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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Serie: What is Philosophy
- Sprache: Englisch
An important part of philosophy is concerned with religious questions. What is the meaning of life, and how might religious faith or doubt impact such meaning? What is the evidence for the existence of God? Is evidence essential for religious faith? What is the relationship between science and religion? What is the relationship between religions? How can or should one assess virtues and vices, right and wrong, from a religious versus a secular point of view? In this beginner's guide, Charles Taliaferro addresses these and other important questions involved in philosophy of religion. He challenges the negative, often complacent attitudes towards religion as being dangerous or merely superstitious, arguing instead for a healthy pluralism and respect between persons of faith and secular inquirers. What is Philosophy of Religion? takes a practical, question-based approach to the subject, inviting the reader to engage with this exciting area of philosophy in a down-to-earth way.
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Seitenzahl: 208
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series page
Title page
Copyright page
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Discussion questions
1
:
Philosophy of Religion and Science
A cosmological argument for the natural world
An argument against religious traditions in the name of science
Discussion questions
2
:
Philosophy of Religion and the Meaning of Life
The meaning of life according to the Abrahamic religions
The meaning of life in light of Hinduism and Buddhism
The meaning of our lives
Discussion questions
3
:
Divine Attributes
Perfection and being worthy of worship
Divine necessity
Incorporeality
Omnipotence
Omniscience
Eternal or everlasting
Alternative models of God and of what is real
Summary
Discussion questions
4
:
Faith and Evidence
Evidence about evidence
Four theistic arguments
An argument for monism
A buddhist no-self argument
Discussion questions
5
:
Problems of Evil and Good
Discussion questions
6
:
Love and the Limits of the World
Love, life, and death
Is life after this life even possible?
Revelation, miracles, prayers
Religious and secular values
Discussion questions
7
:
Getting Involved in Philosophy of Religion Today
References
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Polity's What is Philosophy? series
Sparkling introductions to the key topics in philosophy, written with zero jargon by leading philosophers.
What is Philosophy of Religion?
Charles Taliaferro
polity
Copyright © Charles Taliaferro 2019
The right of Charles Taliaferro to be identified as Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published in 2019 by Polity Press
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Acknowledgments
I thank Pascal Porcheron for inviting me to write What is Philosophy of Religion? I am also very grateful for the excellent assistance of Ellen MacDonald-Kramer. I thank Glenn Gordon, “Saint” Andrew Lupton, and Emma Claire dePaulo Reid for epic help in editing and revising the manuscript. I also thank Fiona Ellis and an anonymous reviewer for their insightful, incisive recommendations.
I thank Itayli Marquette, Wael Awada, and especially Tim Crane for the final preparation of the manuscript.
This book is dedicated to the many students I have had the joy of working with in the course Philosophical Theology at St. Olaf College over twenty years (and continuing). Most recently these include Anders, Andrew, Benj, Carly (“Cheryl”), Elliot, Erica, Hannah Joy, Michael, Katherine, Jess, Bay, Diane, Rose, and Wael. This book is also dedicated, with great admiration, to the exemplary professor of philosophy of religion Mikael Stenmark of Uppsala University, Sweden, who recognizes and promotes the international, collaborative practice of philosophy of religion. He is especially admirable in his sensitivity in placing the critical engagement of religious and secular traditions in the context of authentic care for, and respect of, persons and positions. Without such evident respect, even well thought out, responsible analysis may well come across as callous, uninformed cultural confrontation.
This manuscript was completed in the company of the inspiring Jil Evans (American artist and writer extraordinaire), the Polichs of Dover Street, and Elizabeth and Ryan, true lovers of wisdom.
Introduction
Is there a God? If there is, what is the relationship between God and the cosmos? Can we experience or perceive God? Does it matter whether some religious vision of the divine or sacred is true or false? When it comes to religion, should we be less concerned with truth and falsehood, and more with matters of personal fulfillment and satisfaction? How important is it for religious faith to be based upon evidence? If it is important, what kind of evidence should it be based upon? Has contemporary science shown religious beliefs to be superstitious and false? Are our concepts of good and evil rooted in religious concepts of life? If there is an all-powerful, all-good God, why is there so much evil in the world? Is there a soul? When, if ever, might it be reasonable or wise to believe in divine revelation, miracles, an incarnation of the divine or life after death? Are different religions different paths to the same sacred reality? How should we evaluate disagreements over religious beliefs? For example, should your confidence in your beliefs about God be reduced because others, who seem equally as intelligent and sincere as you, do not share those beliefs?
These are only some of the questions that animate philosophy of religion. They involve virtually every area of philosophy, impacting our political and personal values, our perspective on reality, the nature and limits of what we can know about or hope for, and so on. Today, philosophy of religion is undertaken by philosophers coming from all the great religious and secular perspectives: some are deeply skeptical about the truth of religions; others are observant Jews, practicing Christians, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Daoists, and practitioners of other religious traditions. There are even philosophers who propose new models and concepts of God that go beyond and challenge historical and contemporary religions.
Philosophical reflection on matters of religious significance is the oldest form of philosophy in both East and West. In Ancient Greece, Socrates and the Pre-Socratics (those philosophers who flourished prior to Socrates) were very much concerned with the nature of the divine and the authority of the will of God and/or the gods. In China, philosophers who practiced Confucianism and Daoism pondered tian (heaven) deeply. While tian and the Dao (the Way) are not the same as the concept of the divine in Ancient Greece—or in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—they are conceived of as a way of life involving reverential awe, which many see as spiritual or central to religious life. Similarly, in ancient Indian philosophy we find deep spiritually engaging reflections on Brahman, the self, avatars (manifestations of the divine in this life), the Buddha's teaching on suffering and enlightenment, Nirvana, and more. The practice of philosophy of religion today shows itself to have value, in part, because of its long lineage in terms of the whole history of thought and culture.
Philosophical reflection on religion is also of immense contemporary significance due to the modern and historical role of religions in shaping societies and personal lives. Philosophy of religion engages with living practices and beliefs held by millions of people, rather than focusing on abstract topics that do not affect the lives of people today. One reason why many introduction to philosophy textbooks over the past fifty years have begun with philosophy of religion is to show readers how the study of philosophy can lead us to critically engage with pervasive human practices.
Philosophy of religion is also important in that it takes seriously deep questions about the meaning of our lives. Arguably, if one of the main teachings of Buddhism is true, then our pursuit of power, wealth, and pleasure, and our belief in a continuous individual ego—that we are each substantial selves enduring over time—are actually in some sense an illusion. According to this view, a life of greedy self-aggrandizement turns out to be a life in the service of that which is not fundamentally real. What we think of as a fulfilling life is actually just our ongoing contribution to the wheel of rebirth (samsāra). Taking up another alternative, if there is no God, then those of us who think we are praying to God are not actually praying to someone who hears us and responds; we are instead addressing an image or projection of something not real. On the other hand, if there actually is an omnipresent, unsurpassably good God, then those of us who ignore or deny the existence of this God may be missing a vital, life-enhancing relationship with communities of believers who live in the light of this sacred, awesome, transcendent reality. Although I will not argue for the point here, I would suggest that an exploration of the meaning of life should be at the heart of higher education—and not only at the university or college level, but also as part of the broader task of lifelong learning. How much meaning should we give to, or recognize in, our personal relationships, our goals, what we love, like and hate? If it seems to you that such questions are central to the meaning of your life, then you have a reason to pursue philosophy of religion.
In one sense of the word, this book is an exercise in what may be called apologetics. Apologetics is a technical term for making a case for a given position. The apologetic aim of this book is to make a case not for the truth of any particular religion or any secular, non-religious alternative, but for the value of philosophy of religion itself. In the final chapter, I suggest ways in which you might participate in contemporary philosophy of religion, whether you believe there is a God, are atheistic or agnostic, Hindu or Buddhist, or a follower of Judaism, Christianity, Islam or any other religious path. Regardless of your position, which itself may change over time, you need not look upon philosophy of religion as a spectator, but can engage with it as a participant. While other introductory philosophical books include guidelines for further study in an appendix or epilogue, I have put such material (and more) in the main text in order to encourage each reader to participate in the field of philosophy of religion.
I was drawn to philosophy of religion for at least three reasons, which may attract you to the subject as well. First, I did not want simply to accept uncritically the religious tradition I was brought up in. Philosophy of religion is a domain in which to investigate the religion of your birth, or your secular upbringing, and other religions and secular alternatives. Questioning one's own religion can be a way, not necessarily to give up the faith of one's upbringing, but to make a particular religion one's own, to discover reasons why one might practice it rather than simply accepting an inheritance from family and culture (as important as such an inheritance is). I have personally found that doubt and questioning can be positive factors in the growth of religious faith, both for myself and for my students. My hope is that you too will find philosophy of religion to be an exciting, healthy exploration of alternative views of the world and spiritual practices.
Second, my generation (late “baby boomers”) grew up in the midst of fierce disagreements, both cultural and personal, and found enormous relief in the domain of philosophy of religion (and philosophy in general), where there is a commitment to calm, fair-minded and non-manipulative dialogue. We came of age in the United States during the Vietnam War, the Cold War, the Civil Rights movement, and the assassinations of President John F. Kennedy, his brother Bobby, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X. Today, there seem to be just as many disputes over the nature of a democratic republic, terrorism, racism and sexism, nuclear proliferation, climate change, and more. I was driven then (and now) to explore how religious traditions might be part of the problem, or might provide a solution to social ills. In the practice of philosophy in general, and of philosophy of religion in particular, I discovered philosophers respectfully listening to each other, weighing arguments and reasoning, with the aim of practicing the love of wisdom: the literal meaning of the term “philosophy,” derived from the Greek philein (meaning to love) and sophia (meaning wisdom). In philosophy, arguments are (ideally) not motivated by vanity, jealousy, envy, rage, hatred, or intimidation. While it is wise to recognize that none of us is perfect, and so the complete eradication of some kind of self-interest may not be possible, the goal of loving wisdom (again, ideally) should be an open-minded, respectful exchange of ideas, rather than self-seeking competition. Philosophical arguments are very unlike what we would commonly label in English as quarrels. Quarrels frequently involve unfriendly, even hostile disputes, whereas among philosophers arguments often occur between those who share a bond of friendship and a mutual desire for clarity, coherence, and the refining of each other's line of reasoning. You, too, might find philosophy of religion a source of energizing respect, and a refuge from today's divisive quarreling.
Third, I was drawn into philosophy of religion because of its capacity to connect people from different cultures around the world. As a young person, I studied Christianity in North America and Europe, Judaism in Israel, Islam in Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, Hinduism and Buddhism in India and Nepal. This was not, initially, a matter of deep scholarship, but nor was it conventional tourism: not only because I was held up at gunpoint in Afghanistan, where I spent a few hours in jail, but also because I earned college credits for reading (in translation) sacred texts, attending lectures (including one by the guru sage Jiddu Krishnamurti in India), visiting holy sites, and writing philosophical essays that were ferociously critiqued by my skeptical college philosophy professor back in Vermont. Later, as a graduate student, and now as a professor of philosophy of religion, I have continued to seek to make connections between people, offering a course in philosophy of religion in China, meeting with students and professors in Europe, Iran, South America, Russia, Canada, and elsewhere. Some of my research projects have involved collaboration with over 400 philosophers of religion from around the world (as was the case with the forthcoming five-volume work, The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Religion).
The United Nations has declared that on the third Thursday in November, every year, people around the world should be encouraged to practice philosophy. I have used those Thursdays to connect my students at St. Olaf College with students globally. For two years, I arranged for my students in North America to converse philosophically with students in Iran, via the internet and an exchange of videos. As I write this introduction, the governments of the United States and the Islamic Republic of Iran are not on friendly terms, but that does not mean that the students in our countries cannot explore common bonds, in this case through philosophy of religion. The importance of philosophy in assisting people's shared search for insight and peace, and for the avoidance of prejudice, is captured in this statement from former UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova:
Faced with the complexity of today's world, philosophical reflection is above all a call to humility, to take a step back and engage in reasoned dialogue, to build together the solutions to challenges that are beyond our control. This is the best way to educate enlightened citizens, equipped to fight stupidity and prejudice. The greater the difficulties encountered the greater the need for philosophy to make sense of questions of peace and sustainable development.
(UNESCO 2017)
I add that the experience of connecting my students with those of a Muslim philosophy professor in Tehran was not just educational (we reflected together on the eleventh-century A Treatise of Love by the brilliant Muslim philosopher Ibn Sina), it was fun. (I am very attracted to the great seventeenth-century French essayist Montaigne's idea that effective education can be both serious and entertaining at the same time.)
I end this introduction with a few more observations on the practice of philosophy and the definition of the term “religion.”
The practice of philosophy: In practicing philosophy of religion it is a good idea to adopt what might be called the Philosophical Golden Rule. That is, that it is good to treat the philosophy of others as you would like your own to be treated. This can enhance the respect and openness of philosophical exchanges, which might otherwise be defensive or insensitive to the merits of other points of view. I would also commend Philosophical Good Samaritan Practices. The idea of being a Good Samaritan (the phrase is taken from a parable in the New Testament) is that of helping out persons in need. In this context then, when your peers are in philosophical trouble (when, for example, your dialogue partner has failed to see how her position might be more effectively presented), it is a virtue to come to their aid, if you are able to do so, even if you disagree with them. In this regard, philosophical debate is very different from adversarial debate in law courts. Overall, I would suggest that, ideally, philosophy is fundamentally non-strategic in the traditional and common use of the term “strategy” (derived from the Greek strategia, meaning “the office or command of a general”), as practiced in the military, in business, and in sports in which deception may be called for (where players, like generals and business competitors, frequently attempt to conceal their intentions). Instead, when advancing some argument or philosophical theory, it is a mark of proper humility and the love of wisdom to freely admit when one is uncertain or has doubts about some of the claims or arguments one is advancing.
This spirit of the love of wisdom was dramatically revealed to me in graduate school. At a huge meeting of the American Philosophical Association (the largest philosophical society in the United States), my philosophy professor and mentor's views were criticized by another philosopher. After hearing the objections, my professor rose to the podium and simply said that his critic's objections were excellent and that his thesis was mistaken. His example stood out for me then, and still does so today, as an ideal way to practice the love of wisdom, rather than clinging to our ideas because they are our ideas and, understandably, it is only natural for us to want to be right.
Another important element to stress in the practice of philosophy of religion is sympathetic imagination. A few philosophers have argued that religious traditions cannot really be adequately addressed by “outsiders.” By their lights, you have to be a believer or a practitioner of a religious tradition in order even to understand it. In his book Divine Faith, John Lamont makes this claim:
This perspective—of the believer—cannot be the same as that of an unbeliever … An unbeliever cannot properly evaluate the reasonableness of Christian faith, because the evidence necessary for such an evaluation is not available to him. The only way for him to find out whether faith is reasonable is to, as far as lies in him, take the venture of believing.
(Lamont 2004: 216)
Perhaps there are some domains of inquiry in which Lamont is right. It may be difficult to engage in a philosophy of romantic love, for example, if one has not had even an inkling of the experience of such love oneself. Quite possibly, if you wish to contribute to a philosophy of romantic love, it would be desirable, as far as it lies within you, to try to fall in love. Likewise, it might be easier for someone who is or has been a Hindu to understand Hinduism. But in terms of exploring religion, I suggest that Lamont is underestimating the scope and power of imagination (and this might also be true of romantic love). I know of no compelling reason to doubt that a non-Christian can form an adequate idea of what it would be like to experience the world through the lens of Christian faith and practice. Arguably, there are abundant cases, historically and today, where Christian and non-Christian philosophers have engaged in fruitful, shared philosophical inquiry into the justifications for and objections against Christian faith. There are even cases when an “outsider” can understand a religious faith even better than the “insiders,” as when the atheist French existentialist philosopher, Albert Camus, spoke about the need for Christians to stand up against torture and injustice in a talk he gave at a Dominican monastery in 1948 (later published as “The Unbeliever and Christians”). Lamont's position would also lend support to a paradoxical view of religious conversion, for if he is right it would seem that no one would have access to the evidence of the truth of a religion until or unless one had converted to it, whereas at least some people appear to embrace a religion on the basis of what they think are evident reasons.
Defining the term “religion”: One reason why it is desirable to have a stable understanding of what counts as a religion is because in some countries there are laws governing religion. For example, in the United States there is a Constitutional precept that there should be a separation between church and state (where the term “church” is now more broadly interpreted to include non-Christian religions). It will not work to define religion as, say, a practice in which people worship God, because among what today most of us recognize as religions there are those that do not involve a God. Most forms of Buddhism do not include God; and Daoism and Confucianism do not include the worship of God. A more promising way to define religion would be by giving examples: Religions include Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism and traditions like them. Definitions by example can be respectful. Definitions of visual colors in a dictionary sometimes involve reproducing the colors red, orange, yellow, and so on. Alternatives, such as defining colors in terms of waves of light (between 4,000 and 7,000 Angstrom units), would not give the reader a handle on how to recognize the visual experience of color, but only an understanding of the causes of our seeing colors, which would include not just wavelengths, but retinas, the visual cortex, and so on. But while giving examples in the case of visual colors may be adequate (at least for non-color blind observers), in the definition of “religion” it is desirable for us to be explicit about what it is that makes Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and so on, religions. It is partly desirable in order to avoid falling into a conventionalism that simply accepts the status quo and potentially excludes traditions or communities that should be recognized (for better or worse) as religions, even if they do not strongly resemble our standard set of recognized religions. (There might be a similar handicap in defining colors by example, insofar as it tempts us to believe that the only color sensations are those experienced by humans.)
Here is an alternative definition of religion that aims at offering more guidance than can be gained simply by giving examples:
