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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive guide to reading and understanding financial reports Financial reports provide vital information to investors, lenders, and managers. Yet, the financial statements in a financial report seem to be written in a foreign language that only accountants can understand. This comprehensive version of How to Read a Financial Report breaks through that language barrier, clears away the fog, and offers a plain-English user's guide to financial reports. The book features new information on the move toward separate financial and accounting reporting standards for private companies, the emergence of websites offering financial information, pending changes in the auditor's report language and what this means to investors, and requirements for XBRL tagging in reporting to the SEC, among other topics. * Makes it easy to understand what financial reports really say * Updated to include the latest information financial reporting standards and regulatory changes * Written by an author team with a combined 50-plus years of experience in financial accounting * This comprehensive edition includes an ancillary website containing valuable additional resources With this comprehensive version of How to Read a Financial Report, investors will find everything they need to fully understand the profit, cash flow, and financial condition of any business.
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Seitenzahl: 498
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014
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Contents
List of Exhibits
Preface
Part One: Financial Report Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Financial Statement Basics
The Big Three—Financial Condition, Profit Performance, and Cash Flows
Additional Financial Statement Considerations and Concepts
An Important Concept to Understand Throughout This Book
Chapter 2: Starting with Cash Flows
Cash Flows—Just How Important Is It for a Business?
Cash Flows—What Does It Not Tell You?
Profit and Losses Cannot Be Measured by Cash Flows
Cash Flows Do Not Reveal Financial Condition
Chapter 3: Mastering the Balance Sheet
Solvency versus Liquidity
Balance Sheet Basics—Left and Right, Top to Bottom
The Balance Sheet Message
Chapter 4: Understanding Profit
Why Discuss Profits Last?
An Important Question
Nature of Profit
Recording Revenue and Expenses
Winding Up
Chapter 5: Profit Isn’t Everything and All Things
Remember—Everything’s Connected
Threefold Financial Task of Business Managers
One Problem in Reporting Financial Statements
Interlocking Nature of the Three Financial Statements
Connecting the Dots and Expanding Your Knowledge of Financial Reports
Part Two: Working Capital Connections
Chapter 6: Our Case Study—Company Introductions
Company Overviews
HareSquared, Inc.
TortTech, Inc.
Friendly Reminders
Chapter 7: Sales Revenue, Trade Accounts Receivable, and Deferred Revenue
Exploring One Link at a Time
How Sales Revenue Drives Accounts Receivable
A Special Link – How Accounts Receivable Drives Deferred Revenue
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 8: Cost(s) of Goods Sold Expense and Inventory
Exploring Our Second Critical Link
What Is in Costs of Goods Sold Expense?
Holding Products in Inventory before They Are Sold
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 9: Inventory and Accounts Payable
Examining Our Third Link, with a Twist
Acquiring Inventory on the Cuff
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 10: Operating Expenses and Accounts Payable
The Connection Is Important but Let’s Start with the Basics
Recording Expenses before They Are Paid
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 11: Accruing Liabilities for Incurred but Unpaid Expenses
Understanding Hidden Risks with This Connection
Recording the Accrued Liability for Operating Expenses
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 12: Income Tax Expense—A Liability and Asset?
Why the Income Tax Connection Can Be Very Confusing
Taxation of Business Profit
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Part Three: Financial Capital Connections and Cash Flows
Chapter 13: Our Case Study—Company Updates and Assessments
The Big Picture—Comparing Both Companies
HareSquared, Inc. Update
TortTech, Inc. Update
What’s Next?
Chapter 14: Long-Term Assets and Depreciation, Amortization, and Other Expenses
A Brief Review of Expense Accounting
Fixed Assets and Depreciation Expense
Intangible Assets and Amortization Expense
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 15: Long-Term Liabilities, Interest, and Other Expenses
Debt, Debt, and More Debt—Multiple Financial Report Connections
Understanding Debt Basics and Its Location in the Balance Sheet
Bringing Interest Expense Up to Snuff
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 16: Net Income, Retained Earnings, Equity, and Earnings per Share (EPS)
The All-Important EPS
Net Income into Retained Earnings
Earnings per Share (EPS)
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 17: Cash Flow from Operating (Profit-Making) Activities
A Different Type of Connection
Profit and Cash Flow from Profit: Not Identical Twins!
A Quick Word about the Direct Method for Reporting Cash Flow from Operating Activities
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Chapter 18: Cash Flows from Investing and Financing Activities
Understanding the Real Capital Structure and Needs of a Business
Rounding Out the Statement of Cash Flows
Seeing the Big Picture of Cash Flows
Accounting Issues and Our Case Study
Part Four: Financial Report Analysis
Chapter 19: Expansion and Contraction Impacts on Cash Flow
Setting the Stage
Cash Flows in the Steady-State Case
Cash Flow Growth Penalty
Cash Flow “Reward” from Decline
Red Ink and Cash Flow
Final Comment
Chapter 20: What Is EBITDA and Why Is It Important?
EBITDA—An Alternative View of Cash Flow or Operating Income?
Relying on EBITDA—The Pros and Cons
Chapter 21: Financial Statement Footnotes—The Devil’s in the Details
The Meat of the Financial Report
Financial Statements—Brief Review
Why Footnotes?
Two Types of Footnotes
Management Discretion in Writing Footnotes
Analysis Issues
Chapter 22: Financial Statement Ratios—Calculating and Understanding
Financial Reporting Ground Rules
Financial Statement Preliminaries
Benchmark Financial Ratios
Final Comments
Chapter 23: Profit Analysis for Business Managers
Why All Businesses Should Produce and Use Two Types of Financial Statements
Managerial Accounting
Beyond the Income Statement
Classifying Operating Expenses
Comparing Changes in Sales Prices and Sales Volume
Breakeven Point
Final Point
Chapter 24: Our Case Study and the Moral of the Story—The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
The Changing Economic Environment
HareSquared, Inc.’s Financial Results and Ending Position
TortTech, Inc.’s Financial Results and Ending Position
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
Part Five: Financial Report Truthfulness
Chapter 25: Choosing Accounting Methods and Massaging the Numbers
Chapter Preamble
Choosing Accounting Methods
Massaging the Numbers
Business Managers and Their Accounting Methods
Consistency of Accounting Methods
Quality of Earnings
Chapter 26: Audits of Financial Reports
External Examinations of Financial Statements—What Types and Why
Why Audits?
Certified Public Accountant (CPA)
Are Audits Required?
Clean Audit Opinion
Do Auditors Discover Accounting Fraud?
Reading an Auditor’s Report
Post-Sox
Chapter 27: Small Business Financial Reporting
Identifying a Small Business
Different Standards for Different Businesses
The Challenges of Reading a Small Business Financial Report
Chapter 28: Basic Questions, Basic Answers, No BS
No Question Is Out of the Question!
A Very Short Summary
About the Authors
About the Companion Website
Index
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Illustration: Wiley
Copyright © 2014 by John A. Tracy and Tage C. Tracy All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Tracy, John A.
The comprehensive guide on how to read a financial report : wringing vital signs out of the numbers / John A. Tracy and Tage C. Tracy.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-118-73571-8 (cloth); ISBN 978-1-118-82088-9 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-82083-4 (ebk)
1. Financial statements. I. Tracy, Tage C. II. Title.
HF5681.B2T727 2014
657’.3—dc23
2013038859
LIST OF EXHIBITS
Exhibit 1.1
Year-End Balance Sheets
Exhibit 1.2
Income Statement for Year
Exhibit 1.3
Statement of Cash Flows for Year
Exhibit 2.1
Summary of Cash Flows during Year
Exhibit 3.1
Comparative Year-End Company Balance Sheets
Exhibit 3.2
Year-End Balance Sheet
Exhibit 3.3
Comparative Year-End Company Balance Sheets with Ratio Analysis
Exhibit 4.1
Income Statement and Balance Sheet Changes during Year from Profit-Making Activities
Exhibit 5.1
Connections among Three Financial Statements
Exhibit 6.1
HareSquared, Inc.—Summary Financial Statements, Two-Year Comparison
Exhibit 6.2
TortTech, Inc.—Summary Financial Statements, Two-Year Comparison
Exhibit 7.1
Sales Revenue and Accounts Receivable
Exhibit 7.2
DSO or Days Sales Outstanding Calculation
Exhibit 7.3
Account Receivable Turnover Ratio
Exhibit 7.4
Case Study Comparison–DSO Accounts Receivable
Exhibit 8.1
Costs of Goods Sold and Inventory
Exhibit 8.2
Gross Margin Calculation
Exhibit 8.3
DSO or Days Sales Outstanding in Inventory
Exhibit 8.4
Inventory Turnover Ratio
Exhibit 8.5
Case Study Comparison–DSO Inventory
Exhibit 9.1
Inventory and Accounts Payable
Exhibit 9.2
Inventory Holding Period and Supplier Payment Terms
Exhibit 9.3
Case Study Comparison–Inventory Hold Periods and Supplier Payment Terms
Exhibit 10.1
Operating Expenses and Accounts Payable
Exhibit 10.2
Days Operating Expenses O/S in Trade Payables
Exhibit 10.3
Case Study Comparison–Days Operating Expense O/S
Exhibit 11.1
Days Operating Expenses O/S in Trade Payables and Accrued Expenses
Exhibit 11.2
Case Study Comparison–Days Operating Expenses O/S and Accrued Expenses
Exhibit 12.1
Income Tax Expense and Income Taxes Payable
Exhibit 12.2
Effective Income Tax Rate
Exhibit 12.3
Case Study Comparison–Effective Income Tax Rate
Exhibit 13.1
Case Study Companies Comparative Operating Results for the FYE 12/31/
Exhibit 13.2
HareSquared, Inc.—Summary Financial Statements, Three Years
Exhibit 13.3
TortTech, Inc.—Summary Financial Statements, Three Years
Exhibit 14.1
Depreciation and Amortization Expense and Long-Term Assets
Exhibit 14.2
Case Study Comparison–Depreciation and Amortization Expense
Exhibit 15.1
Interest Expense, Notes Payable, and Current Portion of Debt
Exhibit 15.2
Debt Service Coverage Ratio
Exhibit 15.3
Average Interest Rate
Exhibit 15.4
Case Study Comparison–Debt Service Coverage Ratio
Exhibit 16.1
Net Income, Retained Earnings, and Earnings per Share
Exhibit 16.2
Price Earnings Ratio
Exhibit 16.3
Cast Study Comparison–EPS
Exhibit 17.1
Cash Flow from Profit-Making Activities
Exhibit 17.2
Direct Method for Reporting Cash Flow from Operating Activities
Exhibit 17.3
Case Study Comparison–Direct Method for Reporting Cash Flow from Operating Activities
Exhibit 18.1
Cash Flow from Investing and Financing Activities
Exhibit 19.1
Steady-State Business Growth Impact on Cash Flows
Exhibit 19.2
Expanding Business Growth Impact on Cash Flows
Exhibit 19.3
Year-End DSO or Days Sales Outstanding Calculation Comparison
Exhibit 19.4
Contracting Business Growth Impact on Cash Flows
Exhibit 21.1
Three Financial Statements and Footnotes
Exhibit 22.1
External Financial Statements of Business
Exhibit 22.2
Debt Service Coverage Ratio
Exhibit 23.1
Internal versus External Income Statement Format Comparisons
Exhibit 23.2
Gross Margin Comparison, Service versus Products
Exhibit 23.3
Management Profit Report for Year
Exhibit 23.4
5% Sales Price Versus 5% Sales Volume Increase
Exhibit 23.5
Breakeven Analysis–Sales Price Versus Volume Decreases
Exhibit 24.1
HareSquared, Inc.—Summary Financial Statements, Two Years
Exhibit 24.2
TortTech, Inc.—Summary Financial Statements, Two Years
PREFACE
When TOP (i.e., the Old Pro, aka John A. Tracy) and myself were approached by John Wiley & Sons about expanding and enhancing How to Read a Financial Report, at first I was taken aback. I mean honestly, how does one improve on a book that has been in publication for more than 30 years, has sold 300,000-plus copies (and counting), is now in its eighth edition, and is widely referenced as the benchmark when it comes to helping readers from all walks of life clearly and concisely understand the complex world of financial reports? Then it occurred to me that attempting to improve the book was not the goal but rather the idea was to expand or enhance the book in an effort to achieve three primary goals.
First, to transition the material and subject matter into a format that is more user friendly from an “e” (electronic or digital) perspective. A number of features have been incorporated to improve the interactivity of the material by incorporating hotlinks on important subject matter; referencing current events of significance; highlighting critical concepts, terminology, and tips; and building in a web-based TMK, or test my knowledge section, to provide positive feedback on key material in a real-time fashion.
Second, to empower the readers and extend their knowledge of financial reports and statements to identify potential problems, inconsistencies, errors, and irregularities within the financial information presented. The idea is to move beyond simply understanding the basics of financial reports and statements into the world of analysis and further, to what a company’s financial results really mean or indicate. Or to quote Jack Nicholson from the movie A Few Good Men, to ensure that you will be able to “handle the truth.”
Third, to take you, the reader, on a journey through a case study that is not just designed to test your knowledge of financial reports and statements but more importantly, to walk you through the life of two similar companies, the fates that await them after operating for a number of years (good and bad), and the role that accounting played in their successes and failures. Or in other words, to highlight a critical concept within company financial reports and statements—that accounting is more of an art than science.
Thus, the reference to “the comprehensive guide” was born, as this really captures the essence of this book, a more comprehensive guide to reading and understanding financial reports. In addition, this edition catches up with the major changes in financial reporting since the previous edition of How to Read a Financial Report, and addresses a fast-moving topic toward incorporating different financial reporting standards for private and small businesses compared to large, publicly traded companies. But I note that although numerous changes were made with the comprehensive version, the basic architecture and structure of the book remains unchanged, which at its heart is centered on two concepts that are of intense importance in today’s highly uncertain economic environment:
The basic framework of the book has proved successful for more than 33 years and I would be a fool to mess with this success formula (not to mention feeling the wrath of my father who undoubtedly would “cut me out of the will” for the umpteenth time).
All of the exhibits in the book have been prepared in Excel worksheets. To request a copy of the workbook file of all the exhibits, please contact me at my e-mail address: [email protected]. We express our sincere thanks to all of you who have sent compliments about the book over the years. The royalties from sales of the book are nice, but the bouquets from readers are icing on the cake.
This book has taken a good deal of “thinking outside of the box,” which was highly dependent on a strong working partnership between the authors and the publisher. I thank most sincerely the many people at John Wiley & Sons who have worked with my father on the previous editions of the book, for more than three decades now. In addition, I’d be remiss without mentioning Tula Batanchiev and Judy Howarth, who were critical drivers in developing this comprehensive version of the book. They’ve been a pleasure to work with on this version and throughout the process have maintained an open, creative, and visionary mind-set, all essential when working with this type of project. There is no doubt that they’ve made the new version much better than if we had been left on our own. Books are the collaboration of good editors and good authors. We had good editors; you’ll have to be the judge how good the authors are.
In closing, this is now the fourth book I’ve had the opportunity to work with my father on since 2003. Each book has been a remarkable journey and adventure that simply put, I could not have ever imagined taking without his support, guidance, and yes, frequent ribbing and jabs (and when you move through the books, you’ll notice we attempt to incorporate humor and poke fun at ourselves, as well as the accounting profession). But the bottom line (no pun intended with this book’s subject matter) is, if it weren’t for the man I call TOP, I would have never had the opportunity to become an author. Again, I’m forever grateful for the opportunity and dedicate this book to a man who still to this day continues, after more than 50 years of being a father, to open new doors for me each and every day.
Poway, California
Tage C. Tracy
August 2013
PART ONE
FINANCIAL REPORT FUNDAMENTALS
CHAPTER 1
FINANCIAL STATEMENT BASICS
THE REAL MEAT AND POTATOES OF FINANCIAL REPORTS
To start this book it is important to understand that every for-profit business, nonprofit organization, governmental entity, and/or just about any type of “entity” you can think of need financial reports or financial statements (which represent the meat and potatoes of the financial reports). Without financial statements, managing the interests of these entities would be damn near impossible. Creditors such as banks, suppliers, landlords, and the like would not be able to assess the economic performance of the entity (and decide if credit should be extended). Management would not be able to determine how the entity is performing, including the rather novel concept of whether the entity is actually making or losing money (something the federal government doesn’t appear to have to worry about but we’ll leave this topic for another time). Investors would not be able to determine if their investments in the entity are actually worth anything. And completing and filing periodic tax returns to the slew of taxing authorities all entities must inevitably comply with would be challenging, to say the least.
Countless other examples of why financial statements are needed could be cited, so rather than burn an entire chapter on listing every potential scenario, let’s stay focused on two important acronyms as they apply to financial statements.
As we proceed through this book and assist the reader with understanding the basics of financial statements, a constant theme is also presented in helping readers understand and identify when CART financial statements are being produced compared to applying the SWAG method. We note that you generally won’t find these acronyms listed in any official accounting literature, formal accounting guidance reference material, and so on, as these terms are centered more on how accounting is applied and conducted on “the street” as opposed to how accounting theory and principles are taught “in the classroom.” But whether CART or SWAG is applied, the same concept still holds as it relates to preparing financial statements and the consequences of not completing even the basics, as Twitter found out the hard way!
The Big Three—Financial Condition, Profit Performance, and Cash Flows
As previously noted, business managers, lenders, investors, governmental organizations, and the like (collectively referred to as the parties throughout this book) need to have a clear understanding of the financial condition of a business, both at a point in time and over a period of time. The primary objective of the big three financial statements summarized in this segment of the chapter is to achieve just this goal.
First Up, the Balance Sheet
Parties need to assess the financial condition of a business at a point in time. For this purpose they need a report that summarizes its assets (what the business owns) and liabilities or obligations (what the business owes), as well as the ownership interests in the residual of assets in excess of liabilities (which is commonly referred to as owners’ equity). Understanding the financial condition of a business is best measured by number one on the list of the big three financial statements—the balance sheet.
Exhibit 1.1 presents a standard balance sheet for a business entity.
EXHIBIT 1.1—YEAR-END BALANCE SHEETS
Dollar Amounts in Thousands
When first reviewing the balance sheet a number of items should jump out at the reader including the format used, the different groupings of assets, liabilities, and equity, the allocation of assets and liabilities between current and long-term, and other details. All of these concepts are discussed in Chapter 3, “Mastering the Balance Sheet,” but if there is one extremely important concept that must be understood with the balance sheet it is this—the balance sheet must balance. That is, total assets must equal total liabilities plus shareholders’ equity. If not, well I can only think of the line quoted by Tom Hanks who played astronaut Jim Lovell in the movie Apollo 13—“Houston, we have a problem.”
Next in Line, the Income Statement
Second up on our list of the big three financial statements is based on the simple concept of knowing (by the parties) whether a business has generated a profit or incurred a loss over a period of time. For this purpose, the business needs a report that summarizes sales or revenues against expenses or costs for a given period and the resulting profit generated or loss incurred. This financial statement is most commonly known as the income statement or similarly, the profit and loss statement (or P&L for short).
Exhibit 1.2 presents a typical income statement for the same business entity the balance sheet was presented in Exhibit 1.1.
EXHIBIT 1.2—INCOME STATEMENT FOR YEAR
Dollar Amounts in Thousands
Sales Revenue
$52,000
Cost of Goods Sold Expense
(33,800)
Gross Profit
$18,200
Selling, General, and Administrative Expenses
(12,480)
Depreciation Expense
(785)
Earnings before Interest and Income Tax
$ 4,935
Interest Expense
(545)
Earnings before Income Tax
$ 4,390
Income Tax Expense
(1,748)
Net Income
$ 2,642
Chapter 4, titled Understanding Profit, on understanding the income statement has been dedicated to breaking down the income statement in more detail but similar to the balance sheet, one important concept must be understood—profit ≠ success and losses ≠ failure. That is, generating a profit does not mean that the business is financially sound and is guaranteed success and conversely, incurring a loss does not mean the business is going to fail. Financial statements need to be understood in their entirety before a judgment can be passed on the long-term financial viability of the business.
Bringing Up the Rear, the Statement of Cash Flows
And, finally the parties need a summary of its cash flows for a period of time. Similar to the income statement, cash flows are measured over a period of time (generally the same length of time as the income statement such as a month, quarter, or year) but unlike the income statement (which measures total sales or revenues against total expenses or costs to calculate the profit or loss), cash flows are best understood by distinguishing between where cash comes from (the sources) and where cash goes (the uses). This brings us to the last of the big three financial statements, which is the statement of cash flows.
Exhibit 1.3 presents a typical statement of cash flows for the same business entity the balance sheet was presented in Exhibit 1.1 and income statement was presented in Exhibit 1.2.
EXHIBIT 1.3—STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS FOR YEAR
Dollar Amounts in Thousands
Cash Flow from Operating Activities
Net Income (from Income Statement)
$ 2,642
Accounts Receivable Increase
(320)
Inventory Increase
(935)
Prepaid Expenses Increase
(275)
Depreciation Expense
785
Accounts Payable Increase
645
Accrued Expenses Payable Increase
480
Income Tax Payable Increase
83
$3,105
Cash Flow from Investing Activities
Expenditures for Property, Plant, and Equipment
$(3,050)
Expenditures for Intangible Assets
(575)
(3,625)
Cash Flow from Financing Activities
Increase in Short-Term Debt
$ 125
Increase in Long-Term Debt
500
Issuance of Additional Capital Stock Shares
175
Distribution of Cash Dividends from Profit
(750)
50
Decrease in Cash During Year
$ (470)
Cash Balance at Start of Year
3,735
Cash Balance at End of Year
$3,265
In our business travels, there is no question that the statement of cash flows is without doubt the least understood of the big three financial statements but at the same time, the most important. Understanding how a business generates and consumes cash is discussed in more depth in Chapter 2 and as you start that chapter it is important to keep the most critical of concepts at the forefront of your thoughts as it relates to cash flows–profit ≠ positive cash flow and a loss ≠ negative cash flow.
For a perfect example of just how significant the difference can be between profit and cash flow, please refer to page 50 of Netflix’s 2012 annual report (available online) and you see that for the fiscal year-end 2012, Netflix generated a profit of $17,152,000 or the company was “in the black” for the year (i.e., the color black in the financial community equates to positive earnings and the color red to losses). Now if you proceed to page 52, you see that Netflix actually had negative cash flow for the year of $217,762,000 (referred to as the “Net increase [decrease] in cash and cash equivalents”). So for the same 12-month reporting period used for both the income statement and the statement of cash flows, one can see just how significant the divergence between the two figures can be (i.e., net profit versus negative cash flow). Netflix’s results offer a perfect case study in why it is so important to understand all three of the financial statements to properly assess the economic performance of a business.
The three financial statements for the company example introduced in this chapter are now presented here in Exhibits 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3. The format and content of these three financial statements apply to manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers—businesses that make or buy products that are sold to their customers. Although the financial statements of service businesses that don’t sell products differ somewhat, Exhibits 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 illustrate the basic framework and content of balance sheets, income statements, and statements of cash flows for all businesses.
Additional Financial Statement Considerations and Concepts
So there you have it, the big three financial statements that represent the core financial information that is reported regularly by businesses to the parties. But before we dive into these financial statements and their subcomponents in great detail, it’s worthwhile to cover some additional concepts, formats, and terminology associated with financial statements:
Supplemental information: In almost all cases the financial statements need to be supplemented with additional information, which is presented in
footnotes, supporting schedules, audit reports
, and/or
other information
. One common supporting schedule—the
statement of changes in stockholders’ (owners’) equity
—accounts for increases and decreases in owners’ equity over a period of time.
Financial report versus financial statements: The broader term
financial report
refers to all of the above, plus any additional commentary from management, narrative explanations, graphics, and promotional content that accompany the financial statements and their footnotes and supporting schedules. The use of MDORs and MD&As (i.e., management discussion of operating results and management discussion and analysis) offer the company’s executive management team with a window to highlight and/or summarize the performance of the business to assist the reader with gaining a better understanding of the financial results. In theory, this should be the primary purpose of an MDOR or MD&A but in practice, let’s face it, these items provide management with an ideal window to “promote” the business.
Alternative financial statement titles: Alternative titles for the balance sheet include “statement of financial condition” or “statement of financial position.” An income statement may be titled “statement of operations,” “earnings statement,” or as previously noted, a P&L. For the purposes of this book, we stick with the names
balance sheet
and
income statement
to be consistent throughout the book. The statement of cash flows is almost always called just that.
Plural: The term
financial statements
, in the plural, generally refers to a complete set that includes a balance sheet, an income statement, and a statement of cash flows. Informally, financial statements may be called just
financials
.
Profit as a four letter word: The term
profit
is not popular in income statements (or elsewhere in financial reports). Not many companies use the term (although some do). Profit comes across to many people as greedy or mercenary. The term suggests an excess or a surplus over and above what’s necessary. You may hear the term
profit and loss
or
P&L statement
for the income statement. But this title is not used in external financial reports released outside a business. Generally speaking,
net income
is used instead of profit.
Comparative information: Many businesses present a two-year comparative income statement and statement of cash flows, either because they legally have to or they decide to do so. Comparative balance sheets may also be presented if desired. For external readers, having comparative information is generally favorable as it provides an easier method to evaluate and assess periodic financial results.
SEC required disclosures: When companies are publicly traded, they must adhere to strict reporting standards governed by the SEC. Understanding all public reporting requirements is well beyond the scope of this book but the concept of just how extensive SEC disclosures are needs to be mentioned to help readers sort through the mounds of information disclosed in a typical public company’s annual shareholder report.
A perfect example of just how lengthy and extensive a company’s complete annual financial report can be located in Yahoo’s 2012 annual report. Of a total of 145 pages of material presented in the annual report, just five pages are allocated to the actual financial statements. The rest is allocated to primarily two functions—management promoting the business (to lead the report) and SEC disclosure requirements (covering the balance of the report).
An Important Concept to Understand Throughout This Book
Over the past century (and longer) a recognized profession has developed, one of whose main functions is to prepare and report business financial statements—the accounting profession. A primary goal of the accounting profession has been to develop and enforce accounting and financial reporting standards that apply to all businesses. In other words, there is a “rule book” that businesses should obey in accounting for profit and in reporting profit, financial condition, and cash flows. Businesses are not free to make up their own individual accounting methods and financial reporting practices. The established rules and standards are collectively referred to as generally accepted accounting principles (or GAAP as previously noted), which continuously change, adapt, and evolve as business conditions change.
But things are getting more complicated these days, that’s for sure. In the United States there are serious beginnings to adopt separate rules for private companies versus public companies, and for small companies versus larger companies. Furthermore, the efforts to develop international accounting and financial reporting standards keep slogging along, with mixed results so far. There will be a set of rules governing profit accounting and financial reporting for every business. However, exactly which set of rules will apply in the future to particular types of business is open to change.
In the book we generally assume that traditional GAAP standards apply, unless we say otherwise. We say more about the changing landscape of accounting and financial reporting standards in later chapters.
CHAPTER 2
STARTING WITH CASH FLOWS
Cash Flows—Just How Important Is It for a Business?
Not so long ago, back before central bankers and governments both near and far had to bail out the world’s economies, the concept of understanding cash flow was basically a foreign language, best left to the bean counters and Wall Street financial types to deal with. This was before the worst financial crisis to hit the United States (and for that matter, the world) since the Great Depression was experienced, starting in 2008 with the collapse of Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers, which laid the foundation for the start of the Great Recession (that many still argue the world has not fully emerged from).
You may be asking why this reference is being provided, which is simple. Unlike central banks, businesses cannot magically create cash when needed and out of thin air but rather must understand what sources of cash are available and how cash is used or consumed.
Now let’s go back in time to pre-2008, when life for businesses, governments, and even the individual consumer was different. Capital or access to cash was readily available, credit underwriting standards were limited to poor (think residential real estate mortgage lending), financial markets appeared healthy, and economic growth was solid if not strong across most industries. The focus in the mid-2000s time period was not on understanding or even caring about cash flow but rather, most parties were concentrated on a financial report perceived to be more important, the income statement or profit and loss statement (the P&L). And why not? Times were good and the income statement was going to relay just how much profit a business was producing and how wealthy everyone had become. Oh how quickly times have changed!
There’s no doubt that the income statement (covered in-depth in Chapter 4) is important as it is designed to measure how much net profit or loss a business generates over a period of time. The problem that arises is when a party becomes too fixated or overly reliant on just the income statement and does not bother to understand the income statement’s two ugly stepsisters, the balance sheet and the statement of cash flows. As most savvy parties will attest, paying attention to and understanding cash flows represents the economic backbone of every company that hopes to survive, grow, and prosper.
And because businesses can’t print or create “cash” on demand such as the world’s central banks, it goes without saying that in this day and age of economic uncertainty, a business’s ability to generate internal cash flows can mean the difference between life and death.
So now that we have your attention on understanding the importance of cash flow, we dive into this concept head first with Exhibit 2.1. For our example we use a business that has been operating many years. This established business makes profit regularly and, equally important, it keeps good financial conditions. It has a good credit history, and banks lend money to the business on competitive terms. Its present stockholders would be willing to invest additional capital in the business, if needed. None of this comes easy. It takes good management to make profit consistently, to secure capital, and to stay out of financial trouble. Many businesses fail these imperatives, especially when the going gets tough.
EXHIBIT 2.1—SUMMARY OF CASH FLOWS DURING YEAR
Dollar Amounts in Thousands
Cash Flows of Profit-Making Activities
From sales of products to customers, which includes some sales made last year
$ 51,680
For acquiring products that were sold, or are still being held for future sale
$(34,760)
For operating expenses, some of which were incurred last year
$(11,630)
For interest on short-term and long-term debt, some of which applies to last year
$ (520)
For income tax, some of which was paid on last year’s taxable income
$ (1,665)
$ 3,105
Other Sources and Uses of Cash
From increasing amount borrowed on interest-bearing notes payable
$ 625
From issuing additional capital stock (ownership shares) in the business
$ 175
For building improvements, new machines, new equipment, and intangible assets
$ (3,625)
For distributions to stockholders from profit
$ (750)
$ (3,575)
Net cash increase (decrease) during year
$ (470)
Exhibit 2.1 summarizes the company’s cash inflows and outflows for the year just ended, and shows two separate groups of cash flows. First are the cash flows of its profit-making activities—cash inflows from sales and cash outflows for expenses. Second are the other cash inflows and outflows of the business—raising capital, investing capital in assets, and distributing some of its profit to shareowners.
We assume that you’re familiar with the cash inflows and outflows listed in Exhibit 2.1. Therefore, we are brief in describing the cash flows at this early point in the book:
The business received $51,680,000 during the year from selling products to its customers. It should be no surprise that this is its largest source of cash inflow. Cash inflow from sales revenue is needed for paying expenses. During the year the company paid $34,760,000 for the products it sells to customers. And, it had sizable cash outflows for operating expenses, interest on its debt (borrowed money), and income tax. The net result of its cash flows of profit-making activities is a $3,105,000 cash increase for the year—an extremely important number that managers, lenders, and investors watch closely.
Moving on to the second group of cash flows during the year, the business increased the amount borrowed on notes payable $625,000, and its stockholders invested an additional $175,000 in the business. Together these two external sources of capital provided $800,000, which is in addition to the internal $3,105,000 cash from its profit-making activities during the year. On the other side of the ledger, the business spent $3,625,000 for building improvements, for new machines and equipment, and for intangible assets. Finally, the business distributed $750,000 cash to its stockholders from profit. This distribution from profit is included in the second group of cash flows. In other words, the $3,105,000 cash flow from profit is before the distribution to shareowners.
The net result of all cash inflows and outflows is a $470,000 cash
decrease
during the year. Don’t jump to any conclusions; the net decrease in cash in and of itself is neither good nor bad. You need more information than just the summary of cash flows to come to any conclusions about the financial performance and situation of the business.
Cash Flows—What Does It Not Tell You?
In Exhibit 2.1 we see that cash, the all-important lubricant of business activity, decreased $470,000 during the year. In other words, the total of cash outflows exceeded the total of cash inflows by this amount for the year. The cash decrease and the reasons for the decrease are very important information. The cash flows summary tells an important part of the story of the business. But, cash flows do not tell the whole story. Parties need to know two other types of information about a business that are not reported in its cash flows summary.
These two important types of information (as summarized in Chapter 1 and discussed in more depth in Chapters 3 and 4) are:
Now hold on. Didn’t we just see in Exhibit 2.1 that the net cash increase from sales revenue less expenses was $3,105,000 for the year? You may ask: Doesn’t this cash increase equal the amount of profit earned for the year? No, it doesn’t. The net cash flow from profit-making operations during the year does not equal the amount of profit earned for the year. In fact, it’s not unusual that these two numbers are very different. The reason for this is simple—profit (or losses) is an accounting-determined number that requires much more than simply keeping track of cash flows so you might as well start to get familiar with the following terminology (introduced in Chapter 1 but worth repeating again):
The differences between using a checkbook (for you old timers) or electronic bank account data to measure profits and losses and using GAAP accounting methods to measure profits and losses are explained later in this book and are important to understand. But in summary, the following key concept should be understood: Rarely do cash flows during a period accurately measure the correct amounts of a company’s sales revenue and expenses for that period.
Furthermore, a summary of cash flows reveals virtually nothing about the financial condition (strength or weakness) of the business at a point in time. Financial condition refers to the assets of the business matched against its liabilities at the end of the period. For example: How much cash does the company have in its business bank account(s) at the end of the year? From the summary of cash flows (Exhibit 2.1) we see that the business decreased its cash balance $470,000 during the year. But we can’t tell from the cash flows summary the company’s ending cash balance. And, more importantly, the cash flows summary does not report the amounts of assets and liabilities of the business at the end of the period.
Profit and Losses Cannot Be Measured by Cash Flows
The business in Exhibit 2.1, like most companies, sell products on credit. That is, the business offers its customers a short period of time or term to pay for their purchases. Most of the company’s sales are to other businesses, which demand credit for say anywhere from 30 to 60 days to remit payment (in contrast, most retailers selling to individuals accept credit cards or accept cash instead of extending credit to their customers). In this example the company collected $51,680,000 from its customers during the year. However, some of this cash inflow was for sales made in the previous year. And, some sales made on credit in the year just ended had not been collected by the end of the year.
At year-end the company had receivables from sales made to its customers during the latter part of the year. These receivables will be collected early next year. Because some cash was collected from last year’s sales and some cash was not collected from sales made in the year just ended, the total amount of cash collections during the year differs from the amount of sales revenue for the year.
Cash disbursements during the year are not the correct amounts for measuring expenses. The company paid $34,760,000 for products that are sold to customers (see Exhibit 2.1). At year-end, however, many products were still being held in inventory. These products had not yet been sold by year-end. Only the cost of products sold and delivered to customers during the year should be deducted as expense from sales revenue to measure profit. Don’t you agree?
Furthermore, some of the company’s product costs had not yet been paid by the end of the year. The company buys on credit and takes several weeks before paying its bills. The company has liabilities at year-end for recent product purchases and for operating costs as well.
Its cash payments during the year for operating expenses, as well as for interest and income tax expenses, are not the correct amounts to measure profit for the year. The company has liabilities at the end of the year for unpaid expenses. The cash outflow amounts shown in Exhibit 2.1 do not include the amounts of unpaid expenses at the end of the year.
In short, cash flows from sales revenue and for expenses are not the correct amounts for measuring profit for a period of time. Cash flows take place too late or too early for correctly measuring profit for a period. Correct timing is needed to record sales revenue and expenses in the right period.
The correct timing of recording sales revenue and expenses is called accrual-basis accounting and specifically addressed by GAAP. Accrual-basis accounting recognizes receivables from making sales on credit and recognizes liabilities for unpaid expenses in order to determine the correct profit measure for the period. Accrual-basis accounting also is necessary to determine the financial condition of a business—to record the assets and liabilities of the business.
Cash Flows Do Not Reveal Financial Condition
The cash flow summary for the year (Exhibit 2.1) does not reveal the financial condition of the company. Parties certainly need to know which assets the business owns and the amounts of each asset, including cash, receivables, inventory, and all other assets. Also, they need to know which liabilities the company owes and the amounts of each.
Parties have the responsibility for keeping the company in a position to pay its liabilities when they come due to keep the business solvent (able to pay its liabilities on time). Business managers also have to keep the business liquid (having enough available cash or cash equivalents when they need it). Furthermore, managers have to know whether assets are too large (or too small) relative to the sales volume of the business and its lenders and investors want to know the same things about a business. These concepts will be addressed throughout the book as not only is it important to know “How to Read a Financial Report” but just as importantly, one needs to know what the financial reports really say about a business’s financial performance and condition.
In brief, both primary groups of parties including insiders (managers, executives, owners, etc.) and outsiders (creditors, lenders, investors, governmental regulatory bodies, etc.) need a summary of a company’s financial condition (its assets and liabilities) to make informed decisions. They need a profit performance report as well, which summarizes the company’s sales revenue and expenses and its profit for the year.
A cash flow summary is very useful. In fact, a slightly different version of Exhibit 2.1 is one of the three primary financial statements reported by every business. But in no sense does the cash flows report take the place of the profit performance report and the financial condition report. The next two chapters introduce these two financial statements, and show the generally accepted format of a summary of cash flows (instead of the informal format shown in Exhibit 2.1).
CHAPTER 3
MASTERING THE BALANCE SHEET
Solvency versus Liquidity
Before we delve into the basic attributes, structure, and format of a typical company balance sheet, a discussion needs to be held on the topic of solvency versus liquidity. The reason for this is simple, as if one looks at the financial condition of “Western” governments (e.g., the United States, Japan, and most of Europe), you read that most if not all of these countries are technically insolvent, yet all seem to have ample liquidity (or availability to cash to cover ongoing costs and expenses) to support continued government functions. But of course wouldn’t you know it, just as we were completing this book, the U.S. government “shutdown” in October of 2013 as a result of not being able to sell new debt to raise cash to continue normal operations. So now we have a situation where the U.S. government is both illiquid and insolvent.
The concepts of liquidity and solvency apply not just to governments but to a number of businesses as well including financial institutions such as banks, insurance companies, auto manufacturing businesses, and others (again, types of entities singled out for being insolvent at one point or another over the past five years).
The key when reviewing the definitions is to understand liquidity versus solvency from an accounting or business perspective and realize this critical concept. Being solvent ≠ being liquid and conversely, being liquid ≠ being solvent.
To better illustrate this point, please refer to Exhibit 3.1 providing a balance sheet for two different companies:
EXHIBIT 3.1—COMPARATIVE YEAR-END COMPANY BALANCE SHEETS
Dollar Amounts in Thousands
Company ABC, Inc.’s balance sheet displays total assets of $10,500,000 compared to total liabilities of $12,100,000 resulting in negative shareholders’ equity of $1,600,000. By definition, this company is technically insolvent as its liabilities exceed its assets (or stated another way, if the company was to liquidate, it would not be able to pay off all liabilities if the proceeds from asset sales equaled $10,500,000). But on further review of the balance sheet, we notice that Company ABC, Inc. is very liquid as its current assets totaling $6,400,000 (including cash balances of $2,400,000) greatly exceed its current liabilities (or obligations due within a short time period) by a rate of 2 to 1 (as total liabilities amount to $3,200,000). So here we have a company that is technically insolvent yet very liquid.
Now let’s take a look at Company XYZ from Business XYZ, Inc. with total assets of $16,300,000 compared to total liabilities of $9,600,000. With asset values in excess of liabilities by $6,700,000, we have what would appear to be a solvent company. But as we dig deeper, liquidity problems begin to appear as with only $4,250,000 of current assets (of which only $500,000 is in the form of cash) and current liabilities of $8,100,000, of which a short-term loan of $1,500,000 is due within 30 days, Company XYZ, Inc. is about to realize a severe liquidity crisis.
This brings us to the key concept of the balance sheet, which is very simple in that it must properly measure a company’s financial condition at any point in time. The remainder of this chapter addresses just how important the information reported in the balance sheet is in relation to understanding liquidity, solvency, and financial condition.
Balance Sheet Basics—Left and Right, Top to Bottom
The balance sheet shown in Exhibit 3.2 follows the standardized format regarding the classification and ordering of assets, liabilities, and ownership interests in the business. It should be noted that slightly different balance sheet formats may be used in certain industries such as financial institutions (e.g., banks), public utilities, railroads, and other specialized businesses but the basic balance sheet format structure still remains intact. That is, assets presented on the left, liabilities and owners’ equity on the right, with assets equaling liabilities plus owners’ equity. So for the purposes of this book, we reference the standard balance sheet format as presented in Exhibit 3.2, which most companies including manufacturers, retailers, distributors, technology, and professional services utilize.
EXHIBIT 3.2—YEAR-END BALANCE SHEET
Dollar Amounts in Thousands
On the left side the balance sheet lists assets. On the right side the balance sheet first lists the liabilities of the business. The sources of ownership (equity) capital in the business are then presented below the liabilities, to emphasize that the owners or equity holders in a business (the stockholders of a business corporation) have a secondary and lower order claim on the assets—after its liabilities are satisfied.
Each separate asset, liability, and stockholders’ equity reported in a balance sheet is called an account. Every account has a name (title) and a dollar amount, which is called its balance. For instance, from Exhibit 3.2 at the end of the most recent year:
Name of Account
Amount (Balance) of Account
Inventory
$8,450,000
The other dollar amounts in the balance sheet are either subtotals or totals of account balances. For example, the $17,675,000 amount for “Current Assets” at the end of this year does not represent an account but rather the subtotal of the four accounts making up this group of accounts. A line is drawn above a subtotal or total, indicating account balances are being added. A double underline (such as for “Total Assets”) indicates the last amount in a column.
A balance sheet is prepared at the close of business on the last day of the income statement period. For example, if the income statement is for the year ending June 30, 2014, the balance sheet is prepared at midnight June 30, 2014. The amounts reported in the balance sheet are the balances of the accounts at that precise moment in time. The financial condition of the business is frozen for one split second. A business should be careful to make a precise and accurate cut-off to separate transactions between the period just ended and next period.
A balance sheet does not report the flows of activities in the company’s assets, liabilities, and shareowners’ equity accounts during the period. Only the ending balances at the moment the balance sheet is prepared are reported for the accounts. For example, the company reports an ending cash balance of $3,265,000 at the end of its most recent year (see Exhibit 3.2). Can you tell the total cash inflows and outflows for the year? No, not from the balance sheet; you can’t even get a clue from the balance sheet alone.
A balance sheet can be presented in the landscape (horizontal) layout mode (as shown in Exhibit 3.2) or in the portrait (vertical) layout. The accounts reported in the balance sheet are not thrown together haphazardly in no particular order. According to long-standing rules, balance sheet accounts are subdivided into the following classes, or basic groups, in the following order of presentation:
Left Side (or Top Section)
Right Side (or Bottom Section)
Current assets
Current liabilities
Long-term operating assets
Long-term liabilities
Other assets
Owners’ equity
Current assets are cash and other assets that will be converted into cash during one operating cycle. The operating cycle refers to the sequence of buying or manufacturing products, holding the products until sale, selling the products, waiting to collect the receivables from the sales, and finally receiving cash from customers. This sequence is the most basic rhythm of a company’s operations; it is repeated over and over. The operating cycle may be short, only 60 days or less, or it may be relatively long, taking 180 days or more.
Assets not directly required in the operating cycle, such as marketable securities held as temporary investments or short-term loans made to employees, are included in the current assets class if they will be converted into cash during the coming year. A business pays in advance for some costs of operations that will not be charged to expense until next period. These prepaid expenses are included in current assets, as you see in Exhibit 3.2.
The second group of assets is labeled “Long-Term Operating Assets” in the balance sheet. These assets are not held for sale to customers; rather, they are used in the operations of the business. Broadly speaking, these assets fall into two groups: tangible and intangible assets. Tangible assets have physical existence, such as machines and buildings. Intangible assets do not have physical existence, but they are legally protected rights (such as patents and trademarks), or they are such things as secret processes and well-known favorable reputations that give businesses important competitive advantages. Generally intangible assets are recorded only when the assets are purchased from a source outside the business.
The tangible assets of the business are reported in the “Property, Plant, and Equipment” account—see Exhibit 3.2 again. More informally, these assets are called fixed assets, although this term is generally not used in balance sheets. The word fixed is a little strong; these assets are not really fixed or permanent, except for the land owned by a business. More accurately, these assets are the long-term operating resources used over several years—such as buildings, machinery, equipment, trucks, forklifts, furniture, computers, and telephones.
The cost of a fixed asset—with the exception of land—is gradually charged off to expense over its useful life. Each period of use thereby bears its share of the total cost of each fixed asset. This apportionment of the cost of fixed assets over their useful lives is called depreciation. The amount of depreciation for one year is reported as an expense in the income statement (see Exhibit 4.1). The cumulative amount that has been recorded as depreciation expense since the date of acquisition up to the balance sheet date is reported in the accumulated depreciation account in the balance sheet (see Exhibit 3.2). As you see, the balance in the accumulated depreciation account is deducted from the original cost of the fixed assets.
In the example, the business owns various intangible long-term operating assets. These assets report the cost of acquisition. The cost of an intangible asset remains on the books until the business determines that the asset has lost value or no longer has economic benefit. At that time the business writes down (or writes off) the original cost of the intangible asset and charges the amount to an expense, usually amortization expense. Until recently, the general practice was to allocate the cost of intangible assets over arbitrary time periods. However, many intangible assets have indefinite and indeterminable useful lives. The conventional wisdom now is that it’s better to wait until an intangible asset has lost value, at which time an expense is recorded.
You may see an account called “Other Assets” on a balance sheet, which is a catchall title for those assets that don’t fit in the current assets or long-term operating assets classes. The company in this example does not have any such “other” assets.
The accounts reported in the current liabilities
