Technical Drawing for Stage Design E-Book

Gary Thorne

• Herausgeber: Crowood
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Technical Drawing for Stage Design explains the importance of drawing in the design process, revealing how the initial two-dimensional drawing is a crucial building block in creating the scale model that in turn will develop into the stage set - that will transport the audience into another world. Topics covered include: introducing the tools and equipment used by the designer; developing confidence in freehand sketching; drawing to aid the creative thought process, communicate design ideas and help with the construction process; scenic elements and the related terminology; the architecture of the theatre - and how to draw it. Aimed at drama students and teachers, technical drawing students, amateur dramatics groups and theatre workshop organisers, Technical Drawing for Stage Design offers an attractive and practical manual on the subject. Well illustrated with approximately 120 black and white images.

Leseprobe

Technical Drawing for Stage Design

Gary Thorne

THE CROWOOD PRESS

First published in 2009 by The Crowood Press Ltd Ramsbury, Marlborough Wiltshire SN8 2HR

www.crowood.com

This e-book first published in 2015

© Gary Thorne 2009

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 78500 066 9

Dedication

This book is dedicated to my dear parents Peggy and Gordon, and to Wojciech Trzcinski with gratitude for the remarkable personal support and patience.

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Introduction

1 The language of technical drawing

2 Drawing tools and equipment

3 Freehand sketching

4 Types of drawing

5 The scale rule

6 Geometry and technical drawing exercises

7 Venue drawings or theatre drawings

8 Lettering and printed matter

9 Orthographic projection

10 Line characteristics and drawing up

11 Scenic elements and terms

12 The orders of architecture

Glossary

Further reading

Index

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to the support of staff at RADA, Director Edward Kemp and in particular Director of Technical Training Neil Fraser, whose trust promotes professionalism in all areas of teaching and technical theatre practice; to my colleagues Gill Salter, Dave Agnew, Mark Tweed, George Orange, Daniel Collins, Matt Prentice, Deryk Cropper, Davy Atkinson, Diane Favell, Natasha Mackmurdie and Chris Mock; with gratitude to RADA design students Laura Cordery and Sarah-Jane Prentice, whose support with technical drawing and text material greatly enabled this book to meet completion; and to students Lo Wipp, Grace Stonehouse and Jessica Walsh; to Motley Theatre Design teaching staff, in particular colleagues Alison Chitty OBE, Ashley Martin-Davis and Catrin Martin, whose professional approach to design projects makes the most appropriate demand on technical drawing for stage; to Central School of Speech and Drama staff, in particular colleagues Jessica Bowles, Caroline Townsend and Keith Orton, whose investment in technical problem-solving drives forward good practice; and to the following young cohort of RADA designers for applying taught principles to personal practice – Lorna Ritchie, Chryssanthy Kofidou, Ingrid Tønder, Regina Fraas, Katie Lias, Jennifer Maiseloff, Piera Lizzeri, Trudi Molloy and Alison Neighbour. Further thanks to Central St Martin’s College Artscom Short Course staff Steve Whalley, Chris Ball, Ashley Palmer, Shamain Nelson and Mauro Di-Pasquale, whose initiative for creating opportunities for learners permits development of personal ambition, and also to David Neat, Jeremy Lindon, Charles Russell, Neil Peter Jampolis, Debra Hanson, Ann Curtis, Stephanie Howard and the Stratford Festival Archive Canada.

INTRODUCTION

Why is it that the designer, draughtsman and model maker place themselves before the drawing board or computer for days or weeks producing accurate technical scaled drawings? Who requires the drawings and what is to be included within a package of drawings? With finely scaled models available why cannot construction take proportion and measurement directly from them, especially as they deliver remarkably precise detailing? In the pages that follow are answers to the many questions that arise when trying to mentally shape ideas, to problem solve in 2D, to construct precise 3D models, and to deliver with clarity and precision design intention for production and construction. Herein are techniques, methods and applications, which serve the designer and model maker in problem solving in anticipation of the ‘build’ or construction realization.

A design presentation is not only about a finely executed model box, with its scaled figures and intended visual effect on the eye of the audience. Those working in production know that the outcome of a model box is through understanding the crafted balance between creative and practical decision making, and although they take the view that the model is a true representation of designer and director intention, it is understood that the way in which the design is to be integrated into the architecture of the venue cannot exclusively be depicted within the scale model box.

The preliminary white card model is often considered the aim of design at an interim period, and by its very nature delivers structural concerns of a technical kind in respect of the particular theatre, alongside delivering aspects of stagecraft, construction, lighting and sound requirements, and the role of stage management. Technical drawings accompanying such a presentation inform production there is more to consider than the model. The venue is represented in the form of ground plan and theatre section, each depicting the detailed inter-relationship between set, architecture and audience.

The scale model cannot fully articulate the very practical nature of design for the ‘build’, nor can it comprehensively communicate how design has become integrated into the architectural framework of a specific venue or theatre. Design in technical terms facilitates moving production forward through supplying a comprehensive package of technical drawings, clarifying the number of elements to be built and how proportionally these dimensions form a workable relationship with the venue. The package of drawings delivers in a precise manner that which production and construction require; relationships between:

design and the venue architecture

audience and design

lighting requirements and design

actor and design – offstage and onstage

stage management and design

materials and production construction processes

build and technical stagecraft

build and engineered components

cost and feasibility

cost and a production budget.

The drawings describe not only an overview of all the elements to be built, but include measurement and dimension details along with notes on designer preference for material and/or finish. The package of drawings initiates or facilitates a comprehensive costing. To budget effectively, the drawings and the model are consulted to plan the schedule for a build; to put structure to form; to put material to structure; to engineer requirements; to meet health and safety standards; and to meet the needs of scenic art in application and decoration.

From technical drawing into model design. Dye-line or photocopy prints from technical drawing are glued onto card, using elevation front view and side views. Further detailing is added. Scale 1:25. Design: Neil Peter Jampolis.

The material content of this book offers guidelines, exercises, references, principles of good practice and techniques, approaches to problem solving, and a glossary of terms useful to the designer and draughtsman. The reader gains understanding through practical application, as first-hand experience in board-drawing leads on to familiarity, confidence, and competence in problem solving in two dimensions in anticipation of three-dimensional outcomes. Learning to use principles of good practice, while problem solving, encourages both the proper use of tools and equipment and the appropriate approach to shaping ideas in 2D. A drawing that is clear and precise supports making an accurate 3D model.

Drawings serve the function of ‘thinking something through’ as much as they may serve ‘shaping a decision’ formally. Knowing why one is drawing and what is to be achieved helps sort out which approach to use. There is little benefit in jumping ahead and missing out part of a process to achieve a quality image, which is not yet thought through. As there may be a choice of options for approach, method and technique it is good practice to become familiar with as many as possible, as each may be used either on its own or in combination with another.

A GUIDE TO THE EXERCISES

The exercises within this book should be considered task work as they inform the learner of process and lead on to evidence of training, with the evidence becoming portfolio material. As an archive it is invaluable for future reference. Exercises ease the reader into good drawing practice. Through on-the-board practice, the learner applies practical aspects of drawing plane and solid geometry to achieve determined outcomes. Chapter 2 introduces the reader to correct use of draughting tools and equipment. Through practice, ease in handling equipment encourages an ever more efficient manner where precision and accuracy become a discipline well ingrained. Proceed through the exercises to best understand the dynamic of tools while gaining confidence in handling them. It may sound simple enough, yet when tools are used in combination they involve skill. Knowing just how to manipulate the adjustable set-square leads to using it with great efficiency and speed when applied to more complex drawings.

To comprehend fully the ground plan and theatre section, it is recommended an actual venue plan and section be acquired. Approach a local theatre to request them, but avoid a venue that is too architecturally sophisticated. Follow the guidelines in Chapter 7 (venue drawings), as layout is an important factor in ensuring the drawing makes sense.

THE USE OF ILLUSTRATIONS

The illustrations in this book speak about the actual process involved in arriving at a predicted outcome, as well as – often through an alternative choice – offering a different way to solve the same problem. In such a case the different technique or method introduced is worth knowing. In anticipation of a career full of technical problems a designer is constantly in need of choice. In having the ability to weigh up one method over another, a mental agility is exercised, encouraging dexterity of the mind.

Illustrations describe how drawing-up should proceed, with different processes for specific outcomes. It is the nature of many drawings (as is generally evident in all technical orthographic drawings) that the process is left as evidence of how something has been thought through. The inclusion of two types of line: lines that reveal how a problem is solved (construction lines) and lines that clarify the outcome (finished lines), help illustrate the relationship between process and outcome.

All illustrations have accompanying captions or text. Each explains to the reader the necessary stages involved in drawing-up. Where complex problem solving is involved, the illustrations help to explain the process as much as the caption does. As a reader, approach both with keen interest, as it is often the case that one process is easier to comprehend than the other, or through cross-reference the illustrated process can be better understood. Many exercises have an element of a puzzle about them or come across as a mental challenge, yet it is often the same in drawing-up for production, where new ideas are designed and presented; the nature of the challenge first appears as unfamiliar territory. Approach problem solving with a healthy attitude and with a keen interest in taking on the challenge. At the planning stage of any drawing it is good practice to keep the approach simple.

There is a parallel between what the reader observes in an illustration and what needs to be delivered to construction. The process of thinking through relationships from one view to an adjacent view helps inform construction of logical inter-connecting relationships. When a drawing is comprehended as a whole, it facilitates the formation of a mental picture in the mind of the viewer. As drawings often depict something new and different, being partially of invention, they make complex reading. It is the nature of the theatre business to take risks and to adapt form to meet new purpose, and in so doing makes draughting a varied job.

Work through exercises chronologically. It is good practice to keep drawings flat, as once rolled they become difficult to handle. For the learner the process of accomplishment is in completing a drawing in a precise manner, with a developed understanding of what has been achieved in the skill of equipment handling, in clarity of lines, and in accuracy, and foremost in learning the principles. All techniques learned become a foundation for future practice when problem solving. The more on-board practice one has, the more skilled one becomes at effective proposing, planning, and promoting of calculated decision making.

FREEHAND SKETCHING

Ideas of the mind often become something quite different once expressed, when transformed into visual form. Designers often grapple with finding the right form and material for ideas. Drawing is a means to an end, as it serves a purpose; thoughts can be expressed, promoting discussion, which may lead to the development of an idea to an eventual realization. It is often said, ‘a drawing proves more effective than words’. Sketching is a quick means to an end. It facilitates presenting an impression of something imagined. A sketch is not a technical drawing bound by principles, yet confidence in drawing is important in putting across a proposed thought successfully. Freehand drawing can be most effective when delivering ideas to a craftsman in the property (prop) making department. The rough sketch, usually found bound in a sketchbook, supports the direction of Sketch Model development. Yet it may well work the other way round, where a Sketch Model is further developed through sketching.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication is essential for the successful development of design. Through effective collaboration, technical developments complement performance developments, ensuring the design intention reaches specified aims. Because production often involves the management of sizeable teams, including construction, stage technicians, engineers, lighting and sound technicians, stage management, scenic artists, and prop makers, there is every likelihood of misinterpretation. Therefore a designer and draughtsman needs to be both a confident leader artistically, and technically competent.

Working to a brief demands knowing that brief well. When delivering preliminary drawings to accompany a white card model, a rough ground plan and section will be required, along with rough orthographic drawings for all proposed scenic elements. Preliminaries support an estimate for costing. In this instance a white card model may only have proposed mouldings and relief drawn in 2D upon its flat planes or surfaces, yet the suggestion passes on intention. Drawings should support the overall volume of a build, with overall dimensions.

REFERENCING

As the designer works from a wide range of reference, including the world of architecture, interior design, product design, manufacturing, art and design, mechanical engineering, material and processes for construction, it stands as good practice to pass on influential references to back up design interpretation and technical decision making. Research may effectively introduce material, handling and manufactured specifications, including methods for binding or adhesion to other materials. Such information transferred through to construction saves valuable time and opens out round-table discussion.

Regardless of the challenging nature material and processes of construction present, the grammar of graphic representation serves to convey calculated decision making within an appropriate format and manner readily accessible to production and technical management. Guidelines within this book assist the draughtsman in making simple and effective proposals, regardless of how complex they may at first appear. Ideas delivered with clarity and precision allow production processes to move forward in a constructive manner.

1 THE LANGUAGE OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

THREE TYPES OF DRAWING

Three types of drawing serve design. Each drawing type serves in a practical way to accomplish particular aims.

Drawing – ideas in a process of development

Drawing is a tool and as a tool it offers the potential to reveal. Drawing can represent, as ‘we draw to see what we observe’. Through representation a better understanding of what it is we observe can be made, as in the study to discover inherent truths. Drawing also supports putting shape to ideas; something imagined takes shape through drawing. Putting pen to paper facilitates visualizing the process of thinking something through. Ideas on the page once formed provoke or initiate a response in the viewer. In practical terms ideas presented invite or welcome comment and criticism. The act of drawing is in itself problem solving; for example, applying practical building geometry to formulate the surface development of a cone or pyramid (seepages 70–71).

Drawing – ideas as a presentation medium

A drawing facilitates communication: an idea in progress, a proposal formulated, or a calculated intention. As a drawing it may appear very much unresolved. Through being interpreted a drawing may initiate the process of construction; to initiate ‘bench drawings’ and later the ‘build’. A drawing therefore initiates both the discussion necessary to move production forward, and the production processes. A presentational drawing generally does not explain how realization is achievable; therefore drawings facilitate a feasibility study. Many ideas conveyed in a drawing deliver a desirable intention, where design ideas may outweigh actual practicalities. The ideas behind a drawing may promote something new or unique. A drawing may only present a proposal for possible interrelationships. Drawings that represent the intended form may not address the structural concerns that actually support form. Drawings may be developed freehand, as technical board drawings, or they may be computer-generated.

Drawing – ideas as a guide for construction

Technical drawings inform construction through a scaled representation of how a scenic element or prop should look to the eye once built. As there is typically a scaled model or prototype in 3D to accompany a drawing, the viewer has the opportunity to see the aesthetic intentions in both 2D and 3D. Whether the drawing is a preliminary or finished drawing it should convey scaled proportional relationships, defined by overall dimensions and internal intermediate dimensioning. Technical drawings are generally presented in the same scale as the scenic elements built within either a ‘sketch model’ or within a ‘presentational model’; the scale is typically 1:25. Technical drawings facilitate the making of the model. The model box with its set design is complemented by the ‘package’ of technical drawings. This package of technical drawings, which amounts to the full collection of drawings for a show, once delivered to the construction department informs them of calculated intentions. The precise nature of technical drawings facilitates production management, at the first stage, costing the build. Yet before construction can begin to build they must first interpret the package of drawings to convert them into ‘construction drawings’. This is something that the Head of Construction will process, and involves turning all the designer’s draughted information into drawings that define the actual materials to be used and the processes for construction. The result is the ‘construction drawings’, a set of technical drawings that communicate directly to those on the shop floor involved in the build. The development of construction drawings does involve and engage the designer, as all materials and methods to be used will have a knock-on effect. The aim of the designer’s presentational drawings is to guide construction through to a build, with designer drawings offering clear and precise intention. For design the enlargement from scale to real size should be of no surprise.

GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

Technical drawing is a graphic language and it is characterized by fine line pencil or ink drawing, delivered in a mechanical way. As a form of language, communication is established through using applied methods, principles and techniques for representing objects technically. An object as drawn in orthographic projection appears represented two dimensionally (in 2D), and is perceived through presented ‘views’; the multiple views of an object in 2D enable the viewer to formulate a mental picture of the object in the mind as three-dimensional (in 3D) – seeChapter 8. Graphic layout includes depicting the front view, side view, top view, plan and rear view, all of which add up to the formation of a 3D impression. Production and construction teams are well experienced at reading the graphic language of technical drawings to formulate those mental pictures, which support them in anticipating a build and realizing that build.

The graphic nature of technical drawing in 2D facilitates constructing the scale model in 3D. A drawing showing the different views of a ‘dresser’ (seepage 123) can be copied or dyeline printed, and the resulting copy can be pasted to card, and once fixed is then cut and assembled, much like a kit. Scale models are typically the centre of attention at production meetings. The drawings that accompany a model back up the accuracy of the model. Precision and clarity are essential elements in technical drawing.

FORM AND STRUCTURE

The designer considers form as the geometrical configuration of structure. Form presents itself with having structural concerns. To make an assessment of structure it is necessary, but not easy, to remove the form to reveal what is giving it shape. Designers often seek to discover the material form that works best to complement ideas related to the play text. Their interest may focus more on form than structure, with the aim that structural concerns do not play an active role visually. In contrast to this they may seek to discover a structure supportive of ideas in the play text. Either way, any discussion between design and construction which occurs over the design will require judgments to be made on material and the relevance of the proposed construction processes.

Research often leads on to studying structural form as witnessed in the natural world. Designers may, like engineers, be particularly interested in stress factors as found within natural formations, in understanding principles of how form is affected by structure. Nature may be a key resource for design, and through observation, inspiration may be found. Such an interest may invite the design to be more organic, or to be interested in tensions and compressions as discovered in the real world. The construction department ensures that adequate strengths be applied to the build through the production process. A key or primary aim will be to satisfy strict health and safety standards.

Set design also needs to consider expectations or demands that will take place during a performance. It will also embrace the demands made when design is in any way transported. With touring productions there is a unique demand upon the build, where the importance of materials and their capacities – along with relevance of construction processes – must be factored in. How scenic units are to dismantle or break apart into component parts suitable for transporting is of typical concern for design. The aesthetics of scenic breaks in a set need disguising in some form or other, as no designer wants visible break-lines. Financial or budget considerations help both the designer and construction choose one method of construction over another.

Form and structure: Definitions

Form (noun): a shape, outward aspect or shape of a body, the mode in which a thing exists or manifests itself.

Form (verb): to make or fashion into a shape or form, take a certain shape; be formed.

Structure (noun): a whole constructed unit, especially a building. The way in which a building is constructed, a set of interconnecting parts of any complex thing, a framework.

Structure (verb): give structure to; organize.

THE AIM OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

The technical drawing aims to depict with clarity and precision how the object will look. How an object is represented is typically through representation of its different views. Accompanying measurements detail height, width and depth. A drawing might clarify formal concerns for proportioning and dimensioning, while detailed drawings clarify component parts or internal relationships. Accompanying text will flag up intentions as further required, and may well inform construction on scenic art effects to be applied once built, and how actors or stage crew will handle the object. All of this informs construction of the practicalities of a design. The two key principles of technical drawing are clarity and precision.

The aim of technical drawing: Clarity

Know who needs the drawing.

Know the purpose of the drawing.

Know what it is they need to know.

Know how best to communicate the information.

Precision

Accurate drawings save time and money.

To cost a production effectively, all scenic elements must be included.

Each scenic element needs calculated measuring and dimensioning.

Views included within a drawing give all information required.

Drawings speak for themselves.

Accuracy is achieved through attention to detail.

THE BRIEF

Knowing the brief makes drawing up all the easier. Understanding why a particular view should be included informs construction of required information. Delays in production usually occur when error or discrepancies appear. To avoid error it is good practice to make revisions of drawings prior to handing them over. An interest in practical problem solving forges good working relationships with those on the shop floor. Observing processes of construction encourages knowledge transfer, in favour of a well-informed designer working to maintain constructive interrelationships. Knowledge of material and processes of construction leads to better forward planning at the drawing-up stage, where a sensibility for budgeting informs both design and its decision-making. Knowledge of the role and responsibility of the designer enables the delivery of clear and precise information, meeting expectations. Above all else, a technical drawing serves a purpose.

THE ROLE OF DESIGNER AND DRAUGHTSMAN

The role of designer and draughtsman is to provide leadership. Good leadership includes an aptitude for creative and practical decision making. Evidence of leadership is found in how effectively the processing of design relates to presentational proposals. The production process is therefore supported by well-defined practical problem solving in 2D and in 3D. Thereafter the skill of teamwork and negotiation becomes all-important. Production management expects the competent designer to drive intention forward. The designer or draughtsman is expected to be both creative and technically aware. As design embraces creative risk-taking, flexibility is paramount. Production management initiates risk assessment for the design. Aspects of health and safety carry on right through the production period on a daily basis. Once actors arrive on-stage for the technical period there are guidelines for health and safety to be implemented. Where design becomes technically engaging for an actor, it is not unusual for the actor to be called to the shop floor to interact with specific scenic elements. This visit may actually enable construction to solve issues that can only be addressed with the actor present, as any such engagement should help make the transition to on-stage all the easier. Where floor traps may drop an actor through to sub-stage, or where lifts carry them to on-stage, or where harnessing enables an actor to fly, the technical demands to achieve risk-free results require team members to engage in clear and precise communication. Planning in advance for risk assessment meetings and anticipating what issues will arise is part the process of proposing design ideas technically. The designer/draughtsman maintains a constant interest in all aspects of production development, to support negotiations and enable design to serve performance needs.

To present the most effective representation of an object or scenic element, the draughtsman needs to follow guidelines for good practice. There after reasoning becomes second nature when working through problems. More sophisticated levels of reasoning are developed through using reference books on subjects such as construction geometry, building geometry and technical engineering and architectural drawing. It is expected that some areas of technical expertise come through referring to the knowledge established by others in specialist fields. The use of such references assists the draughtsman to acquire an appropriate language for those interpreting the design.

COMMON TERMS

The technical sketch

The term ‘technical sketch’ refers to both freehand drawings (those made traditionally without the use of instruments) and drawings made using technical equipment to render an idea through to a visible form. The sketch conveys ideas as they occur in the mind of designer, showing how ideas are developed. Throughout the pre-production and production periods, where teams come together to discuss developments, the ability to sketch proves remarkably useful. Sketching is a form of thinking aloud, as it is both quick and direct in clarifying ideas. Where scale is central to understanding a sketch, it is recommended to include within the drawing some recognizable form which clarifies the proportions; this may be a figure standing alongside the form or other such familiar proportional item.

Technical drawing

The term ‘technical drawing’ applies to drawings that are not artistic but are used to convey information represented for building or constructing. A technical drawing represents the appearance of form for the purpose of construction, wherein true measurements can be found including height, width, and depth. Proportion in relation to physical human proportion is factored in to most technical drawings for performance, as design centres on the actor.

Those involved with the production process will respond to technical drawings through questioning material choice and processes of construction. Where a drawing indicates construction material the concerns will focus on stress engineering and costing issues. A technical drawing can present comprehensively calculated technical information.

A drawing for a scenic flat may only depict door and window positions, but might also include: door frame and casing details and the practical nature of door hinges; window sash mechanics; period detailing; cross-section views of all moulding such as skirting boards, chair rails, picture rails, and cornices to be applied; wall surface finish such as wallpaper or paint effect; and notes describing material finish including glaze treatments. The reason for including scenic art finish as notes within a drawing is to draw construction’s attention to the concern for using the best possible materials in support of those scenic art treatments.

Construction drawings, working drawings or bench drawings

Drawings produced by Head of Construction are referred to in different ways, although they amount to the same thing. All the terms refer to the technical drawings that the Head of Construction generates to be passed on to the shop floor. Through interpretation made based on the designer’s technical drawings, detailed drawings are produced as appropriate for the shop floor. The emphasis is on the true dimensions of structural materials to be used in the build, and on construction methods including joinery techniques. These drawings are typically produced with Computer Aided Design (CAD) programs. Structural information will include drawings for mechanical and engineered parts. Such drawings also define assembly methods with particular attention to the hardware used when applied to stage fixings.

Detail drawings and the engineer

A detail drawing is generally at a larger scale than the layout drawing. For construction purposes a cross section drawing will be included, defining the details as component parts. The term ‘engineering drawings’ applies to industrial modification of technical ideas. These specific and highly detailed drawings are accurate and precise for the manufacture of engineered components. The graphic language of engineering drawings is very specific. Complex scenic units that engineers design on behalf of set designers include mechanisms for movement such as: revolve, hydraulics, pneumatics, or where power control is required or where motion control functionality is needed.

Venue drawings: the theatre ground plan and theatre section

Theatre or venue technical drawings define the architecture of the performance venue. This consists of two drawings: ‘theatre ground plan’ and ‘theatre section’. Each defines the architectural relationship of auditorium seating to on-stage and off-stage areas. Off-stage areas may include wing space, dock area for scenic storage, get-in facilities such as dock doors, lifts, actor entrances from dressing rooms or as cross-over behind or under the stage, and access to sub-stage including orchestra pit. The amount of technical detail included on a theatre ground plan or theatre section can be significant, often making them complex maps to read. Additional elements within a venue facility may include: fly-floor and flying system with its grid and pulley system and the counterweight cage; trap access; dimmer traps; lifts; heating and cooling systems; electrics for sound and lighting or lighting bridges; winch mechanisms; fire hoses or extinguishers; permanent vertical ladders and safety cages; safety curtain; house tab or track system; and permanent or sliding tormentors, to name but a few. To fully comprehend a technical ground plan or section it is always recommended to visit the site for a survey, taking along a camera to record features that may not appear in the drawings. An ‘alternative venue’ or that which is classified as ‘site-specific’ demands a comprehensive survey by the design and production team. Where there is interest in the unconventional space, the technical team made up of designer and production manager may need to generate its own survey, measuring the space to draught up a ground plan and section. Such a visit is typically called the ‘recce’, which refers to a survey.

Recce

The term ‘recce’ (derived from ‘reconnoitre’) is used to indicate a survey, that is, a pre-production visit to a site for purposes of surveying its facility, a visit prior to making the model box. Items to take include a camera, tape measure, scale rule, plan and section.

Model box

The theatre model box refers to the 3D card model version of the venue, representing the architecture of the theatre. The designer is responsible for making the model box, although theatres may offer the designer one already prepared. The ground plan and section facilitate making the model box, as dimensions are transferred across to card, then cut and assembled. The designer’s photographic record (from the recce) supports its development. Depending on features found within the architecture, there can be embellishment applied at scale to compliment it; for example, the carved relief often found in a proscenium surround with its gold leaf can be applied. Once the model box is complete, the designer begins establishing a set design. On-stage features greatly affect design therefore it is not unusual to include details such as brick walls. A portion or all the auditorium seating is to be included.

The designer will begin working through ideas in 3D alongside developing sketches, rather than on the drawing board first. A plan and section will be on the board while design is being introduced in the model. While experimentation in 3D is explored, ideas are transferred to the board drawings. Problem solving on the board supports redefining ideas within the model. A logical sequence for exploration might be:

Design development in 3D is passed across to the plan and section.

Practical problem solving of a technical nature is then explored on the board in 2D, with results altered within the model.

The ground plan and theatre section support solving problems in respect of constraints and limitations of the architecture, and audience sight-lines. Shape ideas in 3D, record them in 2D and test them out; avoid getting too far ahead where it might be difficult to alter 3D design which has become too rigidly fixed.

Building geometry

Basic knowledge of building geometry, which can be found in many reference books, is essential as it provides reference for the solution of practical problems designers are likely to encounter within the construction industry. Practical building geometry includes tools and how to use them, drawing practice, lines and angles, geometric shapes, areas, mouldings, arches, loci, orthographic, isometric and axonometric projections, geometrical solids, auxiliary projection, sections, interpenetration, and stair casing. The solving of seemingly complex problems such as a spiral staircase is easily comprehended through such reference books on building geometry. An understanding of the principles of practical plane and solid geometry is essential for technical drawing.

2 DRAWING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

With clarity and precision being the objective in drawing, all tools, instruments and other studio equipment need to support the draughtsman in achieving standards of excellence. With proper care and maintenance, quality tools of a professional standard stand a good chance of lasting a lifetime. Effective handling of draughting tools and instruments facilitates working at speed; yet the initial aim when learning is to maintain accuracy through regular practice, with the objective being consistency.

Successful drawings reflect discipline, through their adhering to principles of good practice, combined with an approach reflecting clear thinking, and calculated decision making. Professional quality draughting tools may prove marginally more expensive than college quality, but the expense usually pays off in the long run. Seek advice prior to making a purchase, by asking a draughtsman what is preferred. Quality tends to deliver quality, making it a good investment. A quality Bow Compass Set, if constantly maintained in good working order, never lets one down. Once purchased and tested, mark or inscribe tools with your name or initials, as this makes for easy identification in shared studio practice.

There are ways to cut costs when setting up the studio, such as using a table for a drawing board with T-square instead of a parallel motion board and built-in arm. As with any expenditure for tools, instruments and equipment, keep receipts and test out accuracy as exchanges may be necessary due to manufacturing faults. It is not unusual to find that even professional quality set-squares or rotary sharpeners have faults.

The exercises within this book refer to specific tools and instruments to assist in the process of problem solving. The list below is comprehensive; not all items need to be purchased initially, but some may become regularly used. Some tools remain a luxury, such as the electric rotary eraser.

KEY TOOLS

Key tools include the set-squares of 45 degrees, and of 30/60 degrees, and the adjustable set-square. These are essential, as is the T-square when working on a flat board without parallel motion. The mechanical clutch pencil and its rotary sharpener, the erasing shield and draughting eraser are as crucial as scale rule, a compass set, masking tape, a supply of tracing paper and a flexible curve.

Scale rulers.

An adjustable set-square.

Paper sizes

A0

1189 × 841mm

A1

841 × 594mm

A2

594 × 420mm

A3

420 × 297mm

A4

297 × 210mm

Paper and board size

Drawing paper size is of standard dimensions; therefore each paper size requires a board size proportionally larger. Once drawing paper is positioned on a board, the space around the drawing permits the positioning of T-square, use of drawing tools such as set-squares and gives allowance for slightly larger paper as underlay beneath a tracing paper drawing. With ground plan and theatre section typically plotted or printed on larger page sizes (A1), the smaller boards tend to become less useful except for detail drawings. A board of A1 size is most typical for theatre work. An A2 drawing board is versatile when working on orthographic drawings (multi-views of objects).

Table and drawing boards

An ordinary table is perfectly acceptable when its surface has no irregularities, and it has no raised metal edge. The table’s side (vertical) edge, where the T-square head connects, must have no irregularities to impede a smooth run of the head, up and down its length. Any smooth surface, even an old door on trestle legs, can serve the designer’s needs. It is not unusual for designers to find themselves in situations where the facilities are less than professional and a form of ingenuity is called for with portable T-square and set-squares at the ready.

The drawing board should be used exclusively for technical drawing. Avoid using it for cutting, even when using with a cutting mat, and avoid the habit of using the board as a shelf for models or books. Keep the board covered with a light cloth between sessions, to protect it from dust.

Boards can be cut out of a sheet of plywood or MDF (medium density fibre board). The board edge, with which the T-square connects, must be evenly cut and smooth, without chamfer or rounding. As a portable board it can be positioned on a tabletop, either by laying it flat or by propping it up slightly beneath the top horizontal edge, to achieve a slight angle to the working surface. Avoid making it too steep, as the T-square will constantly slide down. Place the board in landscape format, with the long sides positioned as top and bottom. When it is placed on a table, position the bottom horizontal near to the bottom edge of the table, to minimize strain when drawing.

Drawing board size

A0 paper requires minimum 1270 × 920mm drawing board size.

A1 paper requires minimum 920 × 650mm drawing board size.

A2 paper requires minimum 650 × 480mm drawing board size.

Drawing paper requires space around it. Too small a board and it becomes difficult to tape down a drawing, shift a T-square out of the way, or for set-squares to work close to paper edges.

The portable drawing board with parallel-motion arm

Portable drawing boards have a parallel-motion arm attached – this is a horizontal drawing arm attached through cables connecting to pulleys positioned at all four corners. The arm rides or slides up the board, maintaining a consistently accurate parallel to a horizontal.

Boards are manufactured as laminates, to achieve a high-quality hard surface, resistant to warping and surface damage. Manufacturers offer a choice in quality, with variations most evident in the parallel arm mechanism. Most portable drawing boards have a built-in stand, which allows for giving the board angle. Depending on the type of stand one may be more portable than another. They are useful, being easy to store away, with some brands supplying a travel case. As most venue ground plans are on A1 it is recommended to invest in this size.

Floor stand drawing board

If studio space permits, the floor stand with attached board should be considered. They can be purchased second hand, more economically. The advantage is the built-in adjustable height mechanism, the sturdy pulley system for the parallel-motion arm, and the adjustable feature giving the board gradients, allowing for working flat right through to a near-vertical plane.

Board maintenance

When not in use, cover with a cloth or sheet to prevent a build-up of dust. Good practice involves never leaving masking tape attached between sessions and never using it twice, as it has less strength to adhere. As tape dries out, it rapidly results in the gum backing being transferred from tape to board and onto paper. To remove graphite from the board surface use a putty eraser; where more grime builds up, wipe the board using a clean cloth dampened only with water. Never use any washing-up liquids or soaps, as the residue from cleaners will not permit masking tape to stick. Cleaners with alcohol tend not to interfere with masking tape adhesion. However, beware of ‘safety warnings’ and read carefully all manufacturing guidelines for use before applying it to the board. Establish the habit of removing masking tape at the end of each day. To remove old masking tape first peel all the tape off, then with a soft cloth and a small amount of either methylated spirit or lighter fluid gently wipe off the gum. Both fluids are a fire hazard and are toxic: use in a well-ventilated room and never near an open flame.

T-square

The T-square is so called as it resembles the capital letter ‘T’. This instrument is comprised of an extended arm forming the horizontal, fastened to the head, which is precisely set at a right angle to the arm. The arm will likely have a bevelled or chamfered edge, to facilitate seeing clearly when drawing all horizontal lines. The head sits aligned to the side vertical of the drawing board. Through maintaining contact, as it slides up and down the board, any number of horizontal lines drawn will remain in ‘true’ parallel to one another (seepages 24 and 49).

Left-handed and right-handed T-squares

A left-handed draughtsman should buy a left-hand T-square. The T-square head will be positioned to run along the right-hand vertical edge of the drawing board. The simplest and most typical plain wood version of T-square will not serve the left-hander, as one edge on the arm is not set at a true right angle to the head, so when the head is in position, on the right side, the arm angle ends up as the top horizontal edge. This type of T-square can only be used with its head on the left side of the board, making it suitable only for the right-handed user. There are other T-squares that accommodate flipping from left side to right side, and it is these the left-hander must shop for.

For a right-handed draughtsman the T-square head is positioned along the left vertical edge of the drawing board. Place the arm horizontally across the board, align the head connecting it to the left vertical edge. Slide the T-Square up and down the board, maintaining the connection of the head with the outer edge. Any time the head is not true in its alignment, the horizontal becomes untrue, and the accuracy of the draughtsman fails.

Maintenance

The mechanical precision built in to the T-square is set by four screws or rivets, joining both components. This join is vulnerable to knocks; at intervals gently tighten the screws. Protect from damage, as dropping or knocking may also put a chip or gouges into the horizontal arm, affecting the quality of line. Clean by wiping over with a putty eraser to remove the build-up of graphite then use a lightly dampened cloth to remove grime, and an alcohol-based cleaner, such as lighter fluid or methylated spirits, for removal of gum tape. Read ‘safety warning’ instructions thoroughly.

Bow compass and mechanical drawing instruments

The compass is for accurate drawings of circles, arcs or chords of a circle. The bow compass has a centre wheel, which when spun opens and closes the arms with fine precision. A compass should be of a solid metal nature, and of a professional standard, to produce consistency. A model of bow compass is available with centre wheel and pushbutton mechanisms, to enable quick changes from one size to another for radius, and once roughly set the wheel refines the distance as required.

A compass set should include: small bow compass, large bow compass, extension arm for drawing large radii, ink pen attachment, compass leads at 2H, spare needle points, and a divider. The divider is a measuring device; both arms have needle point ends.

A bow compass.

Sharpening compass lead

The 2mm-thick lead, inserted into the arm end, is the same diameter lead as in the mechanical clutch style pencil, allowing for interchange of lead types. Snap off a length of lead between 15mm and 20mm, and insert into the holding mechanism on the arm and gently tighten the fixture. Using a fine ‘sandpaper block’ (seepage 22) or scrap of sandpaper, position the lead at a 30-degree angle and with even strokes pass the lead back and forth across the sandpaper. The bevel produces a point or sharp edge. Close the compass arms all the way, so both lead and needle point are aligned – they should almost meet. Gently loosen the mechanism holding the lead, and rotate the lead in its housing so the bevel is facing out, away from the needle, then tighten. The compass is ready for use. A 4H lead should be used for construction lines, and an H or HB lead for finished lines.

Sharpened compass lead.

Dividers and a compass.

Handling a compass

A compass boxed set allows for drawing circles from an approximate radius 10mm to 250mm when the extending arm is employed. Place the needle point at the circle centre and, with a little downward pressure to secure the point into the page, proceed as follows. Right-hander: hold the compass in the right hand by pinching the top shaft between thumb and forefinger, lean the compass slightly towards the forward direction, rotate the compass shaft between finger and thumb, drawing the circle in a clockwise direction. Left-hander: hold the compass in the left hand and draw circles counter-clockwise.

Use the scale rule to set off radius measurements, yet do this on a page rather than allowing the needle point to make contact with the scale rule, as the rule (being made of plastic) will damage. Mark off the intended radius (use 4H lead) and draw the circle as in a lightweight construction line, aiming for consistent pressure throughout. Once the entire drawing is completed, darken the circle using H lead, with firm pressure. Where the diameter is given the radius needs to be calculated (divide the measurement in half using instruction for dividing a line into two equal parts, see ‘Using a divider’, below).

Beam compass

A ruled arm with a fixed compass point at one end and a slide mechanism along the rule which holds lead. This tool permits drawing larger diameters or arcs than is possible on a bow compass. The sliding mechanism may be the needle point rather than the lead holder.

Using a divider

Dividers are typically used to create sub-divisions, or to produce calculated unit measurements that require repeating. It is a particularly useful instrument for transferring measurements and greatly assists in division of a line into equal measured units.

To divide a given line (A-B) into equal subdivisions, for example into thirds:

Approximate a third of the distance from A, with the dividers. Trust the eye to calculate this third. Place a divider point on A, the other on the ray of line and proceed to ‘walk’ the instrument along the line, towards B. Hold the divider top shaft between thumb and finger. If the final position lands beyond C, then the arms need closing to reduce their span. Make a slight adjustment and try again. Once successful, mark with a pencil the points where the needles make contact with the line. This method may take several trials to perfect.

Both compass and dividers are to be operated with one hand only. This avoids likelihood of inaccuracies where the other hand may alter the mechanism.

Scale rule

Made either in a flat format with a selection of scaled rules on two sides, or in a triangular scale format with a selection of six scales (seepage 15). The designer working with performance will require a scale rule with the following scales: 1:1 or 1:10, 1:50, 1:25 and 1:20. Avoid the architect or engineer scale rule. The selection of scales they require is inappropriate for theatre draughting. Do not mistake a 1:25 for a 1:250 or 1:2500 (seeChapter 5 for a detailed explanation on how to use it).

Set-squares

These are clear plastic right-angled triangular tools for drawing lines. They may be used either independently or together to form prescribed angles of a nature relevant to the principles of building geometry (seepages 50–51). As with all plastic tools when inking, the tool needs flipping over, with beveled edge face down, to avoid ink touching the tool itself, as ink will run under a tool if it makes contact with the plastic surface. Always hold the ink pen perpendicular to the page.

The 45-degree set-square

The 45-degree triangular set-square is made of clear plastic, and comprises two 45-degree angles and one 90-degree angle (the sum of which is 180 degrees) (seepage 50).

The 30 × 60-degree set-square

The 30 × 60-degree triangular set-square is made of clear plastic and comprises a 30-degree, a 60-degree and a 90-degree angle (180 degrees in total). Note that combining the 45-degree set-square with the 30/60-degree set-square results in angles of 15 degrees and 75 degrees (seepage 50).

The adjustable set-square

This clear plastic 45-degree triangular set-square has a precision mechanism for making adjustments to enable the formation of determined degree angles (degree markings are clearly indicated for accuracy). It is a masterful tool when working to achieve aligned views of irregular angles found in objects. It is also invaluable for plotting on the raked stage in theatre section, for squaring to a line set at any angle on the page, and when formulating a series of parallel lines set to an angle (seepage 15).

Circle template

A clear plastic tool offering templates for circles of different diameters, ranging from 1mm to larger. It is a useful template for all work on the board (seepage 20).

A circle template.

Protractor

A clear plastic 180-degree or 360-degree tool, used to define accurate angled degrees. The adjustable set-square has the same advantage, yet a protractor makes for easier placement of degrees off a line that is not set vertical or horizontal.

Protractor.

Pencil types

Mechanical drawing pencil

These are manufactured with a push-release shaft mechanism at one end and a claw or clutch mechanism gripping a 2mm lead at the other end. For added security of grip a finely textured shaft is part of the design. The release mechanism shaft can be removed, allowing for coloured shafts to replace it, as colours relate to the type of lead. With each new purchase of twelve leads of the same type, the manufacturer includes a new colour shaft. Clutch style pencils are manufactured with component parts that unscrew, enabling access to the internal components; this facilitates servicing, cleaning and installing new lead. It is a well-manufactured instrument and is highly recommended for all technical draughting. To maintain a consistent thickness to pencil point when drawing a line across the page, slowly rotate the mechanical pencil between the fingers while drawing the line across.

A comprehensive range of 2mm-thick lead types are available, ranging from soft 2B through to hard 4H. As few as three leads may be purchased at one time, as they are sold in tubes. The claw or clutch grip with its spring mechanism creates a firm grip on the lead, to withstand firm pressure on drawn lines. Clutch mechanical pencils usually have their own brand of rotary sharpener.

Mechanical or propelling pencil

Known as propelling pencils, they contain specific lead widths of a fine 0.7mm or 0.9mm that are of use to a draughtsman. A full range of lead types is available from soft to hard. They do not require sharpening as the lead widths complement the particular line widths required. There is a disadvantage however in that the leads tend to slide up the inner shaft when pressure is applied when line drawing. As the lead types for technical drawing range only from 4H to H, and all use 2mm-thick lead, it does prove an advantage to use the mechanical clutch pencils, as variation in thickness of line may be achieved though the rotary sharpener. The lead in a propelling pencil proves too weak when applying firm pressure.

Rotary sharpener for clutch mechanical pencil

The mechanical pencil rotary sharpener is sold separately, and is made of two component parts for easy care and cleaning. On the rotary lid are two guide holes with corresponding symbols noting the two types of point available (sharp point and dull point). The cavity, or base well, collects the graphite, and within is the built-in grinding file. The rotary sharpener is designed for 2mm lead only (graphite or colour). The lid slides off, permitting the well to be emptied.

How to use a rotary sharpener

1.

Press the shaft to release the lead, allowing it to drop into the 2mm hole. Once it hits the bottom, with shaft still pressed, slide the claw down to touch the lid. Release the shaft mechanism. The length of lead is appropriate for producing the intended point.

2.

With claws firmly holding the lead, carefully slide the pencil down into the large hole, the one with protruding mouth opening. Slide down all the way (it may require a gentle rocking to sink all the way down).

3.

Firmly hold the base container in one hand on a table top. The other hand holds the pencil with finger and thumb close to the lid mouth. Grip the mechanical pencil and very gently rotate clockwise, with no downward pressure on the pencil. Keep rotating until the grinding sound disappears. As it becomes more free-wheeling, apply a slight downward pressure and keep going until no grinding is heard.

4.

Remove then slide the lead into the cotton filter that is built in to the lid. This removes all graphite residue. Remove.

5.

Press the shaft to release the lead, yet do so with either the table top or the palm of the hand beneath the point and once the claw releases the lead gently slide the lead in until the bevel of the sharpened lead is touching the claw. Release the shaft. The pencil is ready for use.

Wood pencils

Traditionally wood pencils were used for technical drawing. A selection of wood pencils with three lead types is recommended: the hard lead pencils (4H and 2H); mid-range lead pencils (H); or F. With firm pencil pressure using H or HB there should be no need for Bs as their softness increases the risk of smudging. The disadvantage in use of wood pencils is in their constant need to be sharpened as consistency in point is necessary at all times.

Traditionally, sharpening was done using a scalpel or small box-cutter blade to strip off the wood around the lead, before sharpening with a block of sandpaper. The wood is shaved or whittled off at an angle from 2.5cm up from its end. This produces a bare lead of 1cm in length. The lead is sharpened to a cone, by rotating it as you pull it towards you across the sandpaper, with the aim of maintaining as much as possible of the 1cm length of lead. Loose graphite particles are wiped off with a soft cloth.

Graphite filings easily attach themselves to tools, instruments, and equipment. Sharpen well off to the side of the drawing board. As good practice, at the start of the day, wipe down tools from T-square to set-squares with a damp cloth, and dry thoroughly before placing on the page. To remove graphite from the board surface, use a putty eraser. To wipe the board use a clean cloth dampened only with water. Never use any washing up liquids or soaps as the residue from cleaners will not permit masking tape to stick. Cleaners with alcohol, once air dried, do not interfere with masking tape adhesion.