The Essential Guide to Jazz Dance E-Book

Dollie Henry

• Herausgeber: Crowood
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019

Beschreibung

Jazz dance and its inherent music is recognized as one of the original and most potent art forms of the last two centuries. From its African roots to our present-day global dance community, the jazz idiom has afforded a cross-fertilization with all other artistic, cultural and social representations within the arts industry, providing an accessible dance platform for dancers, teachers and creatives to enjoy both recreationally and professionally. The Essential Guide to Jazz Dance offers a practical and uncomplicated overview to the multi-layered history, practices and development of jazz dance as a creative and artistic dance form. It covers the incredible history and lineage of jazz dance; the innovators, choreographers and dance creatives of the genre; specifics of jazz aesthetic, steps and styles; a detailed breakdown of a practical jazz dance warm-up and technical exercises; creative frameworks to support development of jazz dance expression and aesthetic; performance and improvisation; jazz music and musical interpretation, and finally, choreographing and creating jazz works. With over 230 colour photos and a wealth of tips and advice, this new book will be an ideal reading companion for dancers of all abilities, dance teachers, choreographers as well as all jazz dance enthusiasts.

Leseprobe

THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO

Jazz Dance

THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO

Jazz Dance

DOLLIE HENRY AND PAUL JENKINS

First published in 2019 byThe Crowood Press LtdRamsbury, MarlboroughWiltshire SN8 2HR

[email protected]

www.crowood.com

This e-book first published in 2019

© Dollie Henry and Paul Jenkins 2019

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 78500 636 4

All dancers pictured are (or have been) members of BOP Jazz Theatre Company (UK) or are participating dancers in BOP workshops, masterclasses or residencies. All photographs © BOP Photo Collection unless otherwise stated.

CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction

1.An Historical Journey – The Roots and Lineage of Jazz Dance

2.Tap Dance – First Cousin of the Jazz Vernacular

3.The Anthology of Jazz Music

4.A New Era – Modern Jazz Dance

5.The Tapestry of Jazz Dance in the Twenty-First Century

6.Jazz Dance Education, Training and Development

7.A Jazz Dance Exercise Programme for the Modern-Day Jazz Dancer

8.Keynotes for Teaching Jazz Dance

9.Creating Dance for Jazz Theatre

Further Reading and Resources

Acknowledgements

Index

PREFACE

For as long as I can remember, the dance, the music and the art form of jazz, has been the conduit through which I have inhabited and embraced my personal and creative life. The jazz art form has always excited me, definitely challenged me, sometimes infuriated me and even frustrated me, but above all it has provided me with a definite purpose and the motivation to pursue my aspirations as a creative dance theatre artist.

When approached to produce a practical guide book for jazz dance, I had a sense of both excitement and panic. To be a jazz practitioner is to share and show the dance through the physical realms, as a dance artist or dance teacher. Jazz is essentially an aural tradition and much of what we do as creative artists is in the ‘here and now’. The immediacy and individuality of jazz dance is the very reason that it is often difficult to explain, define and quantify, and yet many of us are intuitively connected to the energy, innovation and creative vibration of jazz expression. Unfortunately, this does not always lend itself to the written page and it is, therefore, not so surprising that there are very few practical or abridged guides to jazz dance. Having just spent the best part of two years working on this book, I can certainly understand why!

To be very clear from the onset, The Essential Guide to Jazz Dance and its inherent music is not in any way intended to be an academic tome or, indeed, a re-telling of the entire history of jazz dance. I am not an academic or historian – I am a jazz practitioner, pursuing my creative life through the jazz idiom. Moreover, this jazz book is intended to support students, dancers and dance teachers to place the jazz dance journey and lineage in context, and to communicate the practical and creative elements authenticated by jazz dance innovators of the past, which has led to the development and presentation of the jazz dance form of today.

As with all great art, the creative interpretations and derivatives of jazz dance reach far beyond contextualized and institutionalized understanding. As an art form, jazz dance is unique in that it is traditionally presented as an aural expression, an intuitive and immediate creative expression or, in jazz terms, improvised. The process of the jazz art form is passed on through the shared practice and experience between a community or collective of people – in essence, between the choreographer and dancer, teacher and student, artist/performer and audience.

Therefore, this book is an expression of both my own individual understanding and analysis of the artistic principles, processes, structures and techniques of the important dance practitioners and creators, who have shaped the branches of the jazz dance tree.

The jazz art form is a reflection of real life. Most artists create because they have something to say and to share, be that from a personal, social or cultural point of view. It is, therefore, not surprising that many of us are drawn to express ourselves through the jazz art form.

Over the last forty years, I have been most fortunate in that my performing career and creative experiences have afforded me the opportunities to cross over many times between musical theatre, film and TV, the commercial sector and the artistic dance company setting. Every experience has provided me with the opportunity to grow, learn and draw inspiration from being a jazz choreographer, dance teacher and performing artist.

Immersing myself into the jazz world has enabled me to find a true connection to the root of the genre, the lineage and aesthetic of the jazz idiom. It has also enabled me to find my own truth, style, technique and creative expression as a jazz dance artist and choreographer, which is realized and continues to develop through my jazz theatre company, Body of People (BOP).

Clearly, the language of the body for storytelling is dance. Jazz dance is no different; it is through the individual creative and artistic expression that we see the further development of the jazz dance art form as it moves in rhythm to the creative heartbeat of its practitioners and performers. Personally, I realize that I am innately connected to the pulse of jazz, the dance, the music and all it represents and can represent. The fact is, I did not find jazz, jazz found me.

Dollie HenryFebruary 2019

INTRODUCTION

There is no mistaking that as a form of art and of entertainment, the jazz idiom originated in America some two centuries ago. Since then, through all its transformations, jazz expression has provided a wealth of creative tributaries to follow that are both artistic and commercial, so making the jazz idiom a truly inclusive art form.

Over the last two hundred plus years, both jazz dance and jazz music have instigated and influenced most of popular entertainment and artistic collaborations. Interestingly, the twists, turns and expressions of jazz music and jazz musicians have long been articulated and, certainly since the days of be-bop, considered artistic high art. This is not always true of jazz dance. There are a multitude of reasons for this, many of which will be discussed later in the book. However, certainly apparent is that jazz dance has, and continues to hold, enormous influence over all other forms of dance, easily identified within its commercial exposure in TV, music, videos, film and, of course, musical theatre and show dance. The jazz voice has also found itself in collaboration with ballet, contemporary dance and is part of the DNA of hip-hop dance and other world dance forms.

There is no denying that jazz influence and effect are still very much alive and kicking. The arms and legs of jazz dance have settled and continue to thrive and strive in many differing countries and cultures in our global dance world. History recalls that through migration, cultural and economic exploitation, politics, social and racial differences, jazz dance has developed, shaped and transformed itself into a unique artistic expression, even though not always recognized for its artistic and creative development in our present dance landscape.

Through its journey, jazz has always created much discussion between critics and audiences, promotors and practitioners, artistes and educationalists; in the early days, it has to be said, not always in a positive light. The American classical choreographer Ruth St. Denis felt that ‘jazz dance was vulgar’ and clearly John Martin, dance critic of the New York Times, was very upset by jazz when, in 1929, he wrote: ‘Jazz dance is coarse and its purpose crude; its effect is upon the senses, not upon the emotions or intellect. Such is obviously not the stuff of which concerts are made.’

Such vitriol for an artistic expression has always puzzled and intrigued me. At its most lyrical, jazz dance can be simply beautiful and sublime; at its most venerable, it can be frightening and complex; and at its most exciting, it can be joyous and revelatory. Why would this type of art, jazz, be so clearly misunderstood and misrepresented? The real reason is that jazz is the ultimate means of individual artistic expression with no boundaries or conformities. It cannot be contained, controlled or manipulated. Jazz is simply a creative reflection of who we are and not how we are perceived to be.

It must be remembered that jazz has always evolved through exploration, as a means of natural expression and creative output. In the first part of the twentieth century, jazz dance was not a recipient of financial support, such as sponsorship or arts’ funding, and, therefore, very few theatres and dance houses looked to programme artistic jazz dance theatre. Consequently, jazz developed a populist approach more often linked to commercial entertainment. This has meant that many learned critics and commentators often derided and criticized jazz as a trivial, populist form of entertainment, holding little artistic merit. Despite this, creatives have continued to create using the jazz art form as a means to share their own individual artistic expression. The fact that jazz dance has survived and thrived and continues to reinvent as a dance form is testament to its inimitable spirit.

BOP Company performing Footprints in Jazz.BAFANA SOLOMAN MATEA

The linage and artistic expression of jazz dance offers much to the dancer and creative practitioner. However, it is up to us as individual dancers to find a clear artistic route and creative connection to the root essence of jazz dance. In order to create and perform jazz dance at any level, we need an awareness of all the techniques and styles that are prevalent in this great art form.

Present-day jazz practitioners know that jazz dance is every bit as creative, expressive and important as contemporary and classical dance. Therefore, it is fundamental that this diverse and inspirational art form continues to be explored, expressed, understood and appreciated. More now than ever, there is a need to articulate that jazz dance is more than just a string of unrelated steps, tricks and the show of jazz hands.

This Essential Guide to Jazz Dance provides an overview of the history and journey of the jazz art form and brings into focus the core relationship and correlation between both the dance and the music of jazz. The book offers a comprehensive insight to the core aesthetics of the jazz vernacular, the transition and development of jazz dance, the jazz innovators and creative artists who have influenced, and continue to influence, the practice and development of jazz dance through to our present day.

Included within the pages of this book are over 200 photographs that visually support the practical value of studying jazz dance, alongside detailed resource and research material, an overview of the history of jazz music and useful practical tips and creative guides. The book is intended to support dance teachers and choreographers, dance creatives and performers, and dance enthusiasts, who find themselves interested and connected to the artistic and creative essence of jazz dance and its inherent music.

The hope is that some of the many questions from dancers, dance teachers and young jazz creatives can in some way be answered in this Essential Guide to Jazz Dance. In this book, by exposing and exploring the many branches and exponents of the jazz dance idiom, we hope to shine a brighter light on the jazz dance story and help to re-establish a creditable link to its incredible history, lineage and practices, so as to preserve and continue to develop this unique artistic and creative expression we call jazz dance.

CHAPTER 1

AN HISTORICAL JOURNEY

The Roots and Lineage of Jazz Dance

IN THE BEGINNING, THERE WAS A FOUR-LETTER WORD KNOWN AS ‘JAZZ’

As you would expect of any great art form, the journey of jazz dance is complex, often surprising, but always inspiring and enlightening. Jazz dance did not just suddenly appear fully formed in our dance curriculums, or on the stage in musicals, theatre dance or even in pop music videos.

Understanding the history of jazz dance is vital for so many reasons. Without history (through which we acquire an understanding of technique, form and style), many dancers and practitioners have little to draw inspiration from, to inform their own development and further their practice. Historical and practical knowledge informs and connects each of us to a comprehensive understanding of the jazz dance idiom. This can only enable the dancer, teacher and choreographer a more precise understanding through which to deliver and execute the jazz dance aesthetic.

Research and knowledge through education and further professional training, is part of the package in gaining the essential skills and tools to become proficient in a chosen dance. This is no different for the jazz dancer. The more we are informed about an art form, the more we can be enlightened and inspired. As a dancer, teacher and choreographer, developing a greater appreciation and appraisal of the jazz lineage provides a superior resource from which to access and to apply one’s own individual jazz dance journey.

Melvin LeBlanc performing as ‘Adam’ from BOP repertoire Daughters of Eve.BAFANA SOLOMAN MATEA

At its root, jazz is a celebratory art form that stems primarily from the creative aesthetics and expression of African music and dance. The transportation of African slaves via the Caribbean then on to America, introduced African musical and cultural traditions, songs and dances to the cultural and social pathways of America. Added to the melting pot was the migration of the British, Irish, Scottish and other Europeans who settled in America, bringing with them their own cultural dance traditions of clog dances, folk dances and social step dances. From different worlds and from different circumstances the African aesthetic and elements of the European aesthetic fused and amalgamated to create the only original art-form of the twentieth century. Herein lies the true source, heart and soul of this amazing art form and vernacular that we call jazz dance.

The metaphoric tree and branches of jazz. Artwork and design by Camilla Rugini.

Metaphorically, the symbol of the jazz idiom is like that of an old tree: the roots through which this incredible organic art form has been able to blossom, producing many branches that continue to reflect the diverse and creative expressions that is the jazz idiom.

The jazz tree offers a simple guideline of the growth and expansion of the jazz dance (vernacular) and the journey of its creative partner jazz music. The roots of the jazz tree run deep, the origins of the jazz idiom have germinated and transported an organic and ever-growing expression, with each branch producing a new hybrid to the lineage and practice of the jazz art form.

IN THEIR OWN WORDS…

To be proficient in any specific or chosen art form, one needs to know the history, the journey of the specific creative expression and aesthetic in question.

Dollie Henry

THE RISING ROOTS OF THE JAZZ TREE

The roots of jazz dance can be seen as amalgamation of four distinct but differing cultural and social traditions.

1.The African roots

2.The Caribbean connection

3.The South American influence

4.The European infusion

The African Root of Jazz Dance

One of the main creative foundations of jazz dance derives from African traditional and ceremonial dances. The African dance aesthetic is evident through much of early jazz dance expression and forms the foundation for the aesthetic (technical) and kinetic (physical) expression of delivery. Music is the fundamental creative seed that drives the dance and interpretation of movement. Not forgetting that the purpose behind the African tradition is a collective expression through which the dance and the music are a natural extension and creative reflection of everyday life, real life.

Mecca Vazie Andrews displaying the African dance expression. Adam Parson Commonality Dance Company, Zurich, Switzerland.ADAM PARSON

Throughout Africa, all tribes have their own individual dances and traditions, which are passed down to each generation. Dance and music are not separated from everyday life; they are party to all sacred and social functions, and the creative underpinning of the community.

African dance is complete in its delivery. It is performed by the community to celebrate birth, weddings, death and the marking of rites of passage. Competitive dance (challenges/battles) is also part of the structure, the re-telling of ancestral history or poetry (griots) and finding a closer connection to God (spiritual). There is a great emphasis on the collective and the community, allowing for audience and performers to participate and contribute to the whole experience (inclusive). African dance is all-inclusive and is recognized and reflected as both a sacred and secular form of cultural and creative expression.

Regina Eigbe illustrating the athleticism of a jazz jump influenced by the African dance aesthetic.

The Physical and Kinetic Characteristics

African dance cannot be viewed as one simple form of dance expression. There are many differences between the tribal groups and regional dances of Africa, which dictate the dances’ physical aesthetic and delivery.

Each region of African dance has a specific emphasis on the physical expression and movement. For example, in Ghana, the upper body is a predominant feature within the physical movement. In regions such as Nigeria, the emphasis is accentuated through hips and pelvis. The African tribe of the Maasai are known for their athletic legs, jumps and elevation, and then there is the intricate footwork and hand clapping that is akin to the Akan traditions of Ghana.

African dance has three distinct attributes:

1.Polyrhythmics – the connectivity between the physical expression and interpretation of dance movement to the intricate, crossed rhythms and accents within the music.

2.Polycentrism – denotes the dexterity to subdivide the body movements, using differing parts of the body at the same time. This quality is aligned to the differing layers and sounds in the music and musical instrumentation.

3.Improvisation – the immediate expression of dance and movement without preparation, creating a spontaneous physical and emotional connection and individual creative expression to the music.

These are recognizable attributes in the physical expression of African dance. However, it is through the relationship to the music that the dance takes on another direction of energy, communication and connectivity. The core essence of African creative culture and tradition is through dance and music, which are innately and instinctively connected and part of everyday life.

Students learning African dance movement.

African dance is very versatile in conception and execution. There are no restrictions to the body and physical movement; therefore, African dance can be presented and performed in varying ways: from slow and controlled in movement (lyrical), to the most spontaneous and dynamic of movement, evolving through intuitive performance (improvisation). The dance can also be performed to show power and strength (warrior/tribal dances), to offering a peaceful transition in death and honouring the Gods (ceremonial and ring dances). This is bound together through acknowledging cultural traditions that strengthens the bond within the community (storytelling/singing/call and response).

The Caribbean Connection

The Caribbean geographically is a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea that spans over the south-east of the Gulf of Mexico, east of Central America and north of South America. It includes the islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Haiti, Jamaica, Grenada, Carriacou Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Tobago and many others.

Caribbean dance evolved from complex influences, due to European colonization of the islands by the British, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch. It followed that the indigenous folk dances would certainly be influenced by European dance styles and music. The Africans, brought to work on the plantations, continued to hold on to their creative customs and drumming traditions, but also adopted the dances of the indigenous population on the Islands. The indigenous people of some of the Islands, called Arawaks or the Taino people, originated from mainland South America, but found homelands on the islands of the Caribbean. The traditional dances that are still observed on the islands include the kumina and tambu from Jamaica, the bele from Martinique and, from Haiti, the voodoo dances.

Calinda, dance of the Negróes in America. Artist François Aimé Louis Dumoulin.

Through the dances and music of the Caribbean, the direct lineage to the traditions and connections of African dance and music continued to live. Plantation dances, such as the bamboula, juba, voodoo, calinda and the chica, were slave dances performed on the plantations by both men and women.

European dances taken to the Islands include the quadrilles, square dances, cotillions, alongside the more courtly or classical dances of the time, such as the gavotte, minuet and sarabande. The Caribbean islands that danced the quadrille continued to evidence the traditional dances and customs directly linked to Africa, by developing their own characteristic adaptations. The structure gave rise to many versions of the Caribbean quadrille.

The South American Influence

It is sometimes forgotten that African slaves were transported to both North and South America. It was the Portuguese who began the forced movement of African slaves to Brazil and other parts of South America throughout the sixteenth century. The African traditions and cultural expressions, musical rhythms and physical aesthetics resonate throughout Latin American dance forms. The dances recognizable from this region of the world include the rumba, a style of dance that originates from the musical pulse of the African drum. It is a fast-moving, hip-swinging and competitive dance, always accompanied by fast-paced drum music, alongside more traditional Latin instruments, such as maracas, the clave and shakers. Over time this evolved into the chica dance. The chica dance has a direct lineage to the Africa tribal dances of the Congo. It was a dance performed for processions (marching) and religious ceremonies. A descendent of the chica dance is the dance of the fandango. The mamba (also called ‘mambo’ meaning ‘conversation with the gods’) originated in Cuba from the Haitians of African descendants. The mamba is a spiritual and religious dance and music ceremony and tradition that evokes the spirit ‘voodoo’ of the high priestess mamba.

It is important to recognize that much of African dance had a specific meaning. Consequently, the power of this type of dance enabled the survival of the African and Caribbean traditions, both in dance and music. This can be clearly recognized today in most Afro-Latin dance styles, including the samba, merengue and calypso. The social dance element continues to keep the Latin connection very much part of the jazz journey, both for the non-professional and professional dancer.

The European Infusion

European dance is traditionally viewed as a secular and status art form. The development and practice of the dances descend from two distinctive styles of dance and expression: court/classical dances (upper class) and folk dances (lower class).

Classical dance (ballet) first appeared in the Italian courts of the sixteenth century and then became popular in France during the reign of Louis XIV. Much of the dance technique formed in the seventeenth century set in place the origins of classical dance. Among the formal courtly dances from Baroque and Renaissance dance of the seventeenth century were the minuet, gavotte, waltz, quadrille or contredanse and cotillion.

Marie Antoinette by creator Johann Georg Weigert.PUBLIC DOMAIN: WIKIMEDIA COMMONS

A Gypsy Dance in the Gardens of the Alcázar 1851. Artist Alfred Dehodencq. This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a twodimensional public domain of art (PD-Art 1923).

Folk dances of European descent that originate from the indigenous people are recognized as informal dances, such as the clog dances, Irish jig, morris dance, pole dancing, Scottish lilts, polka, gypsy and flamenco dance. These dances were often perceived as non-technical dances of the working-class community.

An interesting observation is that the European court dances presented a visual non-transferable expression, whilst folk dance presented a physical and creative expression of the community – no different in purpose to that of the traditional African dances.

In conclusion, the roots of jazz dance can easily be identified by the three-dance expression: African dance, South American dance and European dance. Each offers something unique, yet wholly individual, to the jazz dance story. It is from this unique social interaction and cross-fertilization that the jazz vernacular has been afforded a foundation from which to grow, over time developing into one of the most popular and influential dance forms of the past two hundred plus years.

BOP residency participants in the creative process working through connection and energy between each other.

CONGO SQUARE – THE BIRTHPLACE OF THE JAZZ VERNACULAR

From the late eighteenth century, southern America was a melting pot of different world cultures, from Africa, the Caribbean, South America and Europe. In particular, Congo Square in New Orleans was to become a pivotal location for the development of the early jazz vernacular. Every Sunday at Congo Square the enslaved Africans would be given free time to come together as a people, to share and express their customs and traditions through music, song and dance. At these Congo Square gatherings, music of African rhythms, syncopation and accented beats (polyrhythms) provided an accompaniment to the traditional African spiritual and ceremonial dances and songs. Instruments in use at that time would have consisted of African drums and banjos, alongside hand and body clapping (patting juba) and vocals. This immediate creative expression through the connection between the dancer and musician became the underlying principle of the jazz idiom, namely improvisation. This exchange of ideas provided an organic creative interaction between the dancers and musicians and offered a form of entertainment to the gathered crowds.

African musical instruments.

The drive of the rhythms created by the African musicians was fundamental to the movement and shaping of the dance. The rhythms of African music established the natural swing beat recognized by the 2/4 timing, different to the more usual 3/4 timesignature of European classical music. This difference in time-signatures is an important aspect in defining the rhythmic pulse, timing and physical expression of jazz dance, which are part and parcel of African music and dance traditions.

The early development of the jazz vernacular was influenced by dance steps and movements that can be recognized from the traditional African-American dance vocabulary and accompanying music. Unfortunately, many of the specific African dance steps have been lost over time and are certainly not evident in much of modern-day jazz dance.

However, some have survived and, although the original meaning and techniques may have been lost, they are still an important part of the jazz dance legacy. Many of the original dance steps and styles have not survived the journey, but some of the more authentic steps and movements have evolved, allowing other derivative jazz dance styles to develop, these include:

•The ring shout

•Patting juba

•Cakewalk

•Charleston

•Hooffin’

•Tap dance

•The shuffle

•Turkey trot

•Buzzard lope

•Truckin’

In parallel with the African dance aesthetic were the European dance influences. Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, millions of European migrants emigrated to America bringing with them their own dances, music and cultural nuances. Many of these dances represented not only the social status, but also the cultural identity of each country or region; for example, the waltz and minuet (court dances) and the clog dances of the north of England and the Scottish reel from the Highlands (folk dances).

European dances included:

•The Irish jig

•The Scottish lilt

•The Lancashire clog dance

•The hornpipe

•Gypsy dances

•Square dances

•Minuet

•Waltz

The dances and music of African traditions, infused with the European traditions, were to emancipate a unique style of dance and music. Fundamentally, it is from these early encounters between displaced cultures and traditions that the beginnings of a new art form of jazz dance was to be shaped and developed.

Late nineteenth-century artist’s conception of African dances several generations earlier. Engraving by E. W. Kemble, to illustrate article ‘The Dance in Place Congo, New Orleans’ by George Washington Cable, published in Century Magazine, February 1886.

IN THEIR OWN WORDS…

In The Story of American Vernacular Dance, by Marshall and Jean Stearns, they describe the new dance founded in New Orleans as a vernacular or homegrown dance – the beginnings of jazz.

MOVING THROUGH THE MINSTRELSY ERA

This new American dance vernacular (jazz) was to rise to prominence through the minstrelsy era.

The concept of minstrel shows emerged from the pre-industrial European traditions of courtly dress, facial masking and festivals, and was created, initially, as a form of community and social entertainment. In America during the 1800s, the popularity of this form of entertainment developed widespread appeal. Minstrelsy was a form of entertainment initially devised for travelling tent and gillie shows that toured from town to town – review shows that provided social commentary and entertainment to the mass public. The show format was further formalized, transforming the concept into the most popular form of public entertainment in America.

The creative architecture of the minstrel style and movement was heavily influenced by black creative and cultural expression. As a direct consequence of this popularity, and the undeniable flair of African-American dance and music, white promotors and performers saw an opportunity to commercially exploit a new style of minstrelsy entertainment. This resulted in the beginnings of the blackface minstrel show.

One of the first documented professional blackface minstrels was the dancer John Durang (1768– 1822). He was said to have made famous the use of the hornpipe within his dance and, in 1789, he appeared as a blackface performer, helping to popularize blackface minstrelsy. Another name that is well recorded in the jazz history books, and recognized for accelerating blackface minstrelsy, was a white New Yorker and comedian called Thomas Dartmouth aka Daddy Rice. Daddy Rice created a blackface character, taking his inspiration from African expression and aesthetic. Dartmouth created a song and dance parody called Jump Jim Crow. Daddy Rice and his performance of Jump Jim Crow, both as a song and as a dance act, became a huge success and as a performer he went on to gain further infamy performing throughout America. Dartmouth also gained recognition and further prominence performing in London and Dublin in the late 1800s.

Cover to early edition of Jump Jim Crow sheet music. Thomas D. Rice is pictured in his blackface role performing at the Bowery Theatre (also known as the American Theatre) at the time. This image was highly influential on later Jim Crow and minstrelsy images. 1 January 1832.

Blackface minstrelsy continued unabated, with white performers blackening their faces (with burnt cork), imitating and adopting the musical flair, mannerisms and dance movements, by way of caricature and parody, of the African-American slaves.

This was the reality of the times in America and it is important to acknowledge and place the facts in context. It is, therefore, not surprising that one of the consequences of the historical and political circumstances of America during the rise of the minstrelsy tradition, is that much of the history of the black originators of the jazz vernacular are lost in time or simply do not exist as part of early jazz dance history.

Al G. Field Minstrels poster print, c. 1910 by Otis Lithograph Co Image.

Today we may view the early minstrelsy era with a heavy heart, as clearly this type of entertainment was heavily based on racial stereotypes and racist sentiment. However repugnant this may feel, it is clear that the music, dance, creative flair and ingenuity of the black creative expression, greatly influenced the minstrelsy era and the original foundations of the jazz dance aesthetic.

Although it might seem that the concept of minstrelsy was generally only performed by white entertainers mocking and adopting black expression, this was far from the truth. As early as the 1850s, the performance landscape saw the rise in popularity of black minstrel troupes.

In much the same way that white performers mocked the black slave, the black performers created a style of dance to mock the white elite. This was characterized by assimilating the highbrow persona and posture of their white counterparts, combined with the intricate footwork and physicality of African dance and rhythmic musical timing. This parody of performance was to become a very popular and sought-after form of black minstrel entertainment. One of the early dances that originated from this imitation exchange was the cakewalk.

As the minstrelsy concept grew, and the shows became larger and grander, female performers were introduced and later became featured as dancers and singers. Blues and spiritual singers Bessie Smith and Ma Rainey began their performing careers as performers in the minstrel shows. By the start of the twentieth century, the bigger minstrel companies would employ both white and black performers. This resulted in a more acceptable platform for white audiences to view the talent and performances of black performers.

England was also privy to the minstrelsy popularity of America. Famous black minstrels who found notoriety as performers in Britain included The Bohee Brothers, Billy Kersands and Master Juba, alongside Bert Williams and George Walker. Williams was a significant performer in the advancement of African-American musical and pantomime theatre. Following on from minstrelsy, he became one of vaudeville’s top artists, with his solo performances and also as part of the double-act ‘Williams and Walker’.

Williams and Walker developed into important creative performing artists. It was through their unique approach to theatre, along with their skills in performing, comedy, singing and dancing, that they went on to write and star in their own off-Broadway shows. Part of their act was to introduce the authentic jazz dance of the cakewalk into mainstream theatre entertainment. Williams was to become the first black entertainer to take a lead role on the Broadway stage and he also performed with the renowned Ziegfeld Follies.

As white minstrel shows grew in scale, black minstrel shows began to grow too, adding other traditional elements, such as spirituals and religious songs to their performances and acts. This creative expression resonated more directly with their own black audiences and, at the same time, informed and drew in white audiences.

Part of the success of minstrelsy was due to effective business management evident through lucrative touring circuits that were set up under the Theatre Owners Booking Association aka TOBA and also The Chitlin Circuit. This assisted the rise in popularity of both white and black minstrelsy, taking it from the southern states to the northern states of America.

In many ways, minstrelsy is a double-edged concept of entertainment. On the one hand, it brought the black expression of dance and music to a wider and more diverse national demographic. However, on the other hand, it was the beginning of mass appropriation of black populist creative art and a delineation that still resonates within the commercial aspects of populist entertainment of today.

THE RISE OF VAUDEVILLE

The vaudeville era came straight off the back of minstrelsy. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, and into the twentieth century, the sway of minstrelsy was diminishing. Vaudeville was to become the new platform for performers and creators, and a greater variety of popular entertainment.

‘I’m a Jonah Man’ from the musical In Dahomey, 1903 sheet music cover. Bert Williams and George Walker, vaudeville stars ‘Williams and Walker’, shown on cover in both formal portraits and in stage costumes with blackface.