 miles (130 kilometers) of major highway corridors.

Figure 6-17 Opportunities for enhancing scenic quality within the areas visible from the major highway corridors.

Figure 6-18 Pastoral, rural landscape with very high scenic value. Canton Appenzell, Switzerland.

Figure 6-19 Maps depict views from the site and the site’s visibility from surrounding areas in Haifa, Israel.

Figure 6-20 Streets with heavy vehicle traffic are sources of noise and poor air quality.

Figure 6-21

Madison: A Model City

, a plan developed over 100 years ago by John Nolen, still influences the city’s built environment.

Figure 6-22 Aerial view of Madison, Wisconsin’s Downtown, situated on the isthmus between Lake Mendota and Lake Monona.

Figure 6-23 Prominent views and vistas of the natural and built environments.

Figure 6-24 Prominent hills contribute to the city’s sense of place.

Figure 6-25 Mansion Hill, listed on the National Register of Historic Districts.

Figure 6-26 The Terrace on the University of Wisconsin-Madison campus is a major waterfront destination.

Figure 6-27 Primary arts, culture, and entertainment districts and destinations in Downtown Madison, Wisconsin.

Figure 6-28 Triangle blocks and flatiron corners enhance the Downtown’s sense of place.

Figure 6-29 Flatiron building, with commercial uses on the ground floor and residential uses above, at the corner of a triangle block. Madison, Wisconsin.

Figure 6-30 Streets with heavy vehicle traffic can impair walkability and community livability.

Figure 6-31 Enhancing livability often requires improvements in pedestrian infrastructure.

Figure 6-32 Vision of an extended lakeshore path to increase public access to Lake Mendota, a natural amenity and significant community resource.

Figure 6-33 Vision of new higher-density, mixed-use infill and redevelopment.

Figure 6-34 Vision of improved public transit and intermodal linkages.

Chapter 7: Integration, Synthesis, and Analysis

Figure 7-1 Information, knowledge, and wisdom are necessary in shaping a sustainable future.

Figure 7-3 The site analysis assesses the on-site and off-site opportunities and constraints—or design influences—for organizing a specific land use program on the site.

Figure 7-4 Constraints and opportunities may be on-site or off-site attributes that shape land use suitability patterns and influence the spatial organization of program elements on the site.

Figure 7-5 Ecological framework plan to protect environmental resources and shape new urban growth.

Figure 7-6 Site analysis showing development constraints: drainage patterns, ridges, and areas with slope gradients greater than 20 percent. This analysis also identifies potential site access points to a future industrial park in Onslow County, North Carolina.

Figure 7-7 Context-sensitive building design responds to circulation patterns, such as major pedestrian and vehicular intersections. Washington, D.C.

Figure 7-8 Site analysis showing prominent views, pedestrian–vehicle conflicts, cultural amenities, and a variety of other site and contextual information.

Figure 7-9 Diagram of waterfront districts in Cleveland, Ohio, and potential opportunities for coordinated planning and design.

Figure 7-10 Site analysis showing major transportation corridors, drainage patterns, and site high points. The ridges and hilltops, which are clearly identified on the analysis, contribute to the site’s visual quality.

Figure 7-11 Site analysis showing prominent views to a natural amenity (water). The analysis also identifies site high points and potential harbor locations.

Figure 7-12 Aerial perspective site analysis identifying important contextual factors in shaping new development in a historic village. Fenton, Missouri.

Figure 7-13 Opportunities and constraints diagram to guide the expansion of a historic village. Fenton, Missouri.

Figure 7-14 Composite set of site inventory and analysis maps in Lavasa, India.

Figure 7-15 The master plan protects existing forests and drainageways, fits new development into the resulting spaces, and restores degraded riparian vegetation.

Figure 7-16 A brute force engineering approach to conveying urban stormwater runoff as quickly as possible to the nearest detention pond—or worse—to a wetland, river, or other water body.

Figure 7-17 Site analysis identifying major land use determinants and proposed nature preservation zones in Bahia Balandra, Mexico. Topography has a strong influence on the landscape’s hydrology, ecology, and visual quality.

Figure 7-18 Three-dimensional concept diagram and analysis showing how the programmed uses will be adapted to the unique conditions of the site and its context.

Figure 7-19 Concept diagram and analysis adapts the programmed uses to the site and its surroundings.

Figure 7-20 Diagram of buffers and setbacks within a GIS.

Figure 7-21 Overlay analysis using a linear combination approach.

Figure 7-22 Composite site analysis/development suitability map for the restoration of one stretch of the formerly channelized Kissimmee River in central Florida. The project area, analyzed with a GIS, is divided by intensity of future recreational uses.

Figure 7-23 The visual character of this California landscape is defined by hills and vineyards.

Figure 7-24 Development under the plan permanently protects agricultural land and funds new vineyard and orchard plantings.

Figure 7-25 Conservation easements protect 425 acres (172.0 hectares) of open space. The Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) program permanently protects this scenic and environmentally diverse area as regional parkland.

Figure 7-26 Protected vineyards are a unique visual amenity enhancing the community entrances.

Figure 7-27 Community trails plan showing the seven development subareas targeted for new development.

Figure 7-28 The plan contributed 6.5 miles (10.5 kilometers) of new multiuse trails, extending the length of the valley, connecting new neighborhoods and creating recreational infrastructure for the broader community.

Figure 7-29 Site analysis for one of the seven subareas for new development.

Figure 7-30 Design guidelines for the development of a future commercial site.

Figure 7-31 Design guidelines and illustrations showing examples of desired building massing and facade articulation.

Figure 7-32 Completed homes designed to conform with the plan’s guidelines for architectural massing and facade articulation.

Chapter 8: Conceptual Site Design

Figure 8-1 Conceptual design considers program, community goals, and site and contextual conditions.

Figure 8-2 Concept initiation (P = paved space; G = green space), development, and refinement for a campus plaza and promenade at a university in the Midwest.

Figure 8-3 Site analysis, multiple plaza design concepts, and a final design perspective for a campus courtyard at a university in the Midwest.

Figure 8-4 Concept diagrams showing proposed buildings, circulation systems, and their spatial relationships. The central axis for this project is a bold and effective organizing element.

Figure 8-5 Refining a concept plan involves subdividing initial polygons or zones into smaller, more detailed components.

Figure 8-6 Arrows show existing and potential vehicle circulation system linkages.

Figure 8-7 Plans and sections convey spatial relationships.

Figure 8-8 Precedent images illustrate the intended character of the new design.

Figure 8-9 Conservation open space in San Francisco, California.

Figure 8-10 Seasonal flooding of buffer areas along the Mississippi River in Minnesota.

Figure 8-11 Coastal dune vegetation controls erosion and stabilizes protective dunes in Florida.

Figure 8-12 Open space, or green infrastructure, can help protect water quality.

Figure 8-13 Community open space in Greendale, Wisconsin—planned and built in the 1930s New Deal era.

Figure 8-14 Large urban plaza serving as the city’s central outdoor civic space in Toulouse, France.

Figure 8-15 Major linear urban space with strong spatial enclosure from bordering trees in Paris, France.

Figure 8-16 Height-to-width ratios affect the sense of enclosure in outdoor open spaces. Ratios of 1:1 to 1:4 are classic in urban design.

Figure 8-17 A curvilinear pedestrian pathway follows the lakeshore in Lucerne, Switzerland.

Figure 8-18 Building massing can be stepped back to reduce the building’s scale at street level and also create opportunities for usable green roof space.

Figure 8-19 This building steps back from the street, reducing its scale while also improving solar access for outdoor spaces accessible from residential units on each story. Zurich, Switzerland.

Figure 8-20 Kissimmee River restoration concept plan alternatives and the final plan for one section of the river corridor.

Chapter 9: Design Development

Figure 9-1 Active living in today’s built environments benefits from public investment in linear recreational and transportation corridors. Combined bicycle/pedestrian path within a former rail corridor in Madison, Wisconsin.

Figure 9-2 High-quality urban design can be an effective recruiting and retention tool for employers. Walkable, mixed-use development in Washington, D.C.

Figure 9-3 Outdoor corridors and rooms are defined by floor, wall, and overhead planes.

Figure 9-4 Well-designed pedestrian spaces create pleasant vehicle-free zones on the campus of a Midwestern university.

Figure 9-5 Unity in nature. The rocky coastline near Monterey, California, exhibits a simple palette of repeated shapes, sizes, colors, and textures.

Figure 9-6 Unity in a vernacular landscape that shows similar forms, sizes, and colors of housing on the island of Capri.

Figure 9-7 Widespread use of tile roofs contribute to unity at the district or neighborhood level in Florence, Italy.

Figure 9-8 Unity at the street block scale; historic townhouses in Baltimore, Maryland. Note the repetition of vertical lines and rectilinear forms and openings (windows and doors) with nearly equal sizes and proportions.

Figure 9-9 Unity at the site and building scales. Historic cathedral and leaning Tower of Pisa exhibit the rhythmic repetition of form, color, size, and line.

Figure 9-10 Piazza San Pietro in Rome, Italy. In addition to unity, the building and plaza ensemble demonstrates both radial and bilateral symmetry.

Figure 9-11 Designing a building with a bottom, middle, and top helps to reduce the building’s scale

Figure 9-12 The building steps back from the street above the third story, reducing its scale and improving solar access at the street level while also creating space for a usable green rooftop.

Figure 9-13 Iconic residential building with a classic Georgian entrance and portico in Savannah, Georgia. Note the bilateral symmetry.

Figure 9-14 View from the Hancock Tower in Boston, Massachusetts, showing the iconic round dome of Trinity Church adjacent to Copley Square.

Figure 9-15 The iconic Golden Gate Bridge, linking San Francisco with Marin County, California. The bridge stands out from its surroundings because it contrasts in form, color, function, size, and placement.

Figure 9-16 A rectilinear framework organizes the massing and articulation of the mixed-use Mizner Court building in Boca Raton, Florida.

Figure 9-17 Hexagonal forms expressed in the ground plane in the waterfront plaza in Zurich, Switzerland.

Figure 9-18 The curvilinear form of the wall plane (fountain, seat wall) is echoed in the ground plane (paving) in Washington, D.C.

Figure 9-19 Master plan for the River Walk, an urban river-oriented recreational corridor in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

Figure 9-20 Design sections of the River Walk in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

Figure 9-21 Building height, in relation to the width of the open space, affects pedestrians’ sense of enclosure. Silver Spring, Maryland.

Figure 9-22 A building forecourt provides convenient pedestrian access on sloping terrain and an elegant sculptural statement. San Francisco, California.

Figure 9-23 Lakefront path for pedestrians and bicycles in Geneva, Switzerland.

Figure 9-24 Streetscape improvements enhance walkability and sense of place.

Figure 9-25 Three alternative downtown park designs, each showing strong pedestrian entry and circulation solutions.

Figure 9-26 A visually unified outdoor environment is created, in part, by the repeated use of similar shapes and materials. Note the strong entry and arrival sequence and the bilateral symmetry along the project’s central axis.

Figure 9-27 A walkway within a parking lot separates pedestrians from vehicle traffic.

Figure 9-28 Direct access from parking spaces to an adjacent walkway provides safe connections for the disabled.

Figure 9-29 This proposed waterfront development exhibits all four major pedestrian circulation system design principles: separation, connectivity, capacity, and furnishings.

Figure 9-30 Special paving (for example, brick or stone) enhances visual quality and property values, and helps to distinguish pedestrian space from vehicle space.

Figure 9-31 Sculpture by Henry Moore, an example of public art within the built environment in Zurich, Switzerland.

Figure 9-32 Fountain, seating, and other landscape amenities for pedestrians in Boca Raton, Florida.

Figure 9-33 The visual impacts of a loading dock can be reduced through building design and orientation, site grading, and landscaping.

Figure 9-34 Parking garage with commercial uses on the first story. Silver Spring, Maryland.

Figure 9-35 Parking lot on a sloping site. The planted island reduces the cross-slope or gradient of the adjacent parking bays.

Figure 9-36 Bioretention swale collects and filters stormwater runoff from parking surfaces and facilitates groundwater recharge.

Figure 9-37 Porous paving (concrete grid) in a commercial parking lot.

Figure 9-38 A single-family house, designed in the bungalow style and built in the 1990s, within a neotraditional neighborhood in Middleton Hills, Wisconsin.

Figure 9-39 The transparency of this building’s first-story facade engages pedestrians on the adjoining walkways.

Guide

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Site Analysis

Informing Context-Sensitive and Sustainable Site Planning and Design

Third Edition

James A. LaGro, Jr.

Cover image: Courtesy of James A. LaGro, Jr.

Cover design: Anne-Michelle Abbott

Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom.

For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at [phone], outside the United States at [phone] or fax [phone].

Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

LaGro, James A.

Site analysis : informing context-sensitive and sustainable site planning and design / James A. LaGro Jr. – Third Edition.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-12367-6 (cloth); ISBN 978-1-118-41626-6 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-41893-2; ISBN 978-1-118-43186-3 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-48815-7 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-48817-1

1. Building sites–Planning. 2. Building sites–Environmental aspects. 3. Land use–Planning. 4. Land use–Environmental aspects. I. Title.

NA2540.5.L34 2013

720.28–dc23

2012026248

For David and Kyle

Preface

Designing with nature—and with sensitivity to pertinent cultural, historic, and legal factors—is the land use ethic that has guided the writing of this book. This third edition of Site Analysis retains the basic structure of earlier editions by devoting one or more chapters to individual phases of the site planning process and by arranging these chapters in the sequence in which they typically occur.

This edition’s nine chapters examine the linkages between contextual conditions and the design and development—and redevelopment—of the built environment. A variety of project types, scales, and geographic settings are considered, although greater attention is given in this extensively revised edition to urban sites.

This book is written primarily for a multidisciplinary audience of university students and early-career practitioners. Like previous editions, this book can be a resource for landscape architecture students taking introductory design studios and site analysis courses, and for architecture, urban planning, and civil engineering students taking site planning courses.

Working effectively across disciplines has never been more important. Advances in urban sustainability will require more effective and synergistic collaborations among the planning and design professions, especially architecture, engineering, landscape architecture, and urban planning. Meaningful collaboration among these professions’ educational programs can also strengthen relationships between universities and their broader communities.

More than two decades ago, Boyer (1990) argued that universities should place greater value on engaged scholarship (i.e., applying one’s academic expertise to solve consequential societal problems). Problem-based learning, characterized by small teams of students focusing on solving real-world problems, is particularly relevant in professional planning and design programs, where students strive to develop their problem-solving knowledge and skills (Barrows, 1996).

Within a few years after graduation, many design and planning practitioners study for professional competency exams. This edition, therefore, can serve as a resource for early-career practitioners studying for licensing exams in landscape architecture or architecture and for certification exams in urban planning. My hope is that this book is also useful to public sector planning staff, elected officials, and appointed citizens who serve on local boards or commissions that formally review land development proposals.

Acknowledgments

Many illustrations in this edition were generously provided by professional planning and design firms. I especially wish to thank Paul Kissinger (Edward D. Stone, Jr., and Associates); Jim Fetterman (The HOK Planning Group, St. Louis); Jack Scholl (Environmental Planning & Design, Pittsburgh); Fran Hegeler and Jim Stickley (Wallace, Roberts & Todd, San Francisco); Meg Connolley (Land Design, Charlotte); Bob Thorpe (R. J. Thorpe and Associates); Brian Peterson (SmithGroup JJR, Madison); Paul Moyer (EDAW, Alexandria); and Bill Fruhling (Department of Planning and Development, City of Madison, Wisconsin). Several newer illustrations were created by David LaGro, a recent graduate of Cornell University’s Master’s in Landscape Architecture program.

Several educators provided constructive critiques at various stages and editions of this book. They are Jack Ahern (University of Massachusetts), Gary Clay (California Polytechnic State University–San Luis Obispo), Randy Gimblett (Arizona State University), Paul Hsu (Oklahoma State University), David Hulse (University of Oregon), Nate Perkins (University of Guelph), Rob Ribe (University of Oregon), and Peter Trowbridge (Cornell University). The book also benefited from three anonymous reviews of this edition’s proposal to the publisher.

Margaret Cummins, executive editor at John Wiley & Sons, oversaw the production of all three editions. On this third edition, additional editorial assistance was provided by Lauren Poplawski and Michael New, and the production process was led by Donna Conte.

Bridget and David LaGro provided unstinting support and encouragement.

part IContext and Approach

Part I of this book presents the rationale for a context-sensitive approach to site planning and design. Chapter 1, “Shaping the Built Environment,” addresses the sustainability imperative and design strategies to create healthier, resilient, and more livable built environments. The chapter also presents a systematic, multiphased approach to place-making at the site scale.

Chapter 1Shaping the Built Environment

Sustainable design balances human needs (rather than human wants) with the carrying capacity of the natural and cultural environments. It minimizes environmental impacts, and it minimizes importation of goods and energy as well as the generation of waste.

—United States. National Park Service (1993, p. 55)

1.1 INTRODUCTION

About 82 percent of the 312 million U.S. residents—and 50 percent of the planet’s 7 billion inhabitants—now live in urbanized areas (United Nations, 2010). Cities and their suburbs today import vast quantities of both raw and processed resources (for example, energy, water, food) and they export—often to rural areas—massive quantities of wastes (for example, plastics, paper, metals).

Yet, the global economy—with its 12,000-mile supply chains—increases international dependencies and, potentially, reduces the resilience of communities to distant political disturbances and natural disasters (for example, Japan’s 2011 earthquake and tsunami). Sustainability is a global challenge requiring context-specific changes in the structure and function of our built environments. Urban population growth heightens the need for comprehensive interdisciplinary solutions to this contemporary challenge.

1.2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Advances in telecommunications technologies, combined with extensive highway networks and sprawl-inducing land use regulations and subsidies, have greatly loosened the geographic constraints on population distribution and land development spatial patterns.

Transportation costs, markets, and raw materials no longer determine the location of economic activities. We have developed an information-based economy in which dominant economic activities and the people engaged in them enjoy unparalleled locational flexibility. In this spatial context, amenity and ecological considerations are more important locational factors than in the past. Cities located in amenity regions of North America are growing more rapidly than others and such trends will intensify as society becomes more footloose.

(Abler et al., 1975, p. 301)

The earth’s ecosystems perform functions that are essential to human health and welfare. In Functions of Nature, deGroot (1992) classified nature’s functions into four life-supporting categories: production, regulation, carrier, and information services (Table 1-1). Nature’s “infrastructure” helps protect the quality of the air we breathe and the water we drink, and it provides an abundance of other “goods and services.” These include food, fiber, water, biodiversity, and energy production as well as the provision of cultural, recreational, and spiritual experiences (Daily et al., 1999; Reid et al., 2005).

TABLE 1-1 Ecosystem services support human civilization by providing a broad range of “goods and services.”

Source: Adapted, in part, from deGroot (1992, Table 2.0–1).

Function

Goods or Services

Production

Oxygen

Water

Food and fiber

Fuel and energy

Medicinal resources

Regulation

Storage and recycling of organic matter

Decomposition and recycling of human waste

Regulation of local and global climate

Carrier

Space for settlements

Space for agriculture

Space for recreation

Information

Aesthetic resources

Historic (heritage) information

Scientific and educational information

The value of nature’s services to human well-being, and the implications of different management approaches over space and time, are not widely appreciated or even well understood. Consequently, environmental management practice has suffered from an incorrect assumption (Folke et al., 2002, p. 437): that “human and natural systems can be treated independently” [emphasis added]. Many human activities, however, impose detrimental impacts on the earth’s capacity to sustain life. The World Resources Institute (WRI) tracks global environmental trends, and the following findings—among many others—reinforce the global sustainability imperative:

Tropical forests are shrinking, and the rates of plant and animal species extinction are increasing.

Groundwater tables are falling as water demand exceeds aquifer recharge rates, and groundwater continues to be contaminated with pesticides and other contaminants.

Global climate change and warming are occurring, and the sea level is projected to rise by as much as 3 feet (0.91 meter) by 2100.

Source:http://earthtrends.wri.org/

Hurricanes, floods, and other natural hazards continually threaten human health, safety, and welfare. Yet, many disasters causing the loss of life and property can be prevented, or at least mitigated, by better land use decisions that reduce these risks (H. John Heinz Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment, 2000; Mileti, 1999). Dennis Mileti, who led the Heinz Center’s natural hazards risk analysis, concludes in a press release from the National Science Foundation (1999, p.1):

The really big catastrophes are getting large and will continue to get larger, partly because of things we’ve done in the past to reduce risk. . . . Many of the accepted methods for coping with hazards have been based on the idea that people can use technology to control nature to make them safe.

In the United States, hurricanes, flooding, and severe storms contribute about three quarters of the total damages from natural hazards. Per capita losses from natural hazards are outpacing population growth, and if the trend of the past two decades continues, direct losses of $300 to $400 billion are probable within the current decade (Gall et al., 2011).

1.3 PLACE-BASED STEWARDSHIP

The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987, p. 40) suggests that “sustainable development seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability of those to meet those of the future.” Concern over climate change, in particular, has precipitated advances in “sustainability science”—which seeks to understand the complex dynamics of interconnected human and environmental systems. Actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (climate mitigation) and increase cities’ resilience to extreme weather events (climate adaptation) are applications of sustainability science. Yet, the most ambitious application of sustainability science, is “the integrative task of managing particular places where multiple efforts to meet multiple human needs interact with multiple life-support systems in highly complex and often unexpected ways” [emphasis added] (Clark, 2007, p. 1737).

The built environment—the three-dimensional arrangement of buildings, transportation and utility networks, and green spaces—influences community health and sustainability across the urban-to-rural continuum. As the theoretical concepts guiding sustainability science are translated into actions, the built environment’s transformation will require closer collaboration of architects, landscape architects, urban planners, engineers, and other allied professionals. There is a critical need for planning and design professionals who can bridge professional “silos” and lead multidisciplinary teams in creating policy, design, and technology solutions to local, regional, and global sustainability challenges.

Sustainability initiatives at the federal level currently include the Partnership for Sustainable Communities—an interagency initiative of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). This collaboration has been a catalyst for integrated sustainability planning at the local and regional scale (www.sustainablecommunities.gov/). Along with efforts by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), this partnership explicitly recognizes that the spatial structure of the built environment—the location and design of buildings, transportation systems, and green spaces—influences not only economic prosperity and environmental quality, but also public health (Figure 1-1).

Figure 1-1 Ecosystem services support a hierarchy of human needs.

Source: Adapted, in part, from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005).

Our quality of life is dependent on many factors, including our safety and sense of security, our individual freedom and physical and mental health, and our opportunities for self-expression as individuals (Kaplan and Kivy-Rosenberg, 1973). Most, if not all, of these factors are affected by the design of the built environment. Sprawling development patterns, for example, tend to reduce people’s housing choices and limit their opportunities for healthy, active living (Frumkin et al., 2004).

Over the past six decades, suburban sprawl in the United States has been planned, financed, and constructed while largely ignoring the associated social, economic, and environmental externalities (Soule, 2006). Since World War II, the interplay of local land use planning and federal and state policies has produced abundant “driveable suburban” landscapes but far fewer “walkable urban” neighborhoods (Leinberger, 2008). Besides diminishing the nation’s energy security, the consequences of this land development paradigm include a litany of public health impacts (Frumkin and Jackson, 2004), economic impacts (Burchell et al., 2005), and environmental impacts (Johnson, 2001).

Public policy plays a significant role in shaping the built environment (Ben-Joseph and Szold, 2005). In the United States, local development regulations have not only encouraged low-density sprawl but also have inhibited other, more sustainable forms of development. Zoning codes, for example, emerged in the early twentieth century to protect public health, safety, and welfare (Platt, 2004). These land use controls were effective in separating new residential areas from polluting industries and ensuring that new housing construction met basic health and safety standards. But zoning codes also routinely separated residential development from shops, restaurants, and other commercial uses, often with detrimental consequences for community health and well-being. There is an urgent need in the United States for land use planning and regulatory reforms (Schilling and Linton, 2005).

Because public policies play significant, yet often hidden, roles in shaping the built environment, planning and design professionals should be leaders in formulating better public policy. Professional associations are, in fact, taking a greater advocacy role. These changes are reflected in recently launched sustainability initiatives by the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) Sustainable Sites Initiative™, the American Institute of Architects (AIA) SustAIAnability 2030 Toolkit, the American Planning Association (APA) Sustaining Places Initiative, and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure. These sustainability initiatives express strong values and advocacy positions—concerning social equity, for example—that are reflected in each profession’s continuing professional education programs and competency exams.

The ASCE, for example, defines “sustainability” as follows:

A set of environmental, economic and social conditions in which all of society has the capacity and opportunity to maintain and improve its quality of life indefinitely without degrading the quantity, quality or availability of natural, economic, and social resources. (http://www.asce.org/Sustainability/ASCE-and-Sustainability/ASCE---Sustainability/)

The ASLA’s Sustainable Sites Initiative defines “site sustainability” as

design, construction, operations and maintenance practices that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. http://www.sustainablesites.org/

Suburban sprawl has not only degraded environmental quality in the United States, but has also produced low-density, auto-oriented communities that contribute to sedentary lifestyles and diminished public health (Frumkin et al., 2004). Communities aspiring to become more prosperous, livable—and sustainable—are taking steps to retrofit their built environments in several important ways (Dunham-Jones and Williamson, 2011). “Smart Growth,” “New Urbanism,” and “sustainable design” are three related development paradigms that focus attention on the physical configuration, or design, of the built environment. Key attributes are the following:

Mixed and integrated uses (i.e., diverse housing, shops, workplaces, schools, parks, and civic facilities encompassing interconnected indoor and outdoor environments)

Clustered, compact buildings (i.e., architecture that enriches public open spaces, especially streetscapes, and creates neighborhoods and urban districts with a strong sense of place)

Open space systems (i.e., connected natural areas and other outdoor places that provide linear recreational opportunities)

Transportation networks (i.e., integrated systems safely serving pedestrians, bicycle riders, public transit, and automobiles)