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The Proton Launcher E-Book

Christian Lardier

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Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
Sprache: Englisch

Beschreibung

The Soviet / Russian space program was in the hands of three industrial empires: those of Serguei Korolev, the Soviet von Braun who launched Sputnik-1 and Yuri Gagarin, Vladimir Tchelomei, his main competitor, and Mikhail Yangel, Many launchers and satellites in Ukraine. In 2011, we published a first book on the history of the Soyuz launcher that was developed by Korolev and launched more than 1,800 copies. This time, we tell the story of the Proton, the main competitor of the European launcher Ariane, which was developed by Chelomei and launched more than 400 copies. Finally, the last book of the trilogy will deal with the many developments of Yangel. In the three books, the first part deals with the history of rockets in the USSR / Russia (East) and the second part on the history of their commercialization in the West.

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Leseprobe

Cover

Title

Foreword

Preface

PART 1: The Proton in the East

1 Vladimir Chelomey: From the V1 to Proton

1.1. The Soviet V-1 designer

1.2. The designer of Soviet naval missiles

2 Chelomey’s Subsidiaries

2.1. Institute no. 642

2.2. Myasishchev’s OKB-23

2.3. Factory no. 23 in Fili

2.4. Lavochkin’s OKB-301

2.5. Factory no. 292 in Saratov

2.6. Factory no. 47 in Orenburg

2.7. The engine designers

3 Intercontinental Missiles, Booster Rockets and Satellites

3.1. Kosmoplan and Raketoplan

3.2. The UR-200

3.3. The UR-500

3.4. The UR-100

3.5. The UR-700

3.6. The UR-1000

4 Versions of the UR-500

4.1. The two-stage version

4.2. The three-stage version UR-500K

4.3. The four-stage version

4.4. The upper stage projects

4.5. The UR-500MK

4.6. The UR-530

4.7. The Proton-M

4.8. Proton medium and light

4.9. Angara

5 The Uses of the Proton

5.1. NPO Mashinostroyenie: the Almaz program

5.2. RKK Energiya

5.3. NPO Lavochkin

5.4. Applied mechanics NPO

5.5. Other satellites

5.6. The centennial celebration of V. N. Chelomey’s birth

PART 2: The Proton in the West

6 Saturn’s Rival

6.1. Records to break

6.2. Target: Moon

6.3. Under a shroud of secrecy

6.4. No second place

7 Commercial Prehistory

7.1. Swiss francs for invisible launchers

7.2. Curtain raiser

7.3. Regime change

7.4. A market to be cornered

7.5. The American friend

7.6. Short-lived contracts and seduction operations

7.7. The end of an era

8 Friends or Foes

8.1. First hope for success

8.2. Lockheed joins the fray

8.3. Voyage to Moscow

8.4. Telephony in the sky

8.5. Khrunichev, Salyut and Energiya

8.6. The Indian obstacle

8.7. Detour through France

8.8. First steps on the market

9 The Transatlantic Alliance

9.1. Reduced quotas

9.2. Baptism of fire

9.3. A “Russified” Atlas

9.4. Discrete success and a spectacular failure

9.5. Keeping pace with Ariane

9.6. Energiya’s game

9.7. Opening up to the market

10 Standing the Test of the Market

10.1. Transition

10.2. Price war

10.3. Divorce

10.4. Challenges for the future

10.5. A surprising rival

10.6. From Proton to Angara

Appendix: List of Launches

Bibliography

Index

Index of Names

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

10 Standing the Test of the Market

Table 10.1. Financial review of the first 11 commercial Proton launches (according to the Khrunichev Center)

Table 10.2. Proton and Atlas launches (2001–2006)

List of Illustrations

1 Vladimir Chelomey: From the V1 to Proton

Figure 1.1. Vladimir Chelomey

Figure 1.2. The German V-1

Figure 1.3. The TsIAM pulsejet engine

Figure 1.4. The 10X missile from 1944

Figure 1.5. The OKB-51 team in 1944

Figure 1.6. Pulsejet engines D-3 and D14-4

Figure 1.7. The D-3 engine on the TU-2

Figure 1.8. The 14X missile

Figure 1.9. a) La-7 with two D-10 and b) La-9 with two D-13

Figure 1.10. The 16X Priboy missile

Figure 1.11. The 16X missile in flight

Figure 1.12. The 10XN missile

Figure 1.13. The P-2 submarine project from 1949 fully equipped with the 10XN missile

Figure 1.14. The Pr628 submarine project from 1952 and 1953 with the 10X missile

Figure 1.15. Missile wing deployment mechanism

Figure 1.16. The 1955 P-5 missile

Figure 1.17. The 1955 Pr613 missile with the P-5 missile

Figure 1.18. P-5 flight test in 1957

Figure 1.19. P-5 launch from submarine Pr659

Figure 1.20. The 1960 S-5 missile

Figure 1.21. The P-6 (4K48) missile

Figure 1.22. The P-35 (4K44) Redut missile

Figure 1.23. Mobile version of coastal defense Redut

Figure 1.24. The 3M44 Progress

Figure 1.25. The P-7 missile from 1959 to 1965

Figure 1.26. The P-70 (4K46) missile Ametist

Figure 1.27. The P-120 (4K85) missile, Malakhit

Figure 1.28. The P-500 (4K80) Bazalt missile

Figure 1.29. The P-1000 Vulcan

Figure 1.30. The P-700 (4M45) Granit missile

Figure 1.31. The P-750 (3M25) Meteorit cruise missile

Figure 1.32. The space (top) and naval (bottom) Meteorit

Figure 1.33. The Alpha project missile (early 1990)

Figure 1.34. The P-800 Onyx/Yakhont missile and the Plamyia ramjet

Figure 1.35. Air-based variant of the Yakhont

Figure 1.36. Indian version, Brahmos

Figure 1.37. From left to right: G. A. Efremov, S. N. Khrushchev, A. I. Eidis, I. M. Chumilov, M. I. Lifchitz, V. A. Modestov and V. V. Satchkov

Figure 1.38. Socialist Labor Hero medalists in 1963: (from left to right) I. M. Chumilov, V. A. Kazakov, M. I. Lifchitz, A. A. Kobarev, V. N. Chelomey, V. F. Malikov, S. N. Khrushchev, V. V. Satchkov, G. A. Efremov and V. A. Modestov

2 Chelomey’s Subsidiaries

Figure 2.1. The KSCh Shuka missile derived from the German Hs-293A

Figure 2.2. V. M. Baryshev

Figure 2.3. Award ceremony at the Vympel factory (1970s). First row, center: V. M. Baryshev, V. N. Chelomey and S. A. Afanaseyev

Figure 2.4. V. M. Myasishchev

Figure 2.5. The M-40 Buran missile (source: Bruk, 2001*). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 2.6. Tsybin’s spaceplane project

Figure 2.7. The M-43 missile project (source: Bruk, 2001*). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 2.8. The M-44 missile project

Figure 2.9. The M-45 missile project

Figure 2.10. The M-46 Raketoplan project (1956) (source: Bruk, 2001*). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 2.11. The ICBM and M-47 space launch vehicle project (1959) (source: Bruk, 2001*). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 2.12. The M-48 Raketoplan project: top (from left to right) variants 48-I, 48-II, 48-IV; bottom (from left to right) variants VKA-23 from 1958, 1959 and 1960 (source: Bruk, 2001*). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 2.13. The Tu-130 project

Figure 2.14. The Tu-136 project (source: rights reserved). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 2.15. a) The Spiral project of OKB-155 and b) aircraft 105

Figure 2.16. V. N. Bugaisky

Figure 2.17. D. A. Polukhin

Figure 2.18. A. K. Nedaivoda

Figure 2.19. From top to bottom and left to right: V. K. Karrask, Yu. V. Diachenko, Ya. B. Nodelman, G. D. Dermichev, E. T. Radchenko, V. A. Vyrodov, D. F. Orochko, G. A. Khazanovitch, Yu. N. Trufanov and V. N. Ivanov

Figure 2.20. From left to right: S. M. Lechenko, D. N. Osipov, M. I. Ryjik and A. I. Kiselev

Figure 2.21. S. A. Afanaseyev, A. I. Kiselev and V. N. Chelomey

Figure 2.22. First row to center: N. D. Kokhlov, Chelomey, S. A. Afanaseyev and A. I. Kiselev

Figure 2.23. A. A. Medvedev

Figure 2.24. V. E. Nesterov

Figure 2.25. A. I. Selivestrov

Figure 2.26. A. V. Kalinovsky

Figure 2.27. a) The La-350 Burya missile and b) the La-400 DAL missile

Figure 2.28. M. M. Pashinin

Figure 2.29. N. S. Denisov

Figure 2.30. L. A. Guskov and D. A. Tarakov

Figure 2.31. V. G. Stepanov

Figure 2.32. 5D18 engine from the IS satellite

Figure 2.33. The 4E18 engine from the US satellite (source: rights reserved). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 2.34. A. S. Mevius and S. P. Izotov

Figure 2.35. The 15D13 engine

Figure 2.36. S. A. Kosberg, A. D. Konopatov and V. S. Ratchuk

Figure 2.37. a) The RD-0203 engine and b) the RD-0205 engine

Figure 2.38. V. P. Glushko

Figure 2.39. The RD-253 engine: a) initial version (source: rights reserved) and b) OKB-456 museum (source: Christian Lardier)

Figure 2.40. The RD-270 (OKB-456 museum)

Figure 2.41. Vulcan project

3 Intercontinental Missiles, Booster Rockets and Satellites

Figure 3.1. The RTch-500 ground-to-air missile

Figure 3.2. V. A. Polyachenko

Figure 3.3. The ballistic cruise missile

Figure 3.4. The 1960 A-300 launcher project (source: NPO Mash). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.5. The Raketoplan and Kosmoplan projects

Figure 3.6. The Kosmoplan project (source: NPO Mash). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.7. The Raketoplan project (source: NPO Mash). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.8. a) The hooded Raketoplan and b) the conic capsule

Figure 3.9. The UR-200 (source: Christian Lardier). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.10. The 8F144 warhead

Figure 3.11. The decrees from March 2 and April 16, 1962

Figure 3.12. The UR-200 launch

Figure 3.13. The IS a.k.a. Polyot satellite

Figure 3.14. Tyulpan

Figure 3.15. The 11K67

Figure 3.16. The 11K69 Cyclone-2

Figure 3.17. The US, US-A, US-AM, Plasma-A and US-PU (source: NPO Mash, KB Arsenal). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.18. a) The 8K69 (source: NPO Yuzhnoye) and b) R-36Orb (source: Christian Lardier)

Figure 3.19. The 8F673 FOBS warhead (source: NPO Yuzhnoye). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.20. An R-36Orb launch

Figure 3.21. The spaceplane project: a) R-1 and b) R-2

Figure 3.22. The MP-1 demonstrator with ring-cone breaks

Figure 3.23. a) The AB-200 and b) the M-12 on an R-12

Figure 3.24. a) The M-12 demonstrator of the UB maneuverable warhead and b) launch on an R-12

Figure 3.25. a) First UR-500 design (4 × UR-200) and b) second UR-500 design

Figure 3.26. a) The UR-500 with the KA-500 spacecraft and b) the ICBM UR-500

Figure 3.27. The Proton-1 satellite (N-4 no. 1)

Figure 3.28. The payload

Figure 3.29. The UR-500 in Baikonur

Figure 3.30. The decree from April 29, 1962

Figure 3.31. The UR-500-LK-1 project (source: NPO Mash). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.32. The LK-1 spacecraft

Figure 3.33. The TGR satellite project

Figure 3.34. The UR-100

Figure 3.35. The decree from March 30, 1963

Figure 3.36. a) Launch container and b) UR-100 and UR-100U silos (source: KBOM and NPO Mash). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.37. The silos from different versions of the UR-100 (source: KBOM and NPO Mash). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.38. Serial production of the UR-100

Figure 3.39. The Skat submarine project equipped with UR-100

Figure 3.40. Site no. 130 at Baikonur (source: KBOM). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 3.41. The first launch in April 1965

Figure 3.42. A UR-100N launch

Figure 3.43. The Breeze-KM stage

Figure 3.44. The Rockot launcher

Figure 3.45. The Strela launcher

Figure 3.46. a) The UR-700 launcher and b) the UR-700 with a RO-31 nuclear motor

Figure 3.47. The UR-700-LK-700 complex

Figure 3.48. The transport and launch table of the UR-700

Figure 3.49. The LK-700 lunar complex

4 Versions of the UR-500

Figure 4.1. UR-500K (source: Christian Lardier and Alexandre Chliadinsky). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 4.2. Proton-1 launch (July 16, 1965)

Figure 4.3. RD-275 motor

Figure 4.7. The 8U260 fixed erector

Figure 4.8. The 8U259 launch table

Figure 4.9. The 8T185 mobile service tower

Figure 4.12. Proton assembly in the MIK

Figure 4.13. A. S. Shekhoyan and building 11G141

Figure 4.15. The UR-500LKS and the LKS spaceplane

Figure 4.16. a) UR-500K-7K-L1, b) UR-500K-E-8-5 and c) UR-500K-Raduga

Figure 4.17. a) The Bloc-D and b) the 11D58M motor

Figure 4.18. The Bloc-D and DM versions

Figure 4.20. The Breeze-M stage

Figure 4.22. The 12KRB stage

Figure 4.23. The UR-500MK

Figure 4.24. The UR-530

Figure 4.25. Proton-M Breeze-M (source: Alexandre Chliadinsky). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 4.26. Every version of the UR-500K Proton rocket

Figure 4.27. Phase IV of the improvements to the Proton-M (source: Khrunichev Center). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 4.28. The medium and light versions

Figure 4.29. a) 1995 project (source: Khrunichev Center) and b) 1997 project (source: Christian Lardier). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 4.30. RD-191

Figure 4.32. The reusable Baikal booster from 1999

Figure 4.33. The Angara with reusable boosters

Figure 4.34. The Angara family in 2011

Figure 4.35. Initial flight of Angara-1.2PP

Figure 4.36. Initial flight of the Angara-A5 on December 23, 2014

Figure 4.37. a) The cryogenic stage projects: Shtorm (1980s), heavy stage for Proton, 12KRB for GSLV, KVTK for Angara-5. b) The cryo stages of Angara A3, A5 and A7 (source: all rights reserved). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

5 The Uses of the Proton

Figure 5.1. Almaz station project with a VA capsule

Figure 5.2. TKS project based on the 7K-VI vessel

Figure 5.3. UR-500-TKS (source: Alexandre Chliadinsky). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 5.4. The Almaz station with the TKS supply ship

Figure 5.5. The Agat-1 camera

Figure 5.6. The Almaz station with the Soyuz spacecraft

Figure 5.7. The Almaz cosmonauts

Figure 5.8. The Salyut-3 station (OPS no. 0101-2)

Figure 5.9. Popovich and Artiukhin in Salyut-3

Figure 5.10. The Soyuz-14 State Commission

Figure 5.11. a) UR-500-82LB72 (source: Alexandre Chliadinsky), b) the 82LB72 capsule test program, c) the VA capsule (source: Christian Lardier) and d) 82LB72 launch

Figure 5.12. Six-cosmonaut version

Figure 5.13. The KSI capsule (source: NPO Mash). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 5.14. Almaz station no. 104

Figure 5.15. The Almaz-N project

Figure 5.16. The Almaz-K project: variants from 1974 to 1975 and 1976

Figure 5.17. The Almaz-T station

Figure 5.18. Cosmos-1870 launch

Figure 5.19. The Zond spacecraft (7K-L1)

Figure 5.20. Zond launch

Figure 5.21. The DOS orbital station

Figure 5.22. The Salyut-1 Zarya station

Figure 5.23. The Salyut-2 station

Figure 5.24. The Salyut-6 station

Figure 5.25. Salyut-7 with Cosmos-1443

Figure 5.26. The Cosmos-1686 module

Figure 5.27. The Mir station with all its modules

Figure 5.28. a) The Kvant-1 module, b) the Kvant-2 module, and c) the Kristall module

Figure 5.29. Above: the Prioroda module; below: the Spectre module

Figure 5.30. The FGB Zarya and the Zvezda station

Figure 5.31. Zarya launch (1998) and Zvezda launch (2000)

Figure 5.32. Luna-15 was planned for November 1968

Figure 5.33. Luna-16 (E-8-5)

Figure 5.34. Lunakhod-1 and Luna-17

Figure 5.35. Lunakhod-2

Figure 5.36. Lunakhod-3

Figure 5.37. Luna-19

Figure 5.38. The LB-09 lunar system (left) and the Martian MB-01 (right)

Figure 5.39. The 1969 Martian mission

Figure 5.40. The 1971 Martian mission

Figure 5.41. The Mars-3’s capsule and PrOP mini-rover

Figure 5.42. Mars-4 and 5 (M73S) from 1973

Figure 5.43. Mars-6 and Mars-7 (M73P) from 1973

Figure 5.44. The 4NM probe (Marsokhod) and the 5NM probe (sample return)

Figure 5.45. The 5M probe (M-79) from 1974–1977

Figure 5.46. The 1F Phobos probe from 1988

Figure 5.47. The Phobos Proton from 1988

Figure 5.48. The Mars-96 probe

Figure 5.49. The Venera-9 probe and the landing capsule (NPO Lavochkin)

Figure 5.50. The Venera-15 probe

Figure 5.51. The VEGA probe and its 1984 launch

Figure 5.52. The Astron satellite

Figure 5.53. The Granat satellite and its 1989 launch

Figure 5.54. The US-K system of Chelomey in the 1960s

Figure 5.55. The Oko-1 (US-KS) and Oko-2 satellites (US-KMO)

Figure 5.56. The Arkon-1 satellite

Figure 5.57. The Raduga satellite and its launch

Figure 5.58. The 100th Proton with a Raduga in November 1982

Figure 5.59. The Ecran satellite

Figure 5.60. The Ecran-M satellite

Figure 5.61. The Gorizont satellite

Figure 5.62. The Luch-Altair and Potok-Geizer satellites

Figure 5.63. The Sesat-1 and Express-AM44 satellites (source: ISS Reshetnev). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 5.64. The Glonass and Glonass-M satellites (source: ISS Reshetnev). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 5.65. The Tselina-2 satellite

Figure 5.66. Keldysh and Chelomey

Figure 5.67. a) Vladimir and Ninel, b) Sergey and c) Evgenya

Figure 5.68. Obituary published in Pravda on December 12, 1984

Figure 5.69. Chlomey’s first appearance as the Proton and Polyot designer in the Encyclopedia of Moscow, published in 1980

Figure 5.70. Busts in Kiev, Baikonur, MVTU, NPO Mash, and tomb in Novodevichy

Figure 5.71. a) Order of Lenin awarded by N. S. Khrushchev to the OKB in 1959 and b) Order of the Red Banner awarded by P. V. Dementyev to the OKB in 1963

Figure 5.72. (a) Chelomey, Khrushchev, Korolev, Pilyugie, Barmin in Crimea in 1961 (source: all rights reserved) and (b) from left to right, Glushko, Trufanov, Tyulin, Kaidalov, Barmin, Pruglo, Konopatov, Kurushin, Chelomey, Druzhinin, 1965

Figure 5.74. a) I. S. Belussov, Chelomey, S. A. Afanaseyev, S. G. Gorshkov and P. G. Kotov, and b) V. S. Avduyevsky, V. P. Mishin, E. P. Velikhov, Chelomey, and A. P. Alexandrov

6 Saturn’s Rival

Figure 6.1. First concepts of the Juno 5

Figure 6.2. Launch of the Saturn SA-1

Figure 6.3. Launch of the Saturn SA-8

Figure 6.4. The barrel from the Saturn-1’s first stage

Figure 6.5. Without knowing it, the Americans were using the same barrel configuration as the Soviets

Figure 6.6. Proton-1 satellite in Le Bourget in 1967

Figure 6.7. First liftoff of the Saturn-5

Figure 6.8. The Soviet launchers known to the CIA in 1965

Figure 6.9. The Soviet launchers known to the CIA in 1967

Figure 6.10. The Tsar Bomba tested in 1961

Figure 6.11. N-1 preparations photographed by a KH-8 on September 19, 1968

Figure 6.12. Apollo-8 puts an end to the Soviets’ lunar aspirations

7 Commercial Prehistory

Figure 7.1. The Franco-German Symphonie satellite

Figure 7.2. First launch of an Intelsat satellite by Europe’s Ariane in 1983 (L7)

Figure 7.3. Marecs-B2 in preparation

Figure 7.4. Launch of the Salyut-1 in 1971

Figure 7.5. Launch of the Vega-2 in 1984

Figure 7.6. Orbite newspaper from January 1986, the AviMag reviews from February 1, 1986 to May 1, 1986

Figure 7.7. Inmarsat-2 (source: Airbus DS). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/lardier/proton.zip

Figure 7.8. Alexander Dunaev

Figure 7.9. Launch of the IRS-1A

Figure 7.10. Licensintorg ad

Figure 7.11. The first photographs of Proton published in 1986

Figure 7.12. a) Ill-fated Indonesian astronaut Pratiwi Sudarmono and b) Palapa-B2 and Westar-6 brought back to Earth by Discovery in 1984

Figure 7.13. Arthur M. Dula

Figure 7.14. Glavkosmos’ stand in Bourget in 1987

Figure 7.15. Advertising at the Phobos launch in 1988

Figure 7.16. Visit of the MIK 92 in Baikonur

Figure 7.17. MIK-92 visit in Baikonur

Figure 7.18. MIK-92 visit in Baikonur

8 Friends or Foes

Figure 8.1. Sergey Krikalev on STS-60 in February 1994 (second from the left) and Norman Thagard on Mir in March 1995 (left)

Figure 8.2. Khrunichev visit in 1991

Figure 8.3. Melvin Brashears and Anatoli Kiselev

Figure 8.4. From left to right, Vice President and President of Motorola, A. I. Kiselev, Minister of Science and Technology A. A. Kuzmitsky

Figure 8.5. Iridium on Proton

Figure 8.6. A. Kiselev with D. Tellep and N. Augustine in June 1995

Figure 8.7. Creation of ILS in Bourget in June 1995

9 The Transatlantic Alliance

Figure 9.1. Atlas-2AS

Figure 9.2. Yuri Koptev, Anatoli Kiselev and Al Gore at Khrunichev in 1995

Figure 9.3. Failure of Intelsat-708 on 2/14/1996

Figure 9.4. Vance Coffman, Anatoli Kiselev and Romain Bausch, head of SES

Figure 9.5. State Commission for the Astra-1F launch

Figure 9.6. Astra-1F launch on April 9, 1996

Figure 9.7. Inmarsat-3F2 on Proton

Figure 9.8. Commission of State for Inmarsat-3F2:Semenov–Kiselev–Shumilin

Figure 9.9. Charles H. Lloyd

Figure 9.10. ILS meeting in 1996 (Kiselev–McAnally)

Figure 9.11. Asiasat-3 launch on December 25, 1997

Figure 9.12. The Boeing-Kvaerner-Yuzhnoe, YuzhMash and Energiya Sea Launch

Figure 9.13. ILS meeting in 1999 (Kiselev-Trafton)

10 Standing the Test of the Market

Figure 10.1. Atlas-3A launch on May 24, 2000

Figure 10.2. The Delta-3 from 1997

Figure 10.3. Sea Launch liftoff

Figure 10.4. Mark Albrecht

Figure 10.5. Atlas-5

Figure 10.6. Astra-1K

Figure 10.7. Ariane-517 liftoff on December 11, 2002

Figure 10.8. Thor-5 launch

Figure 10.9. Failure of the NSS-8 launch on January 30, 2007

Figure 10.10. Frank McKenna and Mario Lemme

Figure 10.11. SES-3 and Kazsat-2 on July 15, 2011

Figure 10.12. Intelsat-23 launched on October 14, 2012

Figure 10.13. Phil Slack, Karen Monaghan, Janice Starzyk

Figure 10.14. Express-AM4R launch on May 15, 2014

Figure 10.15. The RD-0214’s Vernier engines

Figure 10.16. The failure on July 2, 2013

Figure 10.17. Space X’s Falcon-9

Figure 10.18. Kirk Pysher

Figure 10.19. The Angara-A5 on December 23, 2014

Figure 10.20. ExoMars launch on March 14, 2016

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Series Editor

Jean-Luc Lefebvre

The Proton Launcher

History and Developments

Christian Lardier

Stefan Barensky

First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK

www.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA

www.wiley.com

The rights of Christian Lardier and Stefan Barensky to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962688

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-176-5

Foreword

The Proton rocket has played a formidable role in several key historic milestones in space history, marking some of the most complex scientific and technological achievements of mankind. Some notable examples include launching exploratory missions that produced the first samples of the lunar surface to be returned by an unmanned spacecraft and the first soft landing on the surface of Venus. The orbiting of the Salyut International Space Station (ISS) series and the MIR ISS modules were also enabled by Proton.

Over time, Proton has evolved to become one of the core heavy-lift vehicles for the Russian Federal space program as well as the global commercial satellite industry. The commercial missions are conducted under the auspices of International Launch Services, a US-based company.

On a bitterly cold day, on April 9, 1996, the first commercial launch of Proton was conducted with the Astra 1F satellite for Luxembourg-based SES. This launch is a memory that will be etched in the minds of those who witnessed it forever. For those viewing the launch at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, in the dessert steppes of Kazakhstan, in –30° F weather, the memory of the spectacular lift-off and successful mission for the first commercial satellite aboard a Russian launch vehicle far surpassed the icy chill in the air that night.

One of the most successful post-Cold War US–Russian cooperative efforts, the commercial Proton has launched some of the world’s most powerful communications satellites, providing critical connectivity around the globe via land sea or air with mobility services, video, data and broadband services, broadcasting, direct-to-home TV and satellite radio.

The lift capability of the workhorse Proton has increased – as of this writing – to 6.27 metric tons to reference Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) and 6.47 metric tons to Super Synchronous Transfer Orbit (SSTO) at 1,500 m/s. The Proton Breeze M vehicle’s restartable Breeze M upper stage allows each mission to be optimized and projected in orbit lifetime to be maximized for single or multiple satellites supporting missions to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO), GTO, GSO and SSTO.

In the fall of 2016, the two-stage variants of Proton were unveiled, further supporting the proven heritage of the vehicle to adapt, change and compete in a highly competitive commercial marketplace. Driven by the influx of electric and hybrid propulsion satellites, the sleek two-stage Proton offers satellite operators a much-needed cost-effective and high-performing solution to orbit. This sort of “back to the future” design is reminiscent of the early Proton vehicle design, when it was a two-stage vehicle called the “UR-500”, launched in the early 1960s.

The concept for this book was born many years ago by one of the premiere space historians of our time, and author of this book, Mr. Christian Lardier. A true labor of love, Mr. Lardier was determined to write this powerful book about one of the world’s most intriguing Russian launch vehicles, despite some challenging circumstances and several stops and starts along the way. We owe much gratitude to Mr. Lardier for his tenacity and unwavering dedication to this very in-depth project which tells, in great detail, after countless interviews with Russian scientists and others, Proton’s unique story about its incredible journey to orbit. We also give our thanks to co-author, Stefan Barensky, for the second part of this work and the remarkable history of International Launch Services.

INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SERVICES

Preface

July 16, 2015 marked the 50th anniversary of the heavy launch vehicle Proton’s first flight. Proton was designed and developed under the direction of Vladimir Chelomey, the main rival of Sergei Korolev, Soviet Wernher von Braun, designer of the R-7 “Semyorka”. In June 2013, Stefan Barensky and I published the The Soyuz Launch Vehicle (3 years after the original French title, Les deux vies de Soyouz, was published). It tells the story of the rocket with the world’s most launches out of Baikonur, Plesetsk and the Guiana Space Centre (GSC) since 2011, and from Vostochny as of December 2015.

June 30, 2014 also marked Chelomey’s 100th birthday. He was initially working for the Ministry of Aviation Industry (MAP), designing cruise missiles for the Navy, whereas Korolev was from the Ministry of Defense Industry (MOP) working on ballistic rockets for the artillery. In March 1965, they were brought together under the Ministry of General Machine Building (MOM). From 1960 to 1965, Chelomey completed the UR-200, UR-500 and UR-100 for the Ministry of Defense. At this time, strongly supported by Khrushchev, he built a true industrial empire. In 1965, the UR-500 then became Proton, whose name was taken from Chelomey’s first payload, the Proton-1 satellite designed for studying cosmic rays. It was the beginning of a long career for the heavy launch vehicle, the equivalent of the US Saturn-1B, which became the main competitor of the European rocket, Ariane, on the commercial market. In January 2016, it was launched 410 times, whereas Ariane had only taken 228 flights. The medium rocket, Soyuz, had already been launched 1,854 times. Since 1995 Proton has been marketed across the world by the American company International Launch Services (ILS). The launch system is predicted to remain in use until 2025, before being replaced by a new rocket, Angara.

Our second book is dedicated to the history of the Proton rocket, to its creator Vladimir Chelomey and his Reutov Design Office OKB-52, which celebrated its 60th birthday on August 8, 2015. Proton was designed and manufactured in the Khrunichev factory and the Salyut Design Office in Fili (former production plant and OKB no. 23). The two were officially merged together to become the Khrunichev Center on June 7, 1993 by order of decree no. 421-RP. Finally, March 2011 marked the OKB Design Office’s 60th birthday, while the factory celebrated its centenary on April 30, 2016.

The final book of the trilogy, which is scheduled for publication in 2017, focuses on the third Soviet/Russian space empire, that of designer Mikhail Yangel who created the OKB-586/NPO Youjnoe Design Office in Dniepropetrovsk (now Dnipro) in 1954. It was at this OKB that the R-12, R-14, R-16, R-36, R-36M and R-36M2/Dnepr missiles, the Cosmos-2, 3M, Cyclone-2, 3, 4 and Zenith launchers (Zenith-2, Energia Booster, Sea Launch, Land Launch), and a very large number of satellites were designed.

We offer our thanks to ILS (Mark Albrecht, Frank McKenna, Phil Slack, Jim Bonner, Karen Monaghan, James Youdale), the Khrunichev State Research & Production Space Center (Anatoly Kiselev, Vladimir Nesterov, Evgueny Koulaga, Grigori Khazanovitch, Sergei Chaevitch, Ines Glazkova), Vladimir Poliatchenko (NPO Mach), Alexandre Chliadinsky (Proton drawings), Igor Afanaseiev (Novosti Kosmonavtiki), Mikhail Pervov (Stolitchnaya Entsiklopedia) and others.

In order to obtain authorization rights for the publication of certain figures, we have agreed to cite the following publications from which they have been taken: The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Aircraft of V.M. Myasischev, Volume 2 by A. A. Bruk, K. G. Oudalov, S. G. Smirnov, N. G. Brezginova, Avico Press 2001 (figures with symbol *); the article “35 ans du lanceur Proton” (35 Years of the Proton Launch Vehicle) no. 1/98 by Novosti Kosmonavtiki (figures with symbol **); and L’histoire du développement des satellites russes (History of the development of Russian Satellites), Stolitchnaya Entsiklopedia, Moscow, 2015 (figures with symbol ***).

Christian LARDIERDecember 2017

PART 1The Proton in the East

1Vladimir Chelomey:From the V1 to Proton

Vladimir Nikolayevich Chelomey was born on June 17, 1914 (Julian calendar), or June 30, 1914 (Gregorian calendar) into a family of teachers in Sedletz (Poland). He spent his childhood in Poltava and then moved to Kiev in 1926. At 18 years of age, he finished his studies at the Technicum Automobile of Kiev (Ukraine) and entered the Institut PromEnergetik, studying the internal combustion engine. But the young Vladimir was interested in the then emerging field of aviation. He was accepted into the aerospace faculty at the Kiev Polytechnic Institute (since renamed the National Aerospace University). During his first year, while studying, he also worked as a technician in the subsidiary of the Institute of Civil Aviation.

Figure 1.1.Vladimir Chelomey

(source: rights reserved)

In 1936, while still a student, he published a paper on vector analysis and taught vibration theory to engineers working at the Zaporozhye aircraft engine factory. This production facility, no. 29 (now Motor Sich), had the manufacturing license for French engines Gnome and Rhône at the time. In 1937, a year ahead of his fellow students, he successfully received his qualifications from the Institute. He was then accepted to the Institute of Mathematics at The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) of Ukraine where, in July 1939, he presented a PhD proposal in Technical Sciences (“Dynamic Stability of Elements in Aerospace Construction”).

In 1940, he was selected by the NAS to be part of a special group of 50 PhD students, bringing together some of the best doctorate candidates in the country. He then prepared a thesis on the dynamic stability of elastic systems in airplane engines. He submitted the thesis at the beginning of 1941 but was turned down by the administration, and would have to resubmit it at the MVTU in 1951 (“Study of torsional vibrations in aircraft engines”).

Figure 1.2.The German V-1

(source: rights reserved)

When war broke out in June 1941 he was evacuated from Kiev to Moscow. He became a member of the Communist Party (CPSU) and joined the Moscow Central Institute of Aviation Motors (TsIAM) where he became head of reaction engines. It was here that he designed a pulsejet engine. In Kazan, in the OKB-16 charaga (prison Design Office), B. S. Stechkin designed another pulsejet engine: the US accelerator designed for the Pe-2 aircraft. The US-K model was tested in December 1942 but work was interrupted when Stechkin returned to Moscow in early 1943.

Figure 1.3.The TsIAM pulsejet engine

(source: rights reserved)

1.1. The Soviet V-1 designer

This type of engine had been used by the Germans on the V-1 cruise missile (Fieseler 103 with Argus 109-014 engine) since December 24, 1942. The first V-1 was fired at London on June 13, 1944. During World War Two, approximately 30,000 missiles were produced, 10,000 of which were directed at London. Moscow decided to produce a similar device. On September 19, Chelomey was appointed Director and Main Designer at production facility no. 51, previously led by aircraft designer N. N. Polikarpov (deceased July 30 1944). Chelomey’s appointed deputy was D. L. Tomachevich. Much like Chelomey, he was a graduate from the Kiev Polytechnic Institute and had worked with Polikarpov since 1931. But following an accident that cost the life of pilot V. P. Chkalov, he was sent to the charaga from 1938 to 1943. Upon his return, he became Polikarpov’s deputy but only until July 1944. He then continued to work with Chelomey but following a deep disagreement about technical solutions, he left in 1947 to go on to develop a national version of the German Hs-293 missile: the RAMT-1400 Schuka (aka KSCh).

Figure 1.4.The 10X missile from 1944

On September 23, Chelomey received a V-1 missile recovered in Dembitza, Poland. It was, in fact, the 10X with a D-3 engine. Unlike the V-1, the 10X was launched from an airplane. Consequently, three Pe-8 and two Er-2 aircrafts underwent modifications for flight tests. The 10X weighed 2,130 kg and could fly at a speed of 620 km/h across a distance of 240 km. On November 17, the first version was transferred to TsAGI for aerodynamic testing in the T-104 wind tunnel. The engine, with a 270 kg thrust, was tested on a test-bench, then on the test-aircraft Pe-2. On January 18, 1945, by order of decree no. 7350, work began on the construction of 100 missiles, as well as preparations for producing 300 additional units in March. Mass production would be completed by factories no. 456 in Khimki near Moscow, no. 125 in Irkutsk, no. 118 in Moscow (autopilot system) and no. 458 in Savelovo near Dubna (catapult). Following this, on March 20, 1945, the 10X was launched for the very first time in Sjizak, Uzbekistan. The tests continued until August (63 launches) but the success rate was only 30%. The Commission of Inquiry, led by V. F. Bolkhovitinov, S. A. Lavochkin and N. A. Jemchujin, finally concluded that the failure was the result of a problem with the fuel supply regulator. Nevertheless, Chelomey received his first Order of Lenin on September 16, 1945.

Around this time, Sergei Korolev was sent to Germany to recover the V-2 and became its main designer on August 9, 1946.

Figure 1.5.The OKB-51 team in 1944

(source: rights reserved)

Figure 1.6.Pulsejet engines D-3 and D14-4

(source: rights reserved)

In November 1945, Chelomey requested that the Minister of Aviation Industry, A.I. Chakhurin, send specialists from his Design Office (OKB-51) to Germany in order to recover the fuel supply regulator and the Askania autopilot system. One month later, V. I. Tarasov, Chief of the Engine Division, returned with a regulator. By order of decree no. 606-249c, on March 16, 1946 a commission led by A.S. Yakovlev regarding the use of German specialists was initiated. The NKVD General, I. A. Serov, the Aviation General, V. I. Stalin (son of the Head of State) and V. N. Chelomey were also members of the commission. They headed to Germany, where the Sector Chief V. V. Sachkov, at that time visiting Nordhausen, Berlin and other cities, was also present. They returned with autopilot systems and control surfaces from Nordhausen, as well as 129 intact V-1 missiles and three piloted ones from Pulverhof. The autopilot system was copied by production facility no. 118 and renamed AP-4. This gave way to the creation of the PSU-20 pneumatic autopilot system, followed by the AP-52 in 1951. In addition, the electric ESU-1 was also used, followed by the AP-56 in 1952. The ESU-1 was developed by the Kuibyshev OKB-3 Design Office. There, a group of 61 Germans working for Askania were deported in October 1946. Led by Peter Lertes, the group included specialists such as Waldemar Möller, Helmut Breuninger, Georg Orlamünder, Kurt Kracheel, as well as others. In 1948, the group was placed under the direction of Russian designer P. D. Mitiachin, who manufactured autopilot systems in facility no. 118. But in 1950, the group was transferred to KB-1 in Moscow to contribute to developing the ground-to-air guided missile S-25 Berkut. Here, the group was joined by 13 high-frequency experts from Monino, Johannes Hoch’s group from Gorodomlia, and 35 people from Krasnogorsk. Two of them (Bruno Fischer and Wilhelm Fischer) received the Stalin Prize in 1952. They were then transferred to Sukhumi in 1955 before being sent back to Germany.

Figure 1.7.The D-3 engine on the TU-2

(source: rights reserved)

In 1946, 180 improved missiles were built and two additional Pe-8 aircrafts underwent improvements. The missile was tested at the Kapustin Yar polygon (73 launches) between December 15, 1947 and July 20, 1948. It was then recommended that the 10X be included in the Army’s weaponry, but was refused due to its weak thrust and low speed, lower than other aircraft from that period. But Chelomey continued his tests: 18 launches between late 1948 and October 1949 (11 with the PSU-20 guidance system, five with the PSU-30 and two with the ESU-1).

Figure 1.8.The 14X missile

(source: rights reserved)

At the same time, Chelomey developed the D-5 engine with 400 kg thrust, and the 14X missile with the ability to cruise at 800 km/h. Facility no. 456 went on to produce 20 missiles. The engine was tested in March 1947 and the 14X flight tests (10 launches) took place in July 1948 using a Pe-8. Four flights allowed for testing of the PSU-20. By the end of 1946, the D-6 engine, with a thrust of 600 kg, successfully passed all flight tests. It was mounted onto the 14XK1 missile the following year, in the first stage of the Kometa program. But once again, the Army refused to integrate it into its weaponry.

Kometa was intended to be a guided anti-ship missile. On September 8, 1947, by order of decree 3140-1026, the special Design Office SB-1 was created and ordered the guidance system to be developed with the assistance of the captured Germans. The Chief of SB-1 was P. N. Kuksenko, and his Deputy was none other than the son of L. P. Beria, Minister of the Interior and Stalin’s right-hand man, S. L. Beria (from his real surname Gegechoria). Having just completed the Budyonny Military Academy of Communications, he was now responsible for radio devices on the missile (Kometa-I), on the carrier plane (Kometa-II) as well as on the autopilot system for the missile (Kometa-III). The carrier plane was a Tu-4 (a copy of the B-29). For the missile, several options were possible. Chelomey then proposed a missile equipped with a 900 kg thrust D-7 engine. But in 1947, aircraft designer A. I. Mikoyan opened Department B in his Design Office. Led by M. I. Gourevich, he was in charge of guided missiles. Artem Mikoyan was none other than Anastas’ brother, member of the Politbureau and Deputy President of the Ministers Council. In the beginning, Mikoyan proposed a smaller version of the Mig-9, but, in the end, the Mig-15 was finally selected. The KS-1 Kometa, propelled by a RD-500 turbojet, could cruise at more than 1,000 km/h while Chelomey’s missile in comparison could only reach 950 km/h. Production for the KS-1 was entrusted to facility no. 256 in Dubna (subsidiary no. 2 of OKB-155). The SB-1 and OKB-155 were awarded with the Stalin Prize in 1953. Among the recipients of the award were S.L. Beria, of course, but also D.L. Tomachevich, who had left the KB-2 in 1949 to become Chief of Sector 32 at SB-1. Tomachevich held a grudge against Chelomey.

Figure 1.9.a) La-7 with two D-10 and b) La-9 with two D-13

(source: rights reserved)

During this time, the pulsejet engines were used as fighter plane accelerators. The D-10 engine was then mounted onto the Lavochkin-designed La-7 in 1946, and the D-13 engine was mounted onto the La-9 in 1947. Each plane had two engines with a 200 kg unit thrust and were featured in the Tushino Air Show in August 1947.

Figure 1.10.The 16X Priboy missile

(source: rights reserved)

Figure 1.11.The 16X missile in flight

(source: rights reserved)

On May 7, 1947, by order of decree 1401-370 the airborne missile 16X Priboy was developed (2,557 kg). Likewise, the 15XM was also requested for the Navy. On April 14, 1948, by order of decree no. 1175-440, production of the 15XM (generic program Chtorm) was entrusted to M. R. Bisnovat at facility no. 293 in Khimki. Bisnovat had worked at the NII-1 (Kostikov rocket-aircraft 302 between 1942 and 1944), at factory no. 153 between 1944 and 1946, before working for himself on June 7, 1946 (5 aircraft between 1946 and 1949). The 15XM was propelled by M. M. Bondariuk’s ramjet and the Priboy was propelled by two pulsejet engines, namely the D-312 followed by the D-14-4 (251 kg unitary thrust). Following decree no. 1175-440, two variants of the guidance system were planned for production (PSU-20 and ESU-1). From July 22 to December 25, 1948 in Akhtuba (Vladimirovka station in the Kapustin Yar polygon), six missiles underwent flight testing. In 1949, the tests continued over three stages. The first stage involved four launches. The second, with 11 launches, showed that the engine cut off when it reached 720–775 km/h. To increase speed while maintaining stability, they decided that the nozzle had to be shortened. The D-312 was replaced by the D-14-4, allowing it to reach 1,000 km/h. The new engine could be tested in the third stage with 13 launches: the results showed that the 16X could reach 872 km/h in normal regime and 912 km/h in forced regime. Out of 34 launches, eight were performed from a Tu-2 and 26 from a Pe-8. Twenty-nine of them were equipped with a PSU-20A and five with an ESU-1. A new round of tests (20 missiles, all featuring a PSU-20A) was conducted with a Tu-4 (2 missiles), and a Tu-2 (1 missile) between September 6 and November 4, 1950. The first stage included four launches, the second also had four, and the third had 12. It reached a speed of 900 km/h and a range of 170 km. All launches reached the 10.8 × 16 km target. The second round of flight tests comprised six launches between June 12 and 17 (with the AP-56 autopilot system), and 22 launches between August 2 and 22, 1952. Regardless of the tests, the Army was persistent in its decision not to integrate it into the weaponry due to a lack of precision and reliability. However, the Army did eventually request additional testing on the 16X in late 1952 (15 missiles), before forming a Tu-4 squadron in 1953 (60 missiles, 20 of which used warheads).

Figure 1.12.The 10XN missile

(source: rights reserved)

At the same time as the 16X, Chelomey developed the mobile, land-based version of the 10X for the Army, the 10XN (N for Nazemlie, meaning land). It had been approved by decree no. 4814-2095 of December 4, 1950. It was equipped with a D-16 engine, reaching a 320 kg thrust from a rail launcher (mobile version on the T-34 tank), using a powder-based accelerator to propel for lift-off. In 1945, the first project used the German accelerator that had been recovered by designer I.V. Chetverikov from facility no. 458, but the project was abandoned due a to lack of materials. In March 1946, a second project was initiated, using an accelerator from the KB of factory no. 81 (now MKB Iskra), with 16 cartridges of M-31 shells. From May 19 to October 19, 1948 at the Sofrino polygon (now NII Geodesia), 12 missiles were launched on rails of 40 m and 30 m length. In 1949 and 1950, five missiles were launched with RBT-700 accelerators. In 1951, the latter was replaced by the SD-10XN, developed by the Krasnoarmeysk KB-3 (now KNIIM). From 23 to 31 July, the 10XN was launched 12 times out of Kapustin Yar (10 with the PSU-30 guidance system and two with the AP-52 autopilot). From May 12 to June 20, 1952, the factory tests were inconclusive: seven out of the 20 launches failed. An additional four launches took place between September 19 and 24. But on February 19, 1953, upon Beria’s initiative, Chelomey’s OKB-51 was closed down by order of decree 553-271, and his activity was transferred to Mikoyan’s OKB-155. OKB-293 was also closed and transferred to KB-1 (former SB-1) to help with the development of ground-to-air missiles from the Third Main Directorate (TGU) of the Ministers Council. It should be noted that the V-1 had been rebuilt by Republic Aircraft (Ford engine) in the United States under the name JB-2 Loon. The first flight had taken place in Eglin in October 1944, and 1,385 models were delivered to USAF. The KGW-1/LTV-N-2 version was developed specifically for the Navy. Tests were carried out on the USS-348 Cusk submarine from February 1947 but, finally, the program was stopped in 1950 much to the advantage of the Regulus missile.

Figure 1.13.The P-2 submarine project from 1949 fully equipped with the 10XN missile

(source: rights reserved)

However, the 10XN would still be used as a target device. Decree no. 5472 of May 19, 1954 ordered the production of 100 units from facility no. 475 in Smolensk. However, this would be reduced to just 50 units by November 3, 1955. This version was fully equipped with the AP-66 autopilot system and a PRD-15 powder-based accelerator. Six missiles were tested in 1956 and five additional launches for quality control took place in July 1957.

Figure 1.14.The Pr628 submarine project from 1952 and 1953 with the 10X missile

(source: rights reserved)

In addition, decree no. 4814-2095 of December 4, 1952 required Chelomey to develop a supersonic missile that would be mounted onto a submarine. In 1949, F.A. Kaverin’s TsKB-18 started two Lastochka projects: the P-2 submarine with 51 10X missiles and the P-4 submarine (Project 624) with Lavochkin’s P-40 missiles.

But these projects were quickly abandoned. Chelomey then went on to review the Volna project, which planned to load the 10XN onto a Project 628 submarine. But, once again, in early 1953, the OKB was closed down which put an end to the project.

Figure 1.15.Missile wing deployment mechanism

(source: Christian Lardier)

When the OKB was shut down, some of Chelomey’s colleagues were transferred to Mikoyan’s production facility, whereas others preferred to change company altogether. Chelomey’s Deputy, V. S. Avduyevsky, went to the NII-1 in G. I. Petrov’s laboratory to focus on aerodynamic heating and atmospheric entry. He had studied the centrifuge injector for pulsejet engines at the TsIAM in 1944, then combustion by diffusion at the NII-1 before joining OKB-51. He went on to become Deputy Director of the NII-1 (Keldysh Center) in 1965 until 1973, Vice Deputy of the TsNII Mach between 1973 and 1987, then Vice Deputy of the Institute of Machines at the Academy of Sciences from 1987 to 2003.

1.2. The designer of Soviet naval missiles

However, Stalin died on March 5, 1953 and Sergei, Beria’s son, was arrested in July, which greatly changed things. Sergei was eventually liberated and sent to work at the NII-592 in Sverdlovsk from 1954 to 1964. He then went on to work for the NII Kvant in Kiev from 1964 to 1988 and led a department on new physics principles at the Institute for Mechanical Engineering Problems of the Ukrainian Academy from 1988 and 1990. At the end of his career, he was Director of the TsNII Kometa subsidiary in Kiev, from 1990 until 1999.

Figure 1.16.The 1955 P-5 missile

(source: NPO Mach)

OKB-51, which had become a subsidiary of OKB-155, was taken over by designer P. O. Sukhoi in October. Chelomey, who wanted to pursue the development of the Volna program, requested for a new Design Office to be opened. He obtained a special group (SKG-10, with 20 people) located in production facility no. 500 in Tushino (airplane engines) on August 9, 1954. M.I. Livshitz joined Chelomey as deputy, having been responsible for guidance systems in OKB-51.

Figure 1.17.The 1955 Pr613 missile with the P-5 missile

(source: rights reserved)

From then on, he was no longer working for the Air Force but instead for the Navy. On March 5, 1955, he put forward his anti-ship missile MD-1, weighing 3.5 tons. It could reach a speed of 1,500 km/h, with a 400–600 km range depending on the altitude. The originality of the device was in the deployment of the wings after launch from a tube measuring 1.65 m diameter by 11 m length. He obtained approval from Admiral S. G. Gorshkov who led the Navy from 1956 to 1985, and Vice-Admiral P. G. Kotov from the naval artillery department.

On July 19, 1955, Chelomey moved to the OKB-52 in Reutov (former mechanics factory). His progress here came on rapidly. Decree no. 1457-809 on August 8, 1955 ordered P. P. Pustintsev (TsKB-18) to lead submarine project 613. Chelomey, in OKB-52, was required to design the P-5 missile (4K34), measuring 10.8 m and weighing 5.1 tons. It was ejected from an SM-49 tube (TsKB-34) using a powder-based PRD-34 accelerator developed by I. I. Kartukov (KB of factory no. 81). The wings were deployed by the ARK-5 hydraulics system. It was then propelled at 1,300 km/h by V. N. Sorokin’s turbojet KRD-26 (OKB-26 in Ufa). The AP-70A guidance systems made it possible to cruise at a minimum altitude of 400 m. The warhead could be either classic or nuclear (RDS-4, identical to missile R-11FM). The launch management system was developed by S. F. Farmakovsky from NII-303 (TsNII Elektropribor).

Figure 1.18.P-5 flight test in 1957

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The first launch of a prototype took place on March 12, 1957 from the NII-2 base in Belozersky-Faustovo, near Moscow. The NII-2 of aviation industry was established in February 1946 (now named GosNIIAS). From 1951 to 1970, it was led under the direction of V. A. Djaparidze, previous Head of the TsAGI laboratory, who later proposed an air-cushion landing system for one of Chelomey’s space shuttles. The P-5 flight tests went ahead in Balaklava from August 1957 to March 1958. The first submarine, Project 613 no. S-146, was built by production facility no. 112 in Krasnoye Sormovo (Gorky). The first launch from the submarine took place on November 22, 1957 in Severodvinsk. In total, 21 launches took place and on June 19, 1959, by order of degree 685-313, the missile was declared operational.

Figure 1.19.P-5 launch from submarine Pr659

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The P-5 was deployed on several types of submarine. Project 613 no. S-80 was turned into Project 644, a two-missile carrier, and a salvo of two missiles was carried out in December 1959. Following this, six units of Project 644 were produced (S-44, S-46, S-69, S-80, S-158, S-162). Project 665, a four-missile carrier, was also produced in six units (S-61, S-64, S-142, S-152, S-155, S-164). Finally, Project 659, a nuclear propeller, was equipped with six missiles and produced in six units by production facility no. 199 in Komsomolsk-sur-Amour (K-43, K-59, K-66, K-122, K-151, K-30).

The P-5D version (4K95) was fitted with a Doppler for measuring the speed and drift angle of Zhukovsky’s NII-17 to improve accuracy and lower the flight altitude. As such, it reached an accuracy of 4 km/500 km and the altitude decreased from 400 to 200 m. The barometric altimeter was replaced by a RV-5 radio altimeter from OKB-379 in Kamensk-Ural (now UPKB Detal). Between 1959 and 1960, 22 missiles were tested in Kapustin Yar. It was then tested on submarine Project 644D no. S-162 between 1960 and 1961. It was declared operational on March 2, 1962. The P-5SN version was fitted with a RV-5M radio altimeter. Finally, the P-5U was equipped with an inertial guidance system provided by V. I. Kuznetsov from NII-944 (a gyroscopic platform) and E. F. Antipov from OKB-923 (barometric altimeter).

Figure 1.20.The 1960 S-5 missile

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Chelomey also studied a P-5P for the Army and a P-5N for the Air Force. The S-5 ground version (2K17) was transported by one of V. A. Grachev’s ZIL-135K trucks. Seven launches were carried out in 1960, and an additional five launches allowed them to take part in State testing in 1961. It was declared operational on December 30, 1961 and then became the FKR-2 system (frontal cruise-missile). The FKR-1 (or KS-7) had been developed by Mikoyan based on the Kometa missile. The airborne version had not been developed since Mikoyan’s X-20 was selected. The S-5L (2K17M) was designed by order of decrees from June 19, 1959 and January 9, 1963. The 9M78 missile was given a 4L44 accelerator, a 4D95 turbojet and a RV-15 radio altimeter. Six launches were fired between August 1 and October 20, 1964. Finally, the S-5V, transportable by Mi-10 helicopter, was reviewed between February 1962 and November 1965.

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