The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics - Carol A. Chapelle - E-Book

The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics E-Book

Carol A. Chapelle

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Beschreibung

Offers a wide-ranging overview of the issues and research approaches in the diverse field of applied linguistics Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that identifies, examines, and seeks solutions to real-life language-related issues. Such issues often occur in situations of language contact and technological innovation, where language problems can range from explaining misunderstandings in face-to-face oral conversation to designing automated speech recognition systems for business. The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics includes entries on the fundamentals of the discipline, introducing readers to the concepts, research, and methods used by applied linguists working in the field. This succinct, reader-friendly volume offers a collection of entries on a range of language problems and the analytic approaches used to address them. This abridged reference work has been compiled from the most-accessed entries from The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (www.encyclopediaofappliedlinguistics.com), the more extensive volume which is available in print and digital format in 1000 libraries spanning 50 countries worldwide. Alphabetically-organized and updated entries help readers gain an understanding of the essentials of the field with entries on topics such as multilingualism, language policy and planning, language assessment and testing, translation and interpreting, and many others. Accessible for readers who are new to applied linguistics, The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics: * Includes entries written by experts in a broad range of areas within applied linguistics * Explains the theory and research approaches used in the field for analysis of language, language use, and contexts of language use * Demonstrates the connections among theory, research, and practice in the study of language issues * Provides a perfect starting point for pursuing essential topics in applied linguistics Designed to offer readers an introduction to the range of topics and approaches within the field, The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics is ideal for new students of applied linguistics and for researchers in the field.

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Table of Contents

Cover

Thematic List of Entries

Analysis of Context of Language Use

Analysis of Language Use

Language Assessment and Testing

Language Learning and Teaching

Language Policy and Planning

Language for Specific Purposes

Linguistic Analysis for Applied Problems

Multilingualism

Research Methods

Second Language Development

Technology and Language

Translation and Interpreting

World Englishes

Alphabetical List of Entries

General Editor

Contributors

Introduction to

The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

Defining Applied Linguistics

Problems in Applied Linguistics

Research in Applied Linguistics

Reading The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Acknowledgments

A

Adverbs

Form and Function

Classification

Semantic Roles

Adverbs in Discourse

References

Suggested Readings

African Union

Introduction

Colonialism, Postcolonialism, and Language Policy and Ideologies

The African Union and Africa's Past Language Policies

The African Union and Attitudes Toward African Languages

The African Union and Prospects for the Indigenous African Languages

References

Suggested Readings

Agency in Second Language Acquisition

Significance of Agency in SLA: A Theoretical Overview

Theoretical Perspectives on Agency in SLA

Research Into Agency in L2 Learning and Teaching

Conclusion

References

Suggested Reading

Note

Analysis of Dialogue

Dialogues

Organization

Intersubjectivity

Social Context

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Analysis of Gender in Interaction

What Is Gender in Human Interaction?

The Polysemy of Gendered Language

References

Suggested Readings

Anthropological Linguistics

References

Suggested Readings

Aptitude in Second Language Acquisition

References

Suggested Readings

Assessment in the Classroom

Approaches of Classroom Assessment

Assessment for Summative Purposes or Assessment of Learning

Assessment for Formative Purposes or Assessment for Learning

Assessment as Learning

The Role of Standards in Classroom Assessment

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Assessment of Cultural Knowledge

Introduction

Conceptualizing Cultural Knowledge

The Nature of Instruments Assessing Cultural Knowledge

Selected Cultural Knowledge Assessment Instruments

Conclusion

References

Online Resources

Note

Assessment of Integrated Skills

Test Tasks

Computer Madness

Research in the Assessment of Integrated Skills

Benefits of Integrated Assessment

Challenges of Integrated Assessment

Development

Reliability and Rating

Validity

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Assessment of the Linguistic Resources of Communication

Representing the Linguistic Resources of Communication

Conceptualizing L2 Proficiency as Knowledge of Grammatical Forms

Conceptualizing L2 Proficiency as a Set of Resources for Communicating Contextualized Meanings

Measuring the Linguistic Resources of Communication

Conclusion

References

Note

Assessment of Listening

Listening Processes

Factors Affecting Listening

Tasks for Assessing Listening

Limitations of Listening Assessment Tasks

Computers in Assessing Listening

Current and Future Directions in Assessing Listening

References

Suggested Readings

Assessment of Pragmatics

The Construct

Tests Under the Speech Act Construct

Measurement of Interactional Abilities

Challenges in Testing L2 Pragmatics

Conclusion

References

Assessment of Reading

Brief History of Reading Research

Linguistic Knowledge and Reading Ability

Reading Ability in a Second Language

Reading Assessment in a Second Language

Unique Challenges in L2 Reading Assessment

Future Directions in Second Language Reading Assessment

References

Suggested Readings

Assessment of Speaking

Speaking Assessment Methods

Rating Scales and Scale Descriptors

Raters

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Assessment of Vocabulary

Introduction

Selection of Target Items

Design of Assessments

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Assessment of Writing

Purposes of Writing Tests

The Nature of Second Language Writing

Types of Writing Assessments

Characteristics of Writing Tests: Tasks and Scoring

Challenges and Opportunities for the Future

References

Suggested Readings

Attention, Noticing, and Awareness in Second Language Acquisition

Introduction

Theoretical Approaches to the Roles of Attention and Awareness in SLA

Attention/Noticing and Learning: Empirical Evidence in SLA

Awareness and Learning in SLA

Empirical Evidence for the Role of Awareness in SLA

Learning Without Awareness?

Where Do We Go From Here?

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Attitudes and Motivation in Bilingual Education

Introduction

Attitudes

Motivation

Different Motivational Models

Minority Languages

Foreign Languages: Global English

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Audiovisual Translation

Multimedia Translation

AVT Modalities

Dubbing

Subtitling

Fansubbing

Accessibility

References

Authenticity in the Language Teaching Curriculum

Authentic Materials in a Historical Context

Pedagogical Challenges

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Automatic Speech Recognition

Definition

Historical Overview

Challenges and Applications of ASR

ASR in Applied Linguistics

Automatic Rating of Pronunciation

Other ASR Applications in Applied Linguistics

Future Directions

References

Suggested Readings

B

Bilingualism and Cognition

Bilingualism and Language

Bilingualism and Nonverbal Cognition

References

Suggested Readings

Bilingual and Monolingual Language Modes

Language Mode

Evidence for Language Mode

Language Mode in Different Groups of Bilinguals

Language Mode in Research

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

C

Case Study

Defining Case‐Study Research

Case Studies in Applied Linguistics

Issues in Case‐Study Research

Case Studies in Mixed Methods Research

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Chaos/Complexity Theory for Second Language Acquisition/Development

Introduction

Traditional Views of SLA

Shifting the Metaphor

Language Users/Learners

Usage‐Based Emergentism

Individual Differences

Implications for Research Methods

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Classroom Research

What Is Classroom Research?

What Are the Origins of L2 Classroom Research?

Are There Different Approaches to Classroom Research?

What Questions and Topics Are Examined in CR?

Future Directions in CR

References

Suggested Readings

Cognitive Approaches to Translation

Methodological Approaches

Translation as Information Processing and Symbol Manipulation

Translation as an Experiential, Cultural Act

Translation as Situated, Sociocognitive Interaction

References

Collaborative Language Learning

References

Suggested Readings

Computer‐Assisted Language Learning Effectiveness Research

Introduction

Research Findings on CALL Effectiveness

Approaches to Evaluating CALL Effectiveness

CALL Evaluation Argument

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Computer‐Assisted Pronunciation Teaching

Technology for Teaching Segmentals (Vowels and Consonants)

Technology for Teaching Suprasegmentals (Prosody, Intonation, Rhythm)

Outlook for the Future

References

Suggested Readings

Computer‐Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)

References

Suggested Reading

Online Resources

Computer‐Mediated Communication and Second Language Development

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Construction Grammar

Introduction

Construction Grammar: The Central Ideas

Applications

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Online Resource

Content‐Based Second/Foreign‐Language Instruction

Introduction

Three Main CBLI Models

Implementation Issues

Research Agenda

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Conversation Analysis and Affiliation and Alignment

Introduction

Distinguishing Affiliation and Alignment

Creating an Environment for Alignment and Affiliation

Disaligning and Disaffiliating

Affiliating Without Aligning

Aligning Without Affiliating

Discussion

References

Suggested Readings

Conversation Analysis and Child Language Acquisition

Competencies and Understandings

Childhood: Interactions in Pre‐ and Early‐Years Primary School Settings

References

Suggested Reading

Conversation Analysis and Classroom Interaction

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Conversation Analysis of Computer‐Mediated Interactions

Future Trends

References

Suggested Readings

Conversation Analysis and Interactional Linguistics

Introduction

Basic Assumptions

Historical Development

Research Principles and Methods

Objects of Research

Findings

References

Suggested Readings

Conversation Analysis and Laughter

Introduction

The Interactional Environments of Laughter

Laughter and Social Context

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Conversation Analysis Methodology in Second Language Studies

Introduction

Compatibility of CA and L2 Studies

Types of Studies

CA Methodological and Procedural Positions in L2 Studies

In Conclusion: Applying CA to L2 Studies

References

Suggested Readings

Conversation Analysis and Second Language Acquisition: CA‐SLA

CA, SLA, and CA‐SLA

Reconceptualizing Learning and Cognition

Methodological Underpinnings

Analyzing L2 Interactions and Learning Environments

Analyzing L2 Learning

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Conversation Analysis: Transcriptions and Data

Transcriptions and Data

Recordings and Data

Transcription

Specific Issues

References

Suggested Readings

Corpus Analysis of Business English

Corpora of Business English

Linguistic Analyses of Business English Corpora

Multidimensional Analysis of Business English Corpora

References

Suggested Readings

Corpus Analysis in Forensic Linguistics

Comparative Authorship Analysis

Authorship Profiling

Trademark Disputes

Determination of Meaning

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Corpus Analysis of Key Words

Introduction

Method: How Are Key Words Calculated?

Problems, Limitations, and Extensions of the Technique

Example Applications

References

Suggested Readings

Corpus Analysis of Political Language

Types of Corpus‐Assisted Studies Into the Language of Politics

Potential Sources of Data

Types of Research Objectives

The Added Value of Using Corpora

Modern Diachronic Corpus‐Assisted Discourse Studies (MD‐CADS)

Research as Activism or Research for Knowledge's Own Sake?

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Corpus Linguistics in Language Teaching

What Relevance Does Corpus Linguistics Have for Language Teaching?

Corpus Linguistics in the Classroom: Options for Language Teachers

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Corpus Linguistics: Quantitative Methods

Introduction

Distinctive Collexeme Analysis

Applications

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Council of Europe Language Policy and Planning

Introduction

Policy Documents and Tools in Support of Plurilingual People Living in Multilingual Societies

The European Centre for Modern Languages

References

Note

Critical Analysis of Political Discourse

References

Suggested Readings

Critical Pedagogy in Language Teaching

References

Suggested Readings

Critical Period

References

Suggested Readings

Cross‐Cultural Pragmatics

Context Shaping Meaning

Language Shaping Context

Common Ground

Fields of Application

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition

Terminology

The Verification of CLI

Main Findings

Theoretical and Empirical Advances

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Cultural Approaches to Translation

Introduction

Translation From Cultures

Translating for Cultures

Translating Between Cultures

References

Suggested Readings

D

Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language Instruction

Introduction

The Issues

The Evidence

The Problems and Challenges

Summary and Future Directions

References

Suggested Reading

Discourse and Identity

Social Identities in Discourse

Personal Identities in Narrative

Digital, Networked, and Posthuman Identities

References

Suggested Readings

E

Early Bilingualism

Major Linguistic Developments in BFLA and ESLA

Applied Aspects of Early Bilingualism

References

Suggested Readings

English for Academic Purposes

Introduction

Generic or Specific Attributes in EAP?

Approaches to EAP

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

English in Asian and European Higher Education

References

Suggested Readings

Note

English for Business

Introduction

Researching Written and Spoken Business English

The Effects of Using English for Business

English for Business in the Future

References

Suggested Readings

English for Occupational Purposes

Introduction

Surveys in English for Occupational Purposes

Analyzing Language and Interactions at Work

English for Occupational Purposes in Different Workplace Settings

The Social Dimension of English for Occupational Purposes

Conclusion

References

English‐Only Movement

Historical Background

The Rise of the Contemporary English‐Only Movement

Propositions 227 and 203

Proposition 58 and the Future

References

Suggested Readings

Epistemology and Ontology

Introduction

Ontology Within Metaphysics

Epistemology

Theories of Knowledge in Mainstream and Second Language Research

Constructivist Epistemology and Second Language Research Knowledge

Knowledge of Second or Foreign Languages and Language Teachers' Knowledge

References

Ethnography of Communication as a Research Perspective

Hymes's Theoretical Model

“Doing Ethnography”

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Explicit Knowledge and Grammar Explanation in Second Language Instruction

What Is Explicit Knowledge?

Isolated or Integrated Grammar Instruction?

Grammar Explanation

Other Ways of Explaining Grammar

What to Explain

Taking the Learner Into Account

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

F

First Language Vocabulary Acquisition

References

Suggested Readings

Foreign Accent

Why Is a Foreign Accent So Difficult to Overcome?

Two Main Linguistic Sources of Foreign Accent: L1 Transfer and Universals

Why Are Some Phenomena More Difficult to Learn Than Others?

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Form‐Focused Instruction

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Formulaic Language and Collocation

The Functions of Formulaic Language

Acquisition of Formulaic Language

Non‐Native Use of Formulaic Language

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Formulaic Sequences

Definition

Functions

Evidence

Theoretical Issues

Formulaic Sequences in SLA

The Future

References

Suggested Readings

Frame Analysis

Bateson's Conception of Frame

“Frame,” “Keying,” and “Footing”

Various Perspectives of Frame Analysis: Interactive Frame and Cognitive/Knowledge Frame

Studies of Frame Analysis

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Functional Approaches to Translation

Historical Background

Basic Concepts and Ideas of Skopos Theory

Applications to Translator Training

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

G

Genre‐Based Language Teaching

References

Suggested Readings

Genre and Discourse Analysis in Language for Specific Purposes

Discourse and Genre Analysis

Genre Structures and Features

Genre and Community

Genre Constellations

Genre Pedagogies

Critiques

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Grammar in Academic Writing

Noun Phrase Characteristics

Thematization

Personal Pronouns

Tense

Cohesion

Hedging

Intertextuality, Citation, and Knowledge Claims

References

Suggested Readings

Grammar and Electronic Communication

Introduction

E‐Grammar in English

Emoji Grammar

E‐Grammar and Language Change

E‐Grammar and Literacy

References

Suggested Readings

Note

H

Heritage Languages and Language Policy

Defining Heritage Languages

Defining HL Learners

US Language Policy for Heritage Languages

Looking Ahead

References

Suggested Readings

Historical Pragmatics

Introduction

Approaches and Data

Application

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

History of Language‐Teaching Methods

Early History

Grammar Translation Method

Direct Method

Audio‐Lingual Method

Cognitive Approaches to Language Teaching

Communicative Language Teaching

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

History of Translation

The Object of Inquiry

Research Questions and Source Collection, Evaluation, and Interpretation

Writing Translation History

Sample Approaches to Translation History

Toward Integrative Translation History

References

Suggested Readings

I

Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms

Theories of the Social

Theories of the Sociomaterial

Explorations in Sociomaterialism

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Identity and Second Language Acquisition

Theoretical Framework

Identity on the SLA Agenda

Key Directions in Identity Research

Conclusion

References

Immersion Education

Program Models and Outcomes

Pedagogical Issues

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning

Introduction

Reasons for Educational Innovation

Innovation Implementation

Barriers to Innovation Implementation

The Importance of Secondary Innovations

References

Suggested Readings

Instructed Second Language Acquisition

References

Suggested Readings

Intelligibility in World Englishes

References

Suggested Readings

Intercultural Competence

Competence

Models of Intercultural Competence

Contexts and Applications

Assessment or Measuring of Intercultural Competence

References

Suggested Readings

Intercultural Interaction

Introduction

Culture and Achieving Understanding

Culture and the Management of Relations

Culture, Identity, and Personal Growth

Competence in Intercultural Interaction

References

Suggested Readings

Interlanguage

Origins of the Concept of Interlanguage

Defining Interlanguage

The Relevant Data for the Study of Interlanguage

The Revised Interlanguage Hypothesis

References

Suggested Readings

International Phonetic Alphabet

Introduction

History

The International Phonetic Alphabet, English Spelling, and Dictionaries

The International Phonetic Alphabet Itself

The International Phonetic Alphabet on the Computer

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Interviews in Qualitative Research

Forms of Interviewing in Qualitative Research

Designing Qualitative Studies That Use Interviews

Asking Questions

Issues in Conducting Interviews

Theorizing Interviews

Transcribing and Analyzing Interview Data

Quality in Interviewing

The Future of Interview Research

References

Suggested Readings

Online Resources

K

Knowledge Base of Language Teachers

Teachers' Knowledge About Language

Teachers' Knowledge of Second Language Acquisition

Teachers' Identities, Moral Values, and Critical Consciousness

Language Teachers' Sense Making in Action

References

Suggested Readings

L

Language, Culture, and Context

An Integrative View of Language

Language and Culture

Cultural Dimensions of Language

The Language–Culture Nexus in Context

References

Suggested Reading

Note

Language and Globalization

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Language and Identity

References

Suggested Readings

Language Ideology in the Discourse of Popular Culture

References

Suggested Readings

Language Ideology and Public Discourse

Language Ideology and Public Discourse

Language Ideologies: Differences and Commonalities

Public Versus Private?

Moving Beyond Language: Current Developments in Language Ideology Research

References

Suggested Readings

Language Planning: Qin Shihuangdi's Contribution

References

Suggested Readings

Language Policy and Planning: Kemal Atatürk’s Contribution

References

Suggested Reading

Note

Language Program Evaluation

Introduction to Program Evaluation

The Emergence of Language Program Evaluation

Contemporary Impetus for Language Program Evaluation

Characteristics of Contemporary Program Evaluation

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Language Teaching and Learning: Quantitative Methods

An Example Study

Additional Considerations

References

Suggested Reading

Appendix: Data Set

Languaging: Collaborative Dialogue as a Source of Second Language Learning

Definition

Collaborative Dialogue (CD) as a Source of Learning

Contexts Implicated in the Quality and Quantity of CD

Mediational Means Used

Inseparability of Cognition and Emotion

Conclusion

References

Suggested Reading

Learner Beliefs in Second Language Learning

The Beginnings

The Classics

Continuation of Research Along Two Lines

Most Recent Research: Further Twists and Turns

Conclusion: Challenges and Directions for Future Research

References

Suggested Readings

Learner Corpora

Learner Corpus Design Criteria

Learner Corpus Typology

Learner Corpus Methodology

Learner Corpus Analysis

Learner Corpus‐Based Applications

References

Suggested Readings

Lexical Borrowing

Notable Examples

Factors That Encourage Lexical Borrowing

The Adaptations of Borrowing

Reactions to Lexical Borrowing

The Implications of Lexical Borrowing for Foreign/Second Language Study

Conclusion

References

Suggested Reading

Lexical Priming

References

Note

Lexicogrammar

Introduction

Systemic Functional Linguistics

Corpus Linguistics

References

Suggested Reading

Linguaculture

References

Suggested Readings

Lingua Franca and Language of Wider Communication

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Linguistic Imperialism

Expansion Through Linguistic Imperialism

Ongoing Tensions Between Linguistic Imperialism and Resistance

References

Suggested Readings

Linguistic Landscape Studies

Introduction

Emerging Themes

Methodology

Outlook and Further Expansion

References

Suggested Readings

M

Materials Development

Introduction

What Materials Do Language Learners Need?

Should Materials Be Forms or Meaning Focused?

Should Materials Be Contrived or Authentic?

Should Learners Be Asked to Practice or to Use the Language?

Should Materials Be Based on Theories of Language Acquisition?

Should Materials Be Global or Local?

What Role Can Technology Play in Facilitating Language Acquisition?

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Mixed Methods

Stances on Mixing Paradigms

Purposes of Mixing Methods

Mixed Methods Research Designs

Mixed Methods Data Analysis

Quality Issues in Mixing Methods

Using Mixed Methods in Applied Linguistics Research

References

Suggested Readings

Mobile-Assisted Language Learning

MALL in Relation to CALL

Typical Applications

Reading and Listening

Speaking and Writing

Location‐Specific Language Learning

Support for Informal Learning

Control Over Learning

Mobile Learners

Accessibility and Usability

MALL Within Mobile Learning

Summary

References

Suggested Readings

Motivation in Second Language Acquisition

References

Suggested Readings

Move Analysis

Move Analysis as an Analytical Approach

Move Analysis as a Pedagogical Approach

Move Analysis Crossing Boundaries

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Multicompetence

Premises of Multicompetence

Multicompetence and SLA Methodology

Effects of the L2 on the L2 User

Bilingual Cognition

Multicompetence and Language Teaching

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Multilingualism and the Internet

Introduction

Defining the Internet

Different Ways of Using the Internet as a Source of Multilingual Data

Paradigms of Research on Multilingualism on the Internet

Multilingual Language Settings on the Internet

Multilingual Internet Discourse as Heteroglossia

Multilingualism on the Internet and Language Learning

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Multilingualism and Metalinguistic Awareness

Introduction: Multilingualism and General Cognitive Advantages

Types of Metalinguistic Awareness

Conditions Affecting the Development or Deployment of Metalinguistic Awareness

Metalinguistic Awareness: Learning to Read, Learning Other Languages

References

Suggested Readings

Multimodal Discourse Analysis

References

Suggested Readings

Multimodal Interaction Analysis

Background: Multimodal Interaction Analysis

Unit of Analysis

Modal Density Foreground–Background Continuum of Attention/Awareness

Using Multimodal Interaction Analysis as a Method

References

Suggested Readings

Multimodality and Systemic Functional Analysis

Introduction

What Is SF Theory?

SF‐MDA

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Multimodal Teaching and Learning

Multimodality

Teaching

Learning

Teaching and Learning with L2 Students

References

Suggested Readings

Note

N

Natural Language Processing and Language Learning

NLP and the Analysis of Learner Language

NLP and the Analysis of Native Language for Learners

References

Suggested Readings

Needs Analysis

A Rationale for Needs Analysis

Units of Analysis in NA

Stage 1 of a Task‐Based NA: Identifying Target Tasks

Stage 2 of a Task‐Based NA: Analysis of Target Discourse

From NA to Syllabus

References

Suggested Readings

Needs Analysis and Syllabus Design for Language for Specific Purposes

Introduction

The Role and Importance of Needs Analysis

Trends in Scope and Methods

From Needs Analysis to Specification of Syllabus Content

The Role of Theory

Issues in Needs Analysis

Conclusion

References

New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension

Literacy as Deixis

How Should We Conceptualize Literacy as a Deictic Construct?

A Dual‐Level Theory of New Literacies

The New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension

What Do We Know About the New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension?

What Do We Need to Know About the New Literacies of Online Reading Comprehension?

The Internet Is a Literacy Issue, Not a Technology Issue

Literacy Is the Internet—the Internet Is Literacy

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Non‐Native‐Speaker English Teachers

Background

Birth of the Non‐Native Speaker Movement

Reflecting on Achievements

References

Online Resources

O

Online Psycholinguistic Methods in Second Language Acquisition Research

Introduction

Word Monitoring

Cross‐Modal Priming

Self‐Paced Reading/Listening

Self‐Paced Listening With Picture Verification

Comparison Between the Tasks: Advantages and Disadvantages

References

Suggested Readings

Online Resources

Note

Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie

References

Suggested Readings

P

Paired and Group Oral Assessment

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Pattern Grammar

Introduction

Origins

The COBUILD Publications

Applications of Pattern Grammar

Pattern Grammar and Language Theory

References

Phonetics and Phonology: Historical Overview

Terminology

Pre‐19th‐Century Phonetics

Phonetics and Phonology in the 19th Century

Phonetics and Phonology in the 20th Century

Instrumental Phonetics

The International Phonetic Association and Alphabet

SIL International

Phonology

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Politeness

References

Suggested Readings

Positivism and Postpositivism

A Discipline of Design

Historically Variable Modes of Applied Linguistics

The Coherence of the Field

References

Suggested Readings

Poststructuralism

Two Critical Incidents

Poststructuralist Theories of Language, Identity, and Investment

Poststructuralist Theory and Classroom Practice

Points of Contention and Sites of Innovation

References

Pragmatic Markers

Introduction: On the Nature of Pragmatic Markers

The Structure of Pragmatic Markers

Do Pragmatic Markers Have a Meaning?

Pragmatic Markers, General Extenders, and Second Language Acquisition

References

Pragmatics of Asynchronous Computer‐Mediated Communication

Medium‐Specific Features of ACMD

The Variation in Pragmatic Features in ACMC Contexts

Pragmatic Features of ACMC in L2 Learning Contexts

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Pragmatics of Lingua Franca Interaction

What Is a Lingua Franca?

Pragmatics and Discourse‐Related Studies of ELF: Some Research Findings

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Pragmatics Research Methods

Observational Data Collection Procedures

Elicited Data Collection Procedures

Experimental Collection Procedures

Data Analysis

References

Suggested Readings

Pragmatic Transfer

Acknowledgment

References

Suggested Readings

Pronunciation Assessment

Introduction

Purposes of Assessing Pronunciation

Methods of Pronunciation Assessment

Challenges in Defining the Construct

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Pronunciation Teaching Methods and Techniques

Understanding the Basic Features of Pronunciation in English

Setting Realistic Goals for Instruction

Planning Instruction

Techniques, Tools, and Technology

References

Suggested Readings

Q

Qualitative Corpus Analysis

Definition and Philosophy

Evolution of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Corpus Analysis

Methodological Foundations

Corpus Design

Corpus Markup and Annotation

Data Retrieval

Data Interpretation

Practical Applications

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Qualitative Research on Information and Communication Technology

Current Areas of Inquiry in ICT Research

Considerations of Qualitative Methods in ICT Settings

New Demands in Qualitative Research in ICT

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Qualitative Sociolinguistics Research

Formulating Qualitative Sociolinguistic Research

Traditions in Qualitative Sociolinguistics Research

Observing Language Use in Context

Issues and Tools in Data Collection

Recent Trends in Qualitative Sociolinguistic Research

References

Suggested Readings

Quantitative Methods

Introduction

Theoretical Assumptions

Formulating the Research Question

Following a Systematic Approach

Factorial Designs

Answering the Research Question

References

Suggested Readings

R

Rating Oral Language

Rating Scales

Rater Training

Rating Processes

Rater Bias Patterns

Future Trends

References

Suggested Readings

Rating Scales and Rubrics in Language Assessment

Definition and Purpose

Types and Uses

Approaches to Rating Scale Development

Issues and Challenges

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Research Methods and Sociocultural Approaches in Second Language Acquisition

Zone of Proximal Development

Dynamic Assessment

Inner Speech

Private Speech

The Regulatory Function of Speech

Gesture

Social Situation of Development

Historical/Theoretical

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Rhetorical Discourse Analysis

Introduction

The Tradition of Rhetoric

Discourse Analysis

Rhetorical Discourse Analysis

Rhetorical Discourse Analysis in Rhetorical Criticism

Rhetorical Discourse Analysis and Rhetoric/Composition

Rhetorical Discourse Analysis in the Study of Language Structure and Use

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Role of Linguistic Human Rights in Language Policy and Planning

Introduction: Linguistic Human Rights as Part of Language Policy

Supplying or Denying Linguistic Human Rights: Good or Bad Language Policy Circles

Which Demands Are Justified? Is Speaking a Minority Language a Handicap to Get Rid Of?

When Can an LHR Approach “Deliver”?

References

Suggested Reading

Online Resource

Roles for Corrective Feedback in Second Language Instruction

Types of Corrective Feedback

Functions of Corrective Feedback

Effects of Corrective Feedback

Future Directions

References

Suggested Readings

Russification in the Soviet and Post‐Soviet Era

References

Suggested Reading

S

Study Abroad

References

Suggested Readings

Online Resources

Systemic Functional Linguistics

Conceptualizing Text/Context Dynamics: Halliday's Three Metafunctions of Language

The Ideational Metafunction and Field Resources

The Interpersonal Metafunction and Tenor Resources

The Textual Metafunction and Mode Resources

References

Suggested Readings

T

Task‐Based Language Assessment

Approaches to TBLA

Current Applications of TBLA

Issues in TBLA

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Online Resources

Note

Task‐Based Learning: Cognitive Underpinnings

Cognitive Processes in Task‐Based Learning

Design Characteristics Affecting the Cognitive Processing Demands of Tasks

Effects of Cumulative Increases in the Cognitive Demands of Tasks

References

Suggested Readings

Teacher Education for Multilingual Education

References

Suggested Readings

Teaching Culture and Intercultural Competence

What Is Culture?

Teaching Culture: Modernist Perspectives

Intercultural Competence

Teaching Culture: Postmodernist Perspectives

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Teaching Reading: Foundations and Practices

Research on Reading with Implications for Instruction

Emphases for Reading Instruction

Concluding Comments

References

Suggested Reading

Teaching Speaking

Speaking Under Time Pressure

What to Teach?

How to Teach?

Teaching Speaking and Theories of SLA

References

Suggested Readings

Teaching Vocabulary

Which Words Should Be Learned?

What Are the Vocabulary Learning Goals?

How Will Vocabulary Be Learned in the Course?

How Will Vocabulary Learning Be Assessed?

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Theses and Dissertations in English for Specific Purposes

References

Suggested Readings

Third Language Acquisition

The Scope of Third Language Acquisition

Diversity of Third Language Acquisition

Main Trends in Third Language Acquisition Research

Final Remarks

References

Suggested Readings

Translanguaging

Introduction

Translanguaging and Language Theory

Translanguaging in Education

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Translation Theory

General Considerations About Theory

Theoretical Principles Currently Accepted in Translation Studies

Conclusions Implied by These Theoretical Principles

Difficulties in Formulating Translation Theory

References

U

Uses of Language Assessments

Introduction

Classification of Test Uses

Test Use and Test Validity

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

Using the First Language and Code Switching in Second Language Classrooms

References

Suggested Reading

V

Validation of Language Assessments

The Consensus View of Validation

Major Approaches to Validation in Language Assessment

Use‐Specific Validation Frameworks

Prevailing Concerns in Validation Research

References

Varieties of English in Asia

References

Suggested Readings

Vocabulary and Language for Specific Purposes

Investigating Vocabulary and Language for Specific Purposes

Teaching and Learning Vocabulary and Language for Specialized Purposes

References

Suggested Readings

Online Resources

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

What VLS Do Students Use?

Are VLS Useful?

Person, Task, Context, and Strategies

Conclusions

References

Suggested Readings

Vygotsky and Second Language Acquisition

Meaning in the Internal Thinking/Languaging System

Methodological Approach

Vygotsky and Second Language Acquisition and Development

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Note

W

Washback in Language Assessment

References

Suggested Readings

World Englishes and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

TESOL in World Englishes: Early Years

World Englishes in TESOL: Early Years

World Englishes and TESOL in the 21st Century

Conclusion

References

Suggested Readings

Writing and Language for Specific Purposes

Writing Needs Across LSP Domains

Research in Writing and LSP

Pedagogy in Writing and LSP

References

Suggested Readings

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

A

Table 1 Culture learning instruments and selection criteria

C

Table 1 Overview of alignment and affiliation features

Table 1 Examples of spoken and written business English corpora

Table 2 Linguistic dimensions of outsourced call center discourse (Friginal, 200...

Table 1 Contingency table for keyness calculation

Table 1 Frequencies of

give

in ditransitive and prepositional datives in the ICE‐...

E

Table 1 A CARS model for article introductions (Swales, 1990, p. 141)

H

Table 1 Approaches to historical language use (from Culpeper, 2011, p. 4)

L

Table 1 Vocabulary scores by test and group

Table 2 Fixed effects structure of LMM model

M

Table 1 Mixed methods design typology (Creswell, Plano Clark, Guttman,...

N

Table 1 Types of analysis

P

Table 1 Seven successive traditions within applied linguistics

R

Table 1 Analytic rubric for assessing Chinese as a foreign language

Table 1 Example of multitrait scoring scale (adapted from Turner &...

S

Table 1 Process and participant types

Table 2 The mood system

Table 3 The modality system

Table 4 Appraisal resources

Table 5 Ways of building ideas through theme/rheme patterns in different disc...

T

Table 1 Description of vocabulary knowledge (taken from Nation, 2013)

V

Table 1 Categories of vocabulary learning strategies

List of Illustrations

A

Figure 1 The interaction of curriculum, instruction, and classroom assessment ...

Figure 2 A continuum of assessment purposes, uses of data, and examples based ...

Figure 1 List of grammatical forms based on Celce‐Murcia and Larsen‐Freeman (1...

Figure 2 List of phonological forms

Figure 3 Grammatical knowledge as form (adapted from Purpura, 2004, reproduced...

Figure 4 Semantico grammatical knowledge (adapted from Purpura, 2004, reproduc...

Figure 5 Extended model of semantico‐grammatical knowledge (adapted from Purpu...

Figure 6 Speech acts and functional meaning

Figure 7 Meaning‐oriented model of L2 proficiency (adapted from Purpura, 2016,...

Figure 8 Task types and scoring (adapted from Purpura, 2004, reproduced with p...

Figure 9 Discourse analytic measures (used in Cumming et al., 2006, used with ...

Figure 10 Discourse analytic measures (used in Knoch et al., 2014, used with p...

Figure 1 DCT item

Figure 2 Metapragmatic judgment item

Figure 3 Implicature item from Roever (2001)

Figure 4 Routines item from Roever (2001)

Figure 1 A simple four‐state Markov model with transition probabilities

Figure 2 A simple artificial neural network

B

Figure 1 A visual representation of the language‐mode continuum Note. Two po...

C

Figure 1 A model of dyadic interaction © Neomy Storch.

Figure 1 Waveform for Japanese singleton and geminate /k/

Figure 2 Spectrogram of “ah.” Created with the digital audio editor

Praat

(pra...

Figure 3 Spectrogram of “oh.” Created with the digital audio editor

Praat

(pra...

Figure 4 Images from the University of Iowa's Phonetics Flash Animation Projec...

Figure 5 Waveform and pitch curves of two utterances “Oh.” Created with the di...

Figure 6 Web‐based

Anvil

software (www.anvil-software.de/) © Anvil

Figure 1 Comparison of average dimension scores per register for “addressee‐fo...

E

Figure 1 Subdivisions of EAP (Flowerdew & Peacock, 2001, p. 12,...

Figure 2 A genre approach to nursing care plans (Hussin, 2002, p. 30) Reprinte...

I

Figure 1 Darvin and Norton's Model of Investment. Reprinted from “Identity and...

Figure 1 The International Phonetic Alphabet © 2005 International...

L

Figure 1 Data from Microsoft Excel imported into SPSS

Figure 2 SPSS linear mixed models subjects/repeated dialog box

Figure 3 SPSS linear mixed models design dialog boxes

Figure 4 Outline and results viewers

Figure 5 Pretest and posttest vocabulary scores by group

Figure 1 Grammar–lexis continuum (adapted from Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004,...

M

Figure 1 Analytic framework for the parallel tracks analysis (Kim, 2008, p. ...

Figure 2 Analytic framework for the integrated analysis (Li, Marquart,...

Figure 1 Petra's attention/awareness levels: She pays close attention to the...

O

Figure 1 Picture verification for self‐paced listening task (reprinted from ...

P

Figure 1 Methods of pronunciation assessment

Q

Figure 1 Forms of hypothesis

Figure 2 A schematic representation of true experimental design

Figure 3 A schematic representation of a one‐shot case study

Figure 4 A schematic representation of a posttest‐only design

Figure 5 A schematic representation of a two intact group pretest–posttest des...

Figure 6 A schematic representation of repeated time series design

Figure 7 A schematic representation of alternate time series design

Figure 8 A schematic representation of posttest‐only factorial design

Figure 9 A schematic representation pretest–posttest factorial design

R

Figure 1 Example of an empirically derived rating scale (Turner, 2001, appen...

S

Figure 1 Text and context dynamics (Gebhard, 2019, p. 14, adapted from Fairclo...

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The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

 

 

 

Edited by

Carol A. Chapelle

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Chapelle, Carol A., editor.

Title: The concise encyclopedia of applied linguistics / edited by Carol A. Chapelle.

Description: First edition. | Hoboken : Wiley, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019040199 (print) | LCCN 2019040200 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119147367 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119147381 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119147374 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Applied linguistics–Encyclopedias. | Linguistics–Encyclopedias.

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Cover image: © miodrag ignjatovic / Getty ImagesCover design by Wiley

Thematic List of Entries

Analysis of Context of Language Use

Anthropological Linguistics

Heritage Languages and Language Policy

Intercultural Competence

Language, Culture, and Context

Language and Globalization

Language and Identity

Language Ideology in the Discourse of Popular Culture

Language Ideology and Public Discourse

Linguaculture

Linguistic Imperialism

Analysis of Language Use

Analysis of Dialogue

Analysis of Gender in Interaction

Conversation Analysis and Affiliation and Alignment

Conversation Analysis and Child Language Acquisition

Conversation Analysis and Classroom Interaction

Conversation Analysis of Computer‐Mediated Interactions

Conversation Analysis and Interactional Linguistics

Conversation Analysis and Laughter

Conversation Analysis Methodology in Second Language Studies

Conversation Analysis and Second Language Acquisition: CA‐SLA

Conversation Analysis: Transcriptions and Data

Corpus Analysis of Business English

Corpus Analysis in Forensic Linguistics

Corpus Analysis of Key Words

Corpus Analysis of Political Language

Corpus Linguistics: Quantitative Methods

Critical Analysis of Political Discourse

Discourse and Identity

Ethnography of Communication as a Research Perspective

Frame Analysis

Intercultural Interaction

Move Analysis

Multimodal Interaction Analysis

Rhetorical Discourse Analysis

Language Assessment and Testing

Assessment in the Classroom

Assessment of Cultural Knowledge

Assessment of Integrated Skills

Assessment of the Linguistic Resources of Communication

Assessment of Listening

Assessment of Pragmatics

Assessment of Reading

Assessment of Speaking

Assessment of Vocabulary

Assessment of Writing

Paired and Group Oral Assessment

Rating Oral Language

Rating Scales and Rubrics in Language Assessment

Task‐Based Language Assessment

Uses of Language Assessments

Validation of Language Assessments

Washback in Language Assessment

Language Learning and Teaching

Authenticity in the Language Teaching Curriculum

Classroom Research

Collaborative Language Learning

Content‐Based Second/Foreign‐Language Instruction

Corpus Linguistics in Language Teaching

Critical Pedagogy in Language Teaching

Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language Instruction

Form‐Focused Instruction

Genre‐Based Language Teaching

History of Language‐Teaching Methods

Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms

Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning

Instructed Second Language Acquisition

Knowledge Base of Language Teachers

Language Program Evaluation

Materials Development

Needs Analysis

Non‐Native‐Speaker English Teachers

Roles for Corrective Feedback in Second Language Instruction

Study Abroad

Teaching Culture and Intercultural Competence

Teaching Reading: Foundations and Practices

Teaching Speaking

Teaching Vocabulary

Language Policy and Planning

African Union

Council of Europe Language Policy and Planning

English‐Only Movement

Language Planning: Qin Shihuangdi's Contribution

Language Policy and Planning: Kemal Atatürk's Contribution

Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie

Role of Linguistic Human Rights in Language Policy and Planning

Russification in the Soviet and Post‐Soviet Era

Language for Specific Purposes

English for Academic Purposes

English for Business

English for Occupational Purposes

Genre and Discourse Analysis in Language for Specific Purposes

Needs Analysis and Syllabus Design for Language for Specific Purposes

Theses and Dissertations in English for Specific Purposes

Vocabulary and Language for Specific Purposes

Writing and Language for Specific Purposes

Linguistic Analysis for Applied Problems

Adverbs

Computer‐Assisted Pronunciation Teaching

Construction Grammar

Cross‐Cultural Pragmatics

First Language Vocabulary Acquisition

Foreign Accent

Formulaic Language and Collocation

Formulaic Sequences

Grammar in Academic Writing

Grammar and Electronic Communication

Historical Pragmatics

International Phonetic Alphabet

Lexical Borrowing

Lexical Priming

Lexicogrammar

Pattern Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology: Historical Overview

Politeness

Pragmatic Markers

Pragmatics of Asynchronous Computer‐Mediated Communication

Pragmatics of Lingua Franca Interaction

Pragmatics Research Methods

Pragmatic Transfer

Pronunciation Assessment

Pronunciation Teaching Methods and Techniques

Systemic Functional Linguistics

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Multilingualism

Attitudes and Motivation in Bilingual Education

Bilingualism and Cognition

Bilingual and Monolingual Language Modes

Early Bilingualism

Immersion Education

Linguistic Landscape Studies

Multicompetence

Multilingualism and the Internet

Multilingualism and Metalinguistic Awareness

Teacher Education for Multilingual Education

Translanguaging

Using the First Language and Code Switching in Second Language Classrooms

Research Methods

Case Study

Computer‐Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)

Epistemology and Ontology

Interviews in Qualitative Research

Language Teaching and Learning: Quantitative Methods

Mixed Methods

Online Psycholinguistic Methods in Second Language Acquisition Research