Libya E-Book

John Oakes

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

For more than four decades, Libya has been something of an enigma to outsiders. Ruled by the despotic and unstable Muammar Gaddafi since he led a military coup in 1969, it has vast oil wealth and one of the highest standards of living in Africa. Yet it has also been one of the most prolific state sponsors of terrorism (supplying arms and explosives to the IRA, perpetrating the Lockerbie bombing) and dissent has, until recently, been crushed ruthlessly. In early 2011 a popular uprising against Gaddafi, a dictator nicknamed 'Mad Dog' by Ronald Reagan, finally looks as if he might be toppled from power, as the wind of change blows through North Africa and the Middle East. John Oakes, who lived and worked in Libya for eight years before the revolution, provides an essential guide to the country and its history, including what led Gaddafi to make Libya an international pariah and the events of the 2011 revolt.

Leseprobe

To June, Nikki and Becky

Contents

Title

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Author’s Note

Introduction

1The Greeks, the Romans and the Garamantes

2The Arab Invasion: The True Bedouin Arrive

3Ottomans and Turks: The Slave Trade, the Barbary Corsairs and the Four-Year War with the USA

4Italian Libya: The Battle for the Sword of Islam

5Second World War in Libya: The Desert Rats, the Desert Fox and the Free French

6Independence: A Child of the United Nations

7The Kingdom of Libya: The Shepherd King and the Oil Barons

8Gaddafi I: Companions of the Tent

9Gaddafi II: The Pariah State and Human Rights Issues

10Gaddafi III: Weapons of Mass Destruction, the IRA, St James’s Square and Lockerbie

11Challenging Muammar Gaddafi

Afterword

Select Bibliography

Plates

Copyright

Acknowledgements

The kindness shown to my wife, June, our daughter, Nikki, and to me during eight and a half years of living and working in Libya needs more than mere acknowledgement. Whilst there June and I worked for, and with, many Libyans. We grew to respect and like them in equal measure. If justice is done they should all have had fine careers and now be retired with honour amongst their progeny.

Whatever merit there may be in this small book is due to others – in particular the two great anthropologists Professors E.E. Evans-Pritchard and Emrys Peters. Had he lived, I hope that Emrys Peters would have forgiven me where paraphrasing of his work has slipped into plagiarism. He set a standard that we who follow are unlikely to match. John Wright has written the best history of Libya and I recommend his work to all. There are many others of course, but they do not match these three greats.

Amongst the many in The History Press to whom I owe thanks, I would single out Chrissy McMorris who has found herself editing my work. I fear that I needed more editing than most and I am fortunate that she is both talented and decisive. Simon Hamlet had the courage to commission this small book and Gary Chapman the creative energy to give it life. I also thank Lindsey Smith and Abbie Wood.

My thanks go to the photographer, Tom Atkins, sometime of the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, whose images of Libya were fortunately collected by his colleague Peter Cox. I also thank Maureen Norgate for images of Tobruk and Cyrene. That of the King’s Palace is rare indeed.

The errors of fact and syntax that remain despite the efforts of Chrissy McMorris and June Oakes are mine alone. I have done my best to find and acknowledge the copyright of words and images used in this book. If I have missed someone I would be happy to hear from them.

John Oakes

Libyastories.com

Author’s Note

There are at least thirty-two ways of spelling Muammar Gaddafi in English and all of them are correct. I have chosen the spelling used by the BBC in 2011. There are also various ways of spelling other Arabic names in English. I have chosen the easiest versions and attempted to be as consistent as possible, not always successfully.

I often stopped for a rest, a coffee and hard-boiled egg in Ajadabia. I note that it is now called Ajdabia. Perhaps the reader will excuse my sentimental attachment to the old version and bear with me when we differ about the spelling of other names – Benghazi and Banghazi, Senussi and Senusi, for example.

Introduction

This is a small book about Libya written by an ex-Royal Air Force officer who served in that country for more than eight years. Its purpose is to tell you some of the reasons why Muammar Gaddafi came to power, stayed in power and used it controversially. It briefly examines the conditions in which he was born and the influences that shaped him.

It also attempts to illuminate the historical reasons for the differences between West, East and South Libya, which make the task of governing it so challenging.

When Libya gained independence soon after the Second World War, its oppressed people were amongst the poorest and least educated in the world. There were less than twenty university graduates amongst them. The discovery of oil beneath their desert homeland brought a sudden invasion of technology and money.

Libya is on the coast of North Africa and much of it is within the Sahara Desert. It borders Tunisia and Algeria to the west, Chad and Niger to the south, and Egypt and Sudan are to the east and south-east. For a country with a landmass of 679,500 square miles, it has a small population. In 2011 it was estimated to be 6,276,632.

Its history is fascinating. The ancient Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Romans all established colonies in Libya. They built the cities of Cyrene, Sabratha, Oea (Tripoli) and Leptis Magna, the remains of which still grace its Mediterranean coast. These great civilisations were followed by the expansion of the Arab caliphate into North Africa and Spain. In its turn the caliphate faded away, leaving behind the Bedouin tribes which still range the Libyan hinterland with their herds and flocks.

In 1551, after a short rule, the Knights of St John were evicted from Tripoli by the Ottoman Turks led by the corsair Dragut. Subsequently, Libya became an important province of the Ottoman Empire and, for a while, was ruled by the cruel and dissolute Karamanli dynasty of slave-trading corsairs. Their harassment of the merchant shipping of the newly formed United Sates of America resulted in a war which lasted from 1801 to 1805.

The Ottomans ruled Libya from 1551 to 1912, when the Italians pushed them out. There followed a period of Italian colonisation, which became appallingly brutal. The Libyan tribes eventually rebelled against their colonial masters. Led by the teacher and soldier Omar Mukhtar, they fought a classic guerrilla war in the green mountains of East Libya. However, the rebellion failed and Omar Mukhtar was hanged.

In September 1940, thinking the Germans were about to win the Second World War, Mussolini sent an Italian army from Libya into Egypt to threaten the British. There followed the war in the Western Desert, in which the Germans also became involved. The legendary Desert Fox and the Desert Rats fought on Libyan soil, as did the independent units, the SAS, the Long Range Desert Group and Popski’s Private Army. The British and Commonwealth 8th Army toppled the Italian Empire in Libya and replaced it with a British administration.

The British were tired and impoverished after the war, so they helped the United Nations to combine the three provinces of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and the Fezzan into an independent Kingdom of Libya, ruled by the sometime Amir of Cyrenaica, Sayyid Muhammad al Idris as-Senussi.

In its early days, the Kingdom of Libya was dependent on the British and US forces which occupied it under a treaty. When geologists detected oil in the desert, Libya began to change. The adventurous days of searching for oil and the coming of the oil barons, such as Nelson Bunker Hunt and Armand Hammer, were too much for King Idris, who lived in a modest palace near Tobruk and preferred quiet contemplation rather than vigorous kingship. His courtiers descended into corruption and bribery while the great oil fields developed in the desert.

To the surprise of both the UK and Egypt, a young Libyan army officer called Muammar Gaddafi staged a brilliant coup on 1 September 1969, when the king was absent in Turkey on sick leave. Gaddafi and his Revolutionary Command Council nationalised British Petroleum and rewrote the contracts of the other great oil companies. He removed the British and US forces from his country and led it into a flirtation with the communist bloc.

Under his rule Libya became a pariah state, harbouring terrorists from nearly every dissident group in the world. He aggravated the USA and forced its government to launch a pre-emptive air strike against him on 15 April 1986.

His acquisition of mustard gas and his attempts to develop other weapons of mass destruction caused much consternation. His support for the IRA, the killing of PC Yvonne Fletcher and the apparent role of Libyans in the destruction of Pan American World Airways flight PA103 in December 1988 angered the British.

His rule became more and more autocratic and his people rose up against him on 17 February 2011.

1

The Greeks, the Romans and the Garamantes

Libya is rich in the ruins of ancient Roman and Greek cities. In the south there are signs of a lost African civilisation, which the Romans called the Garamantes.

Even when these civilisations were at the height of their powers they were mostly separated by geographical barriers. The west was Roman, the east was Greek and the south, African. The three Libyan provinces of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and the Fezzan, which arose amongst the remains of these civilisations, were influenced by their ancient predecessors. The Gaddafi regime abolished the old provincial names, calling Tripolitania West Libya, Cyrenaica East Libya and the Fezzan South Libya. However, the provinces live on in spirit to make it difficult to unify modern Libya.

The civil war that broke out in Libya on 17 February 2011 reflected deep differences between the old provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. Apart from the physical separation by the inhospitable desert region of the Sirtica, the history of the two regions has been very different. Greece and Egypt have long influenced Cyrenaicans and Carthage and Rome Tripolitanians. The remote desert province of the Fezzan has forever been involved with sub-Saharan Africa by reasons of human kinship and the trans-Saharan trade in slaves, gold and wild animals. The people of the three provinces are therefore separated by differences that have persisted for thousands of years.

The border between Tripolitania and Cyrenaica meets the coast at a legendary spot called the Altars of the Philaeni. It was said that the Phoenician founders of Tripoli were so jealous of their trade that they excluded the Greeks of Libya Pentapolis, in what was known until recently as Cyrenaica. The place that marked the border between them became a bone of contention.

Legend has it that the Phoenicians and the Greeks, after a number of skirmishes, agreed to establish the frontier between their two territories by means of a foot race. Runners were to set off towards each other from Carthage in the west and Cyrene in the east. Where they met was to mark the frontier.

The Phoenician team, the Philaeni brothers, reached a point in the desert at the southern extremity of the Gulf of Sirte before they met the Greeks. The Greeks were angry because they expected their team to get further, and so they accused the Philaeni brothers of cheating. The Phoenicians denied it, so both parties agreed to settle the dispute by burying the Philaeni brothers alive to mark the frontier. Two mounds were said to have been built over the graves, on which the Altars of the Philaeni were erected. This is an unlikely story, but one that reflects the intensity of the original dispute.

In the twentieth century, Mussolini built a triumphal arch on the border as a monument to his African conquests. This pompous edifice looked similar to the arch at the top of Park Lane in London. British Second World War soldiers, whose dry sense of humour was legendary, called it Marble Arch, so it was known thus throughout the 8th Army and the name stuck.1 My wife and I drove past the Marble Arch on our way from Tripoli to Benghazi. It had a large bronze human figure somehow appended to the side. One of its big toes had been cut off. Sometime later I saw a grotesque bronze object on the desk of an Englishman in Benghazi. It was the missing toe, which he had cut off and was using as an ashtray.

For more than four centuries, the two provinces were joined under Roman rule. There was a common language, a cohesive government and a common legal system. Ruins of the great cities still grace the Libyan shores of the Mediterranean and have within them common and unifying features – pubic baths, stadia, theatres, art and architecture – found throughout the Roman Empire. Even so, the ruins of Tripolitania are clearly Punic in character, whilst those of Cyrenaica are unmistakably Greek.

The Punic and Greek cities of Libya. Sabratha, Oea and Leptis Magna became Roman cities after the Punic wars. The Greek cities of Libya Pentapolis were eventually taken over by Rome. (The legendary Altars of Philaeni were erected to mark the boundary between the Punic east and the Greek west.)

The archaeological and historical evidence tells us that Christianity spread across the two provinces in the second century AD. It may have been spread by the Jewish communities and found ready converts amongst the slaves and the indigenous Berbers. However, the churches of Tripolitania looked to the Bishop of Rome for leadership, whilst those of Cyrenaica were in the diocese of the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria. The differences in religious observance created animosities between people during hard economic times and often, as they do today, led to warfare.

My own interest in the early history of Libya grew out of familiarity with the ancient ruins and contact with anthropologists and archaeologists working on such diverse subjects as the possible Jewish origin of the cave dwellers in the Gebel Nefusa and the export trade from the ancient Greek port of Tokra (Taucheira). Sometimes I was asked to help them during the ‘digging’ seasons, though in practical ways, such as solving those little local difficulties with authorities that were endemic in Libya and probably still are.

My belated apologies are extended to the charming and forgiving team which, in the 1960s, went to Cyrene to explore the huge stone-built pipelines connecting that city with its hinterland. They came to me to hire or borrow a Land Rover, which I obtained for them from my friend Mohammed al Abbar. It was not a good vehicle on which to depend in the remote and slightly hazardous region in which they worked, but I was obligated to al Abbar and their troubles with it were a by-product thereof. Interestingly, this team concluded that the pipelines were used to transport olive oil for the city from the olive groves; though how this might have worked was always a mystery to me.

This story makes two points. The first is that the ancient cites must have been supported by large and efficient agricultural enterprises, now lost or destroyed. The second is that the ‘currency of obligations’ is very powerful in modern Libya and is a factor that needs to be taken into account by Westerners.

It is best, perhaps, to start with the three ancient Tripolitanian cities before looking briefly at the classical Greek civilisation in Cyrenaica. There is method in this. It will help to understand the differences between the provinces of modern Libya. It will also lead us into the important work being done by archaeologists on the remains of lost civilisations. We will surely hear more of this work when it is safe for archaeologists to return to Libya after the civil war.

The Phoenicians and the Garamantes

A question that modern visitors to the three cities, Sabratha, Oea (Tripoli) and Leptis Magna, often ask is why they were first established so close together on the Mediterranean shore of Tripolitania. The visitors are puzzled because the three of them, existing together in such close proximity, would have outstripped the natural resources of the coast or its immediate hinterland.

The question forces us to venture into the insecure realms of conjecture and hypothesis. We know that the three cites originated as Phoenician trading posts, which were taken over by the Carthaginians, whose great city, Carthage, came to dominate the coast. The Phoenicians and the Carthaginians were traders first and last. They guarded their trade secrets with paranoid zeal, leaving few clues for archaeologists to unravel. To add to our problems, the city of Carthage was totally destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC and with it all the records that might have helped us as historians.

Since we believe that trade outweighed politics for the Carthaginians, we might suggest that the three cities were established primarily as trading posts. We might go further and argue that Sabratha, Oea and Leptis Magna were founded by three separate trading houses, all engaged in the same trade.

Business must have been very good indeed to support three such emporia. The maritime carrying trade, that is the shipping and the trading of goods around the Mediterranean, would not have been sufficient. We must look elsewhere for a reason.

It may lie to the south, in what was once the Fezzan. In ancient times it was the territory of the Garamantes, a long-lost people to whom some, though significantly not all, attribute the rock paintings that still remain in good condition to the wonder and puzzlement of those rare and lucky people who ventured into the arid wastes of South Libya.

One other recurrent traveller’s tale about the Fezzan was that its early inhabitants used chariots. Visitors to Tripoli museum today will find there a replica of a chariot believed to have been used by the enigmatic Garamantes. They were said by Strabo to breed 100,000 foals per year. This suggests that the terrain was suitable for their use. Horses, which need frequent access to water and plenty of fodder, are not suitable for long-distance travel in desert conditions. The implication is that access to water and fodder was widely available when these chariots were in use and the intensive horse-breeding programme was active.

Perhaps one of the most surprising references to the ancient civilisation in the Fezzan is this, found in a letter written in January 1789 by Miss Tully, the sister of the British consul to the Karamanli court of Tripoli. In it she describes the Prince of Fezzan, and something of his kingdom, thus:

The Prince of Fezzan’s turban, instead of being large and of white muslin like those of Tripoli, was composed of a black and gold shawl, wound tightly several times round the head, and a long and curiously wrought shawl hung low over the left shoulder. The baracan was white and perfectly transparent; and his arms were handsome, with a profusion of gold and silver chains hanging from them.

He told us his country is the most fertile and beautiful in the world, having himself seen no part of the globe but Africa; and Fezzan esteemed amongst the richest of its kingdoms.

In the Fezzan there are still vestiges of magnificent buildings, and a number of curiously vaulted caves of immense size, supposed to have been Roman granaries. But it requires a more enlightened mind than that of the Moor and the Arab to discover their origin.2

Miss Tully, whose work is discussed elsewhere in this short history, was describing a visit to Tripoli by the Prince of Fezzan during the Karamanli regency. That she was observant enough to note the profusion of gold which adorned the prince, and that the Fezzan still boasted a number of mysterious and notable ruins, is not surprising. She was, as we shall see, an excellent observer and most thorough in her research. The African source of gold, so ostentatiously adorning Miss Tully’s Fezzanese guests, was to become one of the great mysteries of the late Georgian age in Britain.

In more peaceful times, before the present civil war in Libya, archaeologists were engaged in studying the numerous and intriguing cave paintings and also attempting to bring the Garamantes into better focus. Thanks to David Mattingly and his team from the University of Leicester and Andrew Wilson of the University of Oxford, we now know that the Garamantes were able to tap into the vast aquifer of water deep under the Saharan desert; the same water that has been exploited in modern times by Gaddafi in his ‘Great Man Made River’ scheme, of which more soon.

The archaeologists have concluded that the Garamantes constructed almost 1,000 miles of underground tunnels and shafts, known locally as foggara, to get at the artesian water. These are the vaulted caves mentioned by Miss Tully. We may also conclude that they would have used many slaves to construct the tunnels. Others have noted that they silted-up frequently and needed constant cleaning. It is clear that the abundant supply of water was used to support an extensive and sophisticated agriculture and a large population.

The archaeologists believe that by AD 105 the Garamantian state covered 70,000 square miles of the Fezzan and that there were eight towns and many settlements. (I understand that David Mattingly has concluded that the water ran out in the end, causing the civilisation to wither away; a salutary lesson for us all. Others, Robert Graves amongst them, argue that the Garamantians merely left for new lands elsewhere.)3

Studies of the Garamantian capital, now the town called Germa, tell us that it was guarded by six towers and that it may have had a market square used for trading horses, which were sold to the Romans. It also served as a transit stop for caravans, probably from the south, on their way along what is now known as the Garamantes Road, which terminated near Tripoli.

More than 50,000 pyramidal tombs have been discovered in the Fezzan, including one thought to have been for royalty at Ahramat al-Hattia. There is a museum in Germa in which are a number of artefacts, including some well-preserved cave art in which giraffes and a large ox are depicted. These animals, which we now associate with East and South Africa, were clearly able to survive in the Fezzan when these paintings were made.

Trade with the Garamantes was not just the possible, but the principal reason for founding the three large emporia so close together on the coast of the Lesser Sirte.

The Romans

The Punic wars are familiar enough to need only a few words here. They ended when the Romans razed Carthage to the ground in 146 BC. For our purposes, it was Caesar’s victory over Juba, the Berber leader, at Thapsus in 46 BC and the death of Ptolemy, the son of Juba II, which led the Romans to expand their control over the whole of the North Africa littoral from Leptis Magna in the east to the Atlantic. They occupied Sabratha, Oea (Tripoli) and Leptis and continued to trade with the Garamantes.

Leptis, called Leptis Magna to distinguish it from Leptis Minor in Tunisia, was captured by the Romans in 46 BC. They levied the city for 3 million pounds of olive oil, indicating that there were extensive olive groves in the region.

Leptis Magna was to achieve fame and fortune when one of its sons, Septimus Severus, became Emperor of Rome. After his accession, he caused a great deal of money to be poured into improving his home town, and some glorious buildings were erected. It is situated on a small natural harbour at the head of the wadi, about 120km to the east of Tripoli.

Septimus Severus was one of the Roman emperors to make a donation of olive oil to the Roman citizens, in addition to the traditional corn donations. In his excellent book, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome, Geoffrey Rickman suggests that the three cities, Sabratha, Oea and Leptis Magna, were more prominent as olive oil suppliers to Rome, though they contributed a great deal of the corn supply. Olive trees have deep roots and are able to reduce their water loss through their leaves. They do, however, need a long time to grow and produce fruit. Political stability is necessary before people invest in cultivating them.4

The Romans pushed their frontier inland to the southernmost slopes of the Gebel Nefusa, and in doing so came into conflict with the nomadic tribes that migrated from the desert into the Gebel each year to pasture their animals. The tribes, which hitherto acknowledged the Garamantes as their masters, now found themselves dominated by the aggressive Romans, who were not happy to allow them past their new frontiers.

It was also inevitable that the Romans would fall out with the Garamantes, and they did so in typical fashion. At the end of the first century BC they sent a punitive expedition under the leadership of their proconsul, Lucius Cornelius Balbus, a native of Spain. The expedition took the Garamantes by surprise; the possibility of an army reaching them from the coast had seemed unlikely to them.

Balbus was accorded a triumph in Rome for his efforts, a rare honour for a foreigner. It was, after all, a notable feat of arms to take an army deep into the Sahara and conduct a surprise attack on a formidable enemy, capture his capital city, a number of other towns and, most usefully, one of his outlying oases, Ghadames, thus controlling his northbound trade.

Further friction between the Romans and the Garamantes occurred in AD 17, when a Roman-trained Libyan soldier called Tacfarinas raised a revolt in the neighbouring Greek province of Cyrenaica. This spread into Tripolitania and began to affect the Roman provinces to the west. So serious was the revolt that the Romans moved the 9th Spanish Legion across to support the Legio III Augusta, which was already stationed in North Africa.

Tacfarinas, however, defied the Romans for seven years. In a move not uncommon in modern history, the Roman emperor withdrew the Spanish legion for work elsewhere, just when they were most needed in Libya. Tacfarinas, as would his modern counterpart today, saw this as an admission of weakness by the Romans and persuaded the Garamantes to join him in removing the occupying power. Tacfarinas was finally killed in battle and his revolt collapsed, as they often do when fomented and led by a single personality.5

The Garamantes, realising that the Romans would be less than pleased that they had supported Tacfarinas, sent an embassy to Rome and sued for peace. However, they backed the wrong horse in AD 69, when Oea and Leptis Magna fell out and began to fight. The Garamantes foolishly pitched in on the side of Oea. The Roman proconsul, Valerius Festus, hastened to intervene. He freed Leptis Magna and pursued the Garamantes into the Sahara. They had thought they could escape by filling in the wells on the old Garamantian Road with sand, thus making it impossible for troops to follow them. They misjudged Festus. He discovered a new route through the desert and attacked them in their homeland.

The new route was described as being short and fast. It was probably the one from Oea through Gharian and Mizda, which was later to be marked by Roman milestones. That it was unknown to the Garamantes is puzzling, as was their rapid U-turn in foreign policy resulting in a rapprochement with the Romans. Perhaps they realised that the Romans had found a means of projecting their military power across the desert.

There are other perplexing and interesting events. In AD 100 or thereabouts, the Romans mounted some peaceful expeditions to the south of the Fezzan. One such, led by Julius Maternus, was probably to the Tebesti Mountains. These expeditions could not have been mounted without the assistance, or at least the connivance, of the Garamantes.

The speed with which Festus invaded the Fezzan, and the ability of the Romans to mount long-range expeditions in arid country, point to a striking and effective innovation in logistics. It is most likely that this was the use of camels, as it is this animal alone that could have so effectively rendered the inhospitable Sahara accessible to them.

The Romans made brilliant mosaics. In the ancient Roman port of Ostia there is one that illustrates some of the fauna of the province of Africa. It was probably made for a merchant specialising in the import of beasts for the Roman games. The records show that this was a lucrative business. Caesar once supplied 400 lions to be killed by gladiators in one orgy. Pompey upstaged him by supplying 600. Augustus is said to have caused the slaughter of 3,500 animals in twenty-six shows and Titus celebrated the inauguration of the Colosseum by seeing off 9,000 animals, and probably a few gladiators.

Elephants were not used in these orgies of slaughter. Perhaps even the Romans recoiled from the sight of their death agonies. However, they coveted ivory and they enjoyed a dish made with the cartilage from an elephant’s trunk. This must have led to the slaughter of not a few of these precious beasts.6

It is clear that the magnitude of slaughter is only partially illustrated by the records. The total number of animals sacrificed in an attempt to satisfy the jaded tastes of the Roman masses must have been astronomical. Some of the wild animals were from Asia and Egypt, but the great majority came from the Roman province of Africa, which is roughly Tunisia and Tripolitania.

The 2011 civil war in Libya had, at its core, the events in the Cyrenaican (East Libyan) town of Benghazi between 17 and 20 February. The towns of Cyrenaica, Derna and Tobruk also made common cause with their Benghaziot friends, and the whole of the Cyrenaican littoral, at least as far west as Ajadabia, came under anti-Gaddafi influence and remain so as I write. The historical difference between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania appears to be little understood amongst present-day pundits.

The Greeks

First of all, Libya, the Greek name for the original inhabitants of what we might now call Cyrenaica, was chosen as the name for the newly independent country in 1953 because Tripolitania had definite Italian overtones and thus was too closely associated with the late colonists who were, by that time, much disliked.

In 631 BC the fertile land west of Egypt, now known as the Gebel Akhdar, received a colony from the Greek island of Thera, now Santorini, which had become overpopulated and was in the throes of a famine. The Therans were soon joined by other colonists from the Aegean islands.

The colony was successful and gave rise to four daughter colonies: Euhesperides (later Berenice and now Benghazi); Appolonia (the port of Cyrene on the coast below the great city itself); Taucheira (now called Tokra, the ruins of which guard the Tokra Pass up into the Gebel Akhdar); and Ptolemais. These five communities together were sometimes known as Libya Pentapolis.

The Greek colonists were sometimes at war with the white-skinned Libyans, with whom there was also intermarriage. In addition, they were involved in wars in Egypt and on one occasion set off a revolution against the Pharaoh Hopra. There was also friction with the Carthaginians, who barred them from entering the colonists’ territory. Cyrene and its daughter colonies remained a monarchy under the dynasty of its founder, Battus the First, until a republic was founded in or about 450 BC.

A famous ceramic vase from Sparta has a panel on which has been painted a representation of the King of Cyrene sitting under an awning, supervising the weighing of agricultural produce. The picture includes a monkey, now clearly extinct in the Gebel Akhdar, and a gecko, now abundant therein.7

The level of civilisation in Cyrene was notably high as the great ruins, still seen in the Gebel Akhdar, amply testify. The fertile region that surrounds it was brilliantly cultivated and supplied the Greek city states with livestock, wine, apples and olive oil. One famous export was silphium, a plant which had a very restricted habitat in the Gebel Akhdar and grew nowhere else. There is still some speculation as to why the plant was so important that it was eventually used to extinction. It may have been a laxative. Otherwise it may have been the Cyrenaican version of the ‘morning-after’ pill, a use that would have created a ferocious demand.

The five cites of Libya Pentapolis were unable to combine for any length of time and thus were vulnerable to invasion. Perhaps that is why they were unable to prevent the Persian King Cambrensis III taking it into his empire in 525 BC. For two centuries the five cities remained part of the Persian Empire.

They emerged into history again when Alexander the Great was about to make his famous journey to consult the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon in the remote oasis of Siwa, close to the Libyan border. He had concluded that he was a god, it seems, and needed the oracle to confirm his aspirations. He first took the coast road towards Libya from his newly founded Alexandria, and was met by an embassy from Cyrene, no doubt keen to make their peace with him. After this, Alexander turned south to make his near-fatal pilgrimage across the desert to Siwa, when he and his followers were lost for a while in a fierce sandstorm.

Alexander the Great died in 323 BC, only eight years after his armies arrived in Cyrenaica. His empire was divided between his Macedonian generals. So it was in 323 BC that Cyrene and Egypt went to Ptolemy, who founded a great dynasty of Greek pharaohs which lasted over 200 years. In 96 BC the Greek influence in Cyrene began to dwindle, and the last Greek ruler, Ptolemy XII Apion, left it to the Romans in his will. It became a Roman province and, for a while, one of Caesar’s assassins, Brutus, was dispatched there as governor to get him out of Rome.

It became involved in the great power struggle between Octavian and Mark Antony when the latter gave it as a wedding present to Cleopatra the Great as part of the restoration of much of the old Ptolemaic Empire. It must have been interesting in Cyrenaica when Antony stationed no less than four of his legions there. They eventually reneged on him and went over to Octavian, who, of course, won the great sea battle of Actium. The defeated Antony and Cleopatra famously committed suicide. Cyrene was given to Cleopatra’s only daughter, Cleopatra Celene, who was eventually married to Prince Juba. He had lived in Rome since he was 4 and was, nominally at least, client King of Numidia.

In the end, Cyrenaica and Crete were combined into a single province under Roman rule, which lasted 300 years.

The fall and ruin of the great civilisations in Libya was to be followed, eventually, by the arrival from the east of two Bedouin tribes whose influence was profound.

Notes

1Julian Thompson and the Imperial War Museum, The Imperial War Museum Book of War Behind Enemy Lines, Sidgwick & Jackson (in association with the Imperial War Museum), London and Basingstoke, 1998.